Assessment of the Friction Angle of Sand at the Interface of Various Construction Materials

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Foisal Haque, Shahbo Rahman Sajib, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study compares the internal friction angle of sand at interface with different construction materials of concrete, steel, and wood. Material properties have been determined by the direct shear and pile model tests in the laboratory. Impacts of shearing rates of sand and other materials at interface were examined by the direct shear test. Pile model tests were conducted based on similar loading rates of direct shear test. According to the experimental results, a straight line of semi-logarithmic plot represents relationship among internal friction angle, interface friction angle and the shearing rate. In addition, shearing rate is increased with the enlargement of the pile diameter. Also, the interface friction angle is increased by the incremental variations of the internal friction angle of sand. Interface angles of various construction materials are less than the internal friction angle of sand because of the fluctuation of the shearing rate. However, it can be said that the interface angle depends proportionally on the roughness of materials, shearing rate, and pile diameter. Direct shear test Internal friction angle Interface friction angle Pile model test Sand Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction Sand is typically regarded as a ground material for the construction of roads, bridge foundations, and other structures [ 2 , 9 , 16 , 22 ]. For designing both shallow and deep foundations; concrete, wood, steel, or a combination of these materials are frequently taken into account. Pile foundations or other techniques of upgrading are typically used to address issues of bearing capacity and settlement. The interface angle is thought to have a significant impact on the construction of a friction pile. Sand and construction material's interface angle is frequently employed in design as an arbitrary proportion of the sand internal friction angle [ 14 ]. Unless knowing the interface angle accurately, it is not possible to ensure the most suitable material and diameter of the pile for any structure. Sand and other building materials (concrete, steel, and wood) might have different contact frictional angles depending on a number of different circumstances, which is studied in this research. Several hundred experiments were carried out on the material level (Potyondy 1961) to determine the magnitude of skin friction considering variations of construction materials, soil types, normal stresses and moisture content of materials. For the sand-steel combination, the interface friction angle was depended on the surface roughness of pile and the type of sand [ 18 ]. Interface angle of sand-concrete showed similar characteristics to the interface angle between sand and rough steel [ 20 ]. Generated shear zone around the sand-concrete interface is depicted in this paper. So, the maximum shear stress ratio is shown to be lower than the dense sand. Also, concrete and organic soil shows the maximum interface angle, and the lowest interface angle is found for the smooth steel and organic soil. According to the previous research, the particle shape was not affected by the interface friction angle; although, it was depended on the surface roughness of the construction material [ 5 ]. Shear strength was increased for the high normal stress and a rough contact surface either vice versa according to the research on the shear characteristics of the interface between calcareous sand and steel [ 9 , 21 ]. Various displacement rates were found to be (0.0038 ~ 133) mm/min in the case of ultimate resistance of sand and steel based on the ring shear apparatus [ 11 ]. For steel piles in sand, a relationship was established between the skin friction and shear strength of sand considering the function of the pile movement [ 6 ]. According to several past studies, the interface friction angle between the sand and solid construction material was evaluated by using various apparatuses of the direct shear test [ 1 , 4 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 17 ], simple shear test [ 7 ], ring torsion test [ 24 ], dual shear test [ 13 ], miniature pile test [ 6 ], and soil pile slip test [ 23 ]. The main objective of this research is to estimate the internal friction angle of sand along with the determination of the interface friction angle between sand and other building materials using direct shear and pile model tests. The impact of the shearing rate and pile diameter on the interface friction angle is estimated based on laboratory test results. 2. Materials of the Present Study For the direct shear test in this investigation, coarse sand is utilized. Sand is graded using a standard sieve in accordance with ASTM D422, and the distribution of its grain sizes is depicted in Fig. 1 . The maximum index density, lowest index density, specific gravity, moisture content, etc., included the geotechnical characteristics of the sand that have been discovered using the ASTM standard procedures. The fundamental physical characteristics of the examined sand are shown in Table 1 . The sand is classified as poorly graded sand (SP) by the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) since the uniformity coefficient is less than 4. To establish the interface angle; cement concrete, steel, and wooden blocks are prepared in accordance with the direct shear test apparatus's core size. These specimens have the following measurements: 58mm x 58mm x 6mm as shown in Fig. 2 . For the miniature pile test, three unique materials (concrete pile, steel pile and wooden pile) are considered in Fig. 3 . The length of the pile models is taken to be 1.5 ft along with three variations in diameters (1.5, 3, and 4-inches) to determine the uplift force. Table 1 Physical properties of sand. Items Standard Values Specific gravity, G s 2.56 Maximum index Density, \({\text{Υ}}_{\text{d(max) }}\) (gm/cc) 1.73 Minimum index Density, \({\text{Υ}}_{\text{d(min) }}\) (gm/cc) 1.48 Effective size D 10 (mm) 0.18 Coefficient of Uniformity, C u 3.89 Coefficient of Curvature, C c 1.21 3. Description of experiments 3.1 Testing Method Initially, the grain size distribution, specific gravity, and relative density tests were conducted to assess physical properties of sand in Table 1 . To determine the internal frictional angle and interface friction angle between the sand and other materials in this investigation, a total of 15 direct shear tests were conducted on the interfaces of sand, smooth concrete, steel, and wood. The experiments took into account of five different rates of shearing (0.05, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 2.5 mm/min) and three different normal stresses (27, 55, and 81 kPa). In order to assess the uplift forces and back-calculate the interface friction angle at the structural level, a total of 45 miniature model pile tests have been performed. 3.2 Direct Shear Tests The direct shear test was performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled strain rate on or near a single shear plane determined by the configuration of the apparatus. Generally, three or more specimens were tested. Shear resistance, displacement, and strength properties were calculated by using Mohr circles. The conventional direct shear test apparatus with dimensions of 60 mm x 60 mm was used in this study. Sand was placed equally in both halves of the shear box to determine the internal friction angle of sand in Fig. 4 (a). 15 tests were done under various rates of above mentioned loadings. For the interface tests, the material plate (such as concrete, steel, or wooden blocks) was put in the lower half of the direct shear box, and the upper half was filled with sand of the necessary density in Fig. 4 (b). For estimating the interface friction angle for concrete, steel, and wooden plates at various rates of loading under three typical stresses, a total of 15 tests were performed. 3.3 Pile Model Tests The structural set-up of the model pile was comprised of a pile, plastic drum and loading machine in Fig. 5 . Three types of model pile such as: concrete, steel, and wooden piles were used to perform the test. Though length of each pile was same (457.2 mm or 1.5ft) but each pile was categorized according to variation of diameter (38.1 mm or 1.5 inch, 76.2 mm or 3 inch and 101.6 mm or 4 inch). The loading machine was used to provide vertical loads, which generated a constant rate of vertical displacement. Finally, it was recorded by a proving ring and a deformation dial reading. The measured uplift capacity in the model pile tests served as the basis for the values of the interface friction angles. For piles in uplift, the end-bearing resistance was frequently assumed to be negligible [ 8 ]. The well-known equation can be used to determine a vertical straight-shafted pile's uplift capacity in sand. $${\text{Q}}_{\text{u}}\text{=}{\text{Q}}_{\text{p}}\text{+}{\text{Q}}_{\text{s}}\text{+}{\text{W}}_{\text{p}}$$ 1 Here, \({\text{Q}}_{\text{u}}=\) uplift capacity of the pile; \({\text{Q}}_{\text{P}}=\) end-bearing resistance; \({\text{Q}}_{\text{s}}=\) side resistance; \({\text{W}}_{\text{p}}=\) weight of the pile. The side resistance was calculated from: $${{\text{Q}}_{\text{s}}\text{=A}}_{\text{s}}{\text{f}}_{\text{s}}\text{=}{\text{A}}_{\text{s}}{\text{Ϭ}}_{\text{v}}\text{ktanδ=0.5kΥLtanδ}$$ 2 Where, \({\text{A}}_{\text{s}}=\) embedded surface area of the pile; \({\text{f}}_{\text{s}}=\) average shear stress; \(\text{k}=\) co-efficient of lateral earth pressure; σ v = average effective vertical stress; γ = unit weight of sand; D= diameter of pile; L= embedded length of pile and δ = interface friction angle. From the Eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), the interface friction angle (δ) can be calculated as follows: $$\text{δ=}{\text{tan}}^{\text{-1}}\text{[}\frac{{Q}_{u}-{W}_{p}}{0.5\pi D{\rm Y}{L}^{2}k}\text{ ]}$$ 3 Using Eq. 3 and considering various pile diameters, the values of the interface friction angle ( \(\delta\) ) are determined from the measured uplift capacity.The length of the pile model, unit weight of soil and coefficient of lateral pressure are considered to be 0.4572m, 16.8 kN/m 3 , and 0.8, respectively [ 3 ]. 4. Testing Results and Discussions 4.1 Internal Friction Angle of Sand (Direct Shear Tests) Failure envelopes of sand material are shown in Fig. 6 (a) under different rates of loading, and the internal friction angles of sand at various shearing rates are plotted in a semi-logarithmic format in Fig. 6 (b). The internal friction angle is increased with the raise of the shearing rate and the average friction angle of sand. It is measured to be 27.8 0 . The following equation is represented by a straight line in Fig. 6 (b), and its R 2 value is 0.8857. 4.2 Interface Friction angle (Direct Shear Tests) The failure envelops of sand-concrete, sand-wood and sand-steel with various shearing rates are shown in Fig. 7 . The measured interface friction angles of various materials are plotted against shearing rates in Fig. 8 . The interface angles of sand-concrete and sand-wood increase with the rate of shear whereas it decreases for sand-steel material with the shearing rate. An intriguing finding is that at a lower shear rate of sand-steel has the highest interface angle of approximately 24 0 , which declines to around 15 0 at a higher shearing rate. The average interface angles of sand-concrete, sand-wood and sand-steel are found to be 21.7 0 , 25.4 0 and 18.6 0 respectively. The normalized value of friction angle (δ/φ) of various materials with various shearing rates is shown in Fig. 9 . The interface angle for sand against concrete is around half (50%) of the internal friction angle of sand at a low shearing rate (0.05 mm/min), and this ratio increases with the rate of shear. At a shear rate of 2 mm/min, the interface angle of sand against concrete is almost the same (100%) as the friction angle of pure sand. The normalized friction angle of sand against wood is about 60% at a low shear rate, and shows a stiff increment as the rate of increment of the shear. At a shearing rate of 2.5 mm/min, the normalized value reaches about 120%. For sand against steel, the interface friction angle is about 65% of the internal friction angle of sand, and neither factor significantly affects the loading rate. 4.3 Interface Friction Angle (Model Pile Tests) In Table 2 and Fig. 10 (a) both provide numerical and graphical representations of the differences in interface angles between sand and concrete piles, wood piles, and steel piles at different shearing speeds. The interaction angle between sand and wood pile is larger than the other two sets of material interaction, and the range is varied from 20 0 to 34 0 approximately for various rates of shear and changes in pile diameter. In contrast, the interaction angle between steel piles and sand is the smallest of all, starting at about 10 0 at a shearing rate of 0.05 mm/min and a pile diameter of 38.1 mm. For concrete piles, the data ranges are varied from approximately 15 0 to 27 0 . For all the material sets, the interface angle increases with an increase in the shearing rate and diameter. From Fig. 10 (b), it is observed that the increment of the pile diameter is influenced to surge the interface angle for all types of the pile. It can also be indicated that the impact of slip dilation is prevalent in case of the small diameter pile. The variation in interface angle between concrete and steel piles decreases with increasing shear rate. The line of contact angle for a wood pile, however, steepens with increasing shear. The box chart in Fig. 11 depicts the interface angles computed from direct shear test and pile model test on sand against various construction materials. It represents the maximum and minimum data set along with the mean, 99 percentile and 1 percentile values. Concrete and wood pile produces relatively higher interface angles in material level compared to structural level testing. But interface friction angle between steel pile and sand are almost similar both in direct shear and pile model test. The interaction friction angle between steel pile and sand has less influence on the shearing rate and change in pile diameter. In contrast, the wood pile is subject to alteration as the aforementioned conditions change. Table 2 Interface friction angle from pile model test. Rate (mm/min) Interface friction angle (Degree) Concrete Wood Steel Pile Diameter(mm) Pile Diameter(mm) Pile Diameter(mm) 38.1 76.2 101.6 38.1 76.2 101.6 38.1 76.2 101.6 0.05 15 19 20.5 19.24 20.8 21 10 12.41 14 0.5 18.3 21.2 21.6 20.8 21.3 25 12.5 15.11 16 1 19.5 22 22 22 22.78 28 16.95 18.26 20 2 22.3 22.5 24 23.4 25.17 29 19.81 20.3 21 2.5 23.75 25.2 26 24.7 27 31 20.8 21 22.5 5. Conclusions In this study, a direct shear test apparatus and a model pile test have been used to assess the interface shear behavior of sand and other building materials. Both tests have been conducted to estimate interface friction angle at a unique rate of loading at material and structural levels respectively. The following conclusions are drawn. The ratio of interface friction angle to the angle of internal friction of sand (δ/φ) for the distinct materials is dependent on the shearing rate and interface friction angles is almost the same or higher than internal friction at a higher rate of shear for sand-concrete and sand-wood. For sand-steel the ratio is constant despite the increase in shearing rate. According to test results at both the material and structural levels, sand against wood produces the largest interface friction angle (δ) that is higher compared to any other building material, regardless of pile diameter. The lowest interface friction angle was observed in the case of sand against steel. The interface friction angle between sand and other construction materials surges with the increment of shearing rate and pile diameter. Interface friction angle for small diameter piles is less compared to large diameter friction angles due to the phenomena of slip dilation. This study depicts a proportional relationship between the roughness of the construction material and the interface friction angle. Declarations Conflicts of Interests No, I declare that the authors have no competing interests as defined by Springer, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper. Author Contribution S M Shazeebur Rahman: Conceptualization, Testing, Reviewing.Matiur Rahman Raju: Writing, Reviewing, Testing.Md. Foisal Haque: Editing, Reviewing.Shahbo Rahman Sajib: Reviewing.Md. Humayun Kabir: Data Collection, Reviewing. Data Availability Data may be available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author. References Acar, Y. B., Durgunoglu, H. T. and Tumay, M. T., (1982). Interface Properties of Sand. J. of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 108, No. 4, pp. 648–654. Alba, J. L., & Audibert, J. M. (1999, February). Pile design in calcareous and carbonaceous granular materials, and historic review. 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A ring Torsion apparatus for evaluating friction between soil and metal surface. Geotechnical testing journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 4, No.4. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 25 Jun, 2024 Reviews received at journal 22 Jun, 2024 Reviews received at journal 09 Jun, 2024 Reviews received at journal 08 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Jun, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 04 Jun, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 04 Jun, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 04 Jun, 2024 First submitted to journal 27 May, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4485719","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":313782082,"identity":"ecf8a276-d80d-4134-95bc-fdb54a3af18b","order_by":0,"name":"S M Shazeebur Rahman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"BSMRSTU","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"S","middleName":"M Shazeebur","lastName":"Rahman","suffix":""},{"id":313782084,"identity":"7e19da1a-956e-4bc4-8121-45dc8da9796d","order_by":1,"name":"Matiur Rahman Raju","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IUBAT","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matiur","middleName":"Rahman","lastName":"Raju","suffix":""},{"id":313782086,"identity":"e228bfbd-652b-4ffe-acae-705741b5cb4d","order_by":2,"name":"Md. 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Humayun Kabir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KUET","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Humayun","lastName":"Kabir","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-27 14:29:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":58521047,"identity":"f1aeb1a3-e836-43ea-bfb8-34c26299b20f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 18:14:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74091,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrain Size Distribution of Sand.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/4693c0b00f323981ae458b2f.jpg"},{"id":58520291,"identity":"6407d4df-7ec0-45fc-bb76-0a272a5f436e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":138589,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaterials Used in Direct Shear Test a) Sand; b) Concrete block; c) Steel block; d) Wooden block\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/29bb7321fad16c45ce606245.jpg"},{"id":58520289,"identity":"f3759616-4154-4ce5-b42f-13225b945b28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72661,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePile model of Wood, Steel and Concrete materials (Diameter- 101.6 mm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/5dea46fea65eb24e483aa1e5.jpg"},{"id":58520290,"identity":"f8a10a1a-93a9-4a15-86e4-5a5408a24638","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:36","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":304371,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental setup; a) sand against sand, b) sand against concrete/steel/wooden block.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/d68974934509ca39a63d0c99.jpeg"},{"id":58520292,"identity":"2b012715-4f92-49cc-ab6a-dcef54742588","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":138118,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic diagram of pile model test.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/760b86c146ccc4a80f9570f2.jpg"},{"id":58520295,"identity":"a019b370-1b64-4ac1-9cf0-69ce7c8fdc75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":422634,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSand vs. Sand; a) Failure envelops; b) Shearing rate vs. Friction angle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/4a6d9cf2c2e3865855d3f900.jpeg"},{"id":58520294,"identity":"82c8e33d-849f-4054-9e03-7defae2e45be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":119418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFailure envelops with various shearing rates.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/f21b1c3e095219a75d055720.jpg"},{"id":58520558,"identity":"afca5a28-062d-4ba8-ab0b-0b1b3b309f5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 18:06:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86700,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShearing rate vs. Interface friction angle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/be2d416e43e952f873ff752e.jpg"},{"id":58520296,"identity":"e2607030-0993-47d9-9372-4f8c2f5bca37","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 17:58:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97660,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation of (δ/φ) with Shearing rate.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/99b3a80d6c39781c686ae307.jpg"},{"id":58520560,"identity":"1ea843d4-c309-47cf-a37c-dea468cd9bef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 18:06:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":768375,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariations of interface angle; a) with shearing rate; b) with diameter.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/b4f0ee9e26f46983818d030e.jpeg"},{"id":58520559,"identity":"5c98cd8d-ce11-4381-ad2b-01eea0f759c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 18:06:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":104699,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariations of the interface angles for direct shear and pile model test.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/47fd638599aa4e14d3e8e087.jpg"},{"id":58521353,"identity":"91ff3136-50a4-4350-bf97-c2e0d521973c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-17 18:22:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2807954,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4485719/v1/d3e92383-e711-44dd-b1bc-bc1e10000402.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAssessment of the Friction Angle of Sand at the Interface of Various Construction Materials\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSand is typically regarded as a ground material for the construction of roads, bridge foundations, and other structures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. For designing both shallow and deep foundations; concrete, wood, steel, or a combination of these materials are frequently taken into account. Pile foundations or other techniques of upgrading are typically used to address issues of bearing capacity and settlement. The interface angle is thought to have a significant impact on the construction of a friction pile. Sand and construction material's interface angle is frequently employed in design as an arbitrary proportion of the sand internal friction angle [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Unless knowing the interface angle accurately, it is not possible to ensure the most suitable material and diameter of the pile for any structure. Sand and other building materials (concrete, steel, and wood) might have different contact frictional angles depending on a number of different circumstances, which is studied in this research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral hundred experiments were carried out on the material level (Potyondy 1961) to determine the magnitude of skin friction considering variations of construction materials, soil types, normal stresses and moisture content of materials. For the sand-steel combination, the interface friction angle was depended on the surface roughness of pile and the type of sand [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Interface angle of sand-concrete showed similar characteristics to the interface angle between sand and rough steel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Generated shear zone around the sand-concrete interface is depicted in this paper. So, the maximum shear stress ratio is shown to be lower than the dense sand. Also, concrete and organic soil shows the maximum interface angle, and the lowest interface angle is found for the smooth steel and organic soil. According to the previous research, the particle shape was not affected by the interface friction angle; although, it was depended on the surface roughness of the construction material [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Shear strength was increased for the high normal stress and a rough contact surface either vice versa according to the research on the shear characteristics of the interface between calcareous sand and steel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Various displacement rates were found to be (0.0038\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;133) mm/min in the case of ultimate resistance of sand and steel based on the ring shear apparatus [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. For steel piles in sand, a relationship was established between the skin friction and shear strength of sand considering the function of the pile movement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. According to several past studies, the interface friction angle between the sand and solid construction material was evaluated by using various apparatuses of the direct shear test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], simple shear test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], ring torsion test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], dual shear test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], miniature pile test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], and soil pile slip test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this research is to estimate the internal friction angle of sand along with the determination of the interface friction angle between sand and other building materials using direct shear and pile model tests. The impact of the shearing rate and pile diameter on the interface friction angle is estimated based on laboratory test results.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials of the Present Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor the direct shear test in this investigation, coarse sand is utilized. Sand is graded using a standard sieve in accordance with ASTM D422, and the distribution of its grain sizes is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The maximum index density, lowest index density, specific gravity, moisture content, etc., included the geotechnical characteristics of the sand that have been discovered using the ASTM standard procedures. The fundamental physical characteristics of the examined sand are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The sand is classified as poorly graded sand (SP) by the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) since the uniformity coefficient is less than 4. To establish the interface angle; cement concrete, steel, and wooden blocks are prepared in accordance with the direct shear test apparatus's core size. These specimens have the following measurements: 58mm x 58mm x 6mm as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. For the miniature pile test, three unique materials (concrete pile, steel pile and wooden pile) are considered in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The length of the pile models is taken to be 1.5 ft along with three variations in diameters (1.5, 3, and 4-inches) to determine the uplift force.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical properties of sand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Values\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity, G\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum index Density, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{\u0026Upsilon;}}_{\\text{d(max) }}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (gm/cc)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum index Density, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{\u0026Upsilon;}}_{\\text{d(min) }}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (gm/cc)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective size D\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient of Uniformity, C\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient of Curvature, C\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Description of experiments","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Testing Method\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitially, the grain size distribution, specific gravity, and relative density tests were conducted to assess physical properties of sand in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. To determine the internal frictional angle and interface friction angle between the sand and other materials in this investigation, a total of 15 direct shear tests were conducted on the interfaces of sand, smooth concrete, steel, and wood. The experiments took into account of five different rates of shearing (0.05, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 2.5 mm/min) and three different normal stresses (27, 55, and 81 kPa). In order to assess the uplift forces and back-calculate the interface friction angle at the structural level, a total of 45 miniature model pile tests have been performed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Direct Shear Tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe direct shear test was performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled strain rate on or near a single shear plane determined by the configuration of the apparatus. Generally, three or more specimens were tested. Shear resistance, displacement, and strength properties were calculated by using Mohr circles. The conventional direct shear test apparatus with dimensions of 60 mm x 60 mm was used in this study. Sand was placed equally in both halves of the shear box to determine the internal friction angle of sand in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(a). 15 tests were done under various rates of above mentioned loadings. For the interface tests, the material plate (such as concrete, steel, or wooden blocks) was put in the lower half of the direct shear box, and the upper half was filled with sand of the necessary density in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e(b). For estimating the interface friction angle for concrete, steel, and wooden plates at various rates of loading under three typical stresses, a total of 15 tests were performed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Pile Model Tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe structural set-up of the model pile was comprised of a pile, plastic drum and loading machine in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Three types of model pile such as: concrete, steel, and wooden piles were used to perform the test. Though length of each pile was same (457.2 mm or 1.5ft) but each pile was categorized according to variation of diameter (38.1 mm or 1.5 inch, 76.2 mm or 3 inch and 101.6 mm or 4 inch). The loading machine was used to provide vertical loads, which generated a constant rate of vertical displacement. Finally, it was recorded by a proving ring and a deformation dial reading. The measured uplift capacity in the model pile tests served as the basis for the values of the interface friction angles. For piles in uplift, the end-bearing resistance was frequently assumed to be negligible [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The well-known equation can be used to determine a vertical straight-shafted pile's uplift capacity in sand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\text{Q}}_{\\text{u}}\\text{=}{\\text{Q}}_{\\text{p}}\\text{+}{\\text{Q}}_{\\text{s}}\\text{+}{\\text{W}}_{\\text{p}}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{Q}}_{\\text{u}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e uplift capacity of the pile; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{Q}}_{\\text{P}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e end-bearing resistance; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{Q}}_{\\text{s}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e side resistance; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{W}}_{\\text{p}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e weight of the pile.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe side resistance was calculated from:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${{\\text{Q}}_{\\text{s}}\\text{=A}}_{\\text{s}}{\\text{f}}_{\\text{s}}\\text{=}{\\text{A}}_{\\text{s}}{\\text{Ϭ}}_{\\text{v}}\\text{ktan\u0026delta;=0.5k\u0026Upsilon;Ltan\u0026delta;}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{A}}_{\\text{s}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e embedded surface area of the pile; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\text{f}}_{\\text{s}}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e average shear stress; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{k}=\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e co-efficient of lateral earth pressure; σ\u003csub\u003ev\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;average effective vertical stress; γ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;unit weight of sand; D= diameter of pile; L= embedded length of pile and δ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;interface friction angle.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the Eqs.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) and (\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), the interface friction angle (δ) can be calculated as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{\u0026delta;=}{\\text{tan}}^{\\text{-1}}\\text{[}\\frac{{Q}_{u}-{W}_{p}}{0.5\\pi D{\\rm Y}{L}^{2}k}\\text{ ]}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and considering various pile diameters, the values of the interface friction angle (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\delta\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) are determined from the measured uplift capacity.The length of the pile model, unit weight of soil and coefficient of lateral pressure are considered to be 0.4572m, 16.8 kN/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, and 0.8, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Testing Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Internal Friction Angle of Sand (Direct Shear Tests)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFailure envelopes of sand material are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(a) under different rates of loading, and the internal friction angles of sand at various shearing rates are plotted in a semi-logarithmic format in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(b). The internal friction angle is increased with the raise of the shearing rate and the average friction angle of sand. It is measured to be 27.8\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e. The following equation is represented by a straight line in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e(b), and its R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value is 0.8857.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Interface Friction angle (Direct Shear Tests)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe failure envelops of sand-concrete, sand-wood and sand-steel with various shearing rates are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. The measured interface friction angles of various materials are plotted against shearing rates in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The interface angles of sand-concrete and sand-wood increase with the rate of shear whereas it decreases for sand-steel material with the shearing rate. An intriguing finding is that at a lower shear rate of sand-steel has the highest interface angle of approximately 24\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e, which declines to around 15\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e at a higher shearing rate. The average interface angles of sand-concrete, sand-wood and sand-steel are found to be 21.7\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e, 25.4\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e and 18.6\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. The normalized value of friction angle (δ/φ) of various materials with various shearing rates is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. The interface angle for sand against concrete is around half (50%) of the internal friction angle of sand at a low shearing rate (0.05 mm/min), and this ratio increases with the rate of shear. At a shear rate of 2 mm/min, the interface angle of sand against concrete is almost the same (100%) as the friction angle of pure sand. The normalized friction angle of sand against wood is about 60% at a low shear rate, and shows a stiff increment as the rate of increment of the shear. At a shearing rate of 2.5 mm/min, the normalized value reaches about 120%. For sand against steel, the interface friction angle is about 65% of the internal friction angle of sand, and neither factor significantly affects the loading rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Interface Friction Angle (Model Pile Tests)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e(a) both provide numerical and graphical representations of the differences in interface angles between sand and concrete piles, wood piles, and steel piles at different shearing speeds. The interaction angle between sand and wood pile is larger than the other two sets of material interaction, and the range is varied from 20\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e to 34\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e approximately for various rates of shear and changes in pile diameter. In contrast, the interaction angle between steel piles and sand is the smallest of all, starting at about 10\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e at a shearing rate of 0.05 mm/min and a pile diameter of 38.1 mm. For concrete piles, the data ranges are varied from approximately 15\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e to 27\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e. For all the material sets, the interface angle increases with an increase in the shearing rate and diameter. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e(b), it is observed that the increment of the pile diameter is influenced to surge the interface angle for all types of the pile. It can also be indicated that the impact of slip dilation is prevalent in case of the small diameter pile. The variation in interface angle between concrete and steel piles decreases with increasing shear rate. The line of contact angle for a wood pile, however, steepens with increasing shear. The box chart in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e depicts the interface angles computed from direct shear test and pile model test on sand against various construction materials. It represents the maximum and minimum data set along with the mean, 99 percentile and 1 percentile values. Concrete and wood pile produces relatively higher interface angles in material level compared to structural level testing. But interface friction angle between steel pile and sand are almost similar both in direct shear and pile model test. The interaction friction angle between steel pile and sand has less influence on the shearing rate and change in pile diameter. In contrast, the wood pile is subject to alteration as the aforementioned conditions change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterface friction angle from pile model test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRate (mm/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterface friction angle (Degree)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcrete\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSteel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePile Diameter(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePile Diameter(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePile Diameter(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a direct shear test apparatus and a model pile test have been used to assess the interface shear behavior of sand and other building materials. Both tests have been conducted to estimate interface friction angle at a unique rate of loading at material and structural levels respectively. The following conclusions are drawn.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ratio of interface friction angle to the angle of internal friction of sand (δ/φ) for the distinct materials is dependent on the shearing rate and interface friction angles is almost the same or higher than internal friction at a higher rate of shear for sand-concrete and sand-wood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor sand-steel the ratio is constant despite the increase in shearing rate. According to test results at both the material and structural levels, sand against wood produces the largest interface friction angle (δ) that is higher compared to any other building material, regardless of pile diameter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lowest interface friction angle was observed in the case of sand against steel. The interface friction angle between sand and other construction materials surges with the increment of shearing rate and pile diameter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterface friction angle for small diameter piles is less compared to large diameter friction angles due to the phenomena of slip dilation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study depicts a proportional relationship between the roughness of the construction material and the interface friction angle.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interests \u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo, I declare that the authors have no competing interests as defined by Springer, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS M Shazeebur Rahman: Conceptualization, Testing, Reviewing.Matiur Rahman Raju: Writing, Reviewing, Testing.Md. Foisal Haque: Editing, Reviewing.Shahbo Rahman Sajib: Reviewing.Md. Humayun Kabir: Data Collection, Reviewing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData may be available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAcar, Y. B., Durgunoglu, H. T. and Tumay, M. T., (1982). Interface Properties of Sand. J. of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 108, No. 4, pp. 648\u0026ndash;654.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlba, J. L., \u0026amp; Audibert, J. M. (1999, February). Pile design in calcareous and carbonaceous granular materials, and historic review. In Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on engineering for calcareous sediments. Rotterdam: AA Balkema (Vol. 1, pp. 29\u0026ndash;44).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAPI (1984), API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, American Petroleum Institute, APIRP2A, 115 p.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBosscher, P. J. and Ortiz, C., (1987). Frictional Properties between Sand and Various Construction Materials. J of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 9, pp.1035\u0026ndash;1039.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCanakci, H., Hamed, M., Celik, F., Sidik, W., \u0026amp; Eviz, F. (2016). Friction characteristics of organic soil with construction materials. Soils and Foundations, 56(6), 965\u0026ndash;972.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCoyle, H. M. and Sulaiman, I.H., (1967). Skin Friction for Steel Piles in Sand. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, ASCE, Vol.93, No.SM6, pp. 261\u0026ndash;278.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKishida, H., and Uesugi, M. (1987). \u0026ldquo;Tests of the interface between sand and steel in the simple shear apparatus,\u0026rdquo; Geotechnique 37(1), 45\u0026ndash;52.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKulhawy, F. H. (1983). EL-2870 Transmission Line Structure Foundations - Shallow Foundations (Kulhawy).pdf.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKou, H. L., Diao, W. Z., Zhang, W. C., Zheng, J. B., Ni, P., Bo-An, J. A. N. G., \u0026amp; Wu, C. (2021). Experimental study of interface shearing between calcareous sand and steel plate considering surface roughness and particle size. Applied Ocean Research, 107, 102490.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKou, H. L., Wu, C., Jang, B. A., \u0026amp; Wang, D. (2021). 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J., (1995), \u0026ldquo;A Dual Interface Apparatus for Testing Unrestricted Friction of Soil along Solid Surfaces,\u0026rdquo; Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 168\u0026ndash;193.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePotyondy, J. G., (1961). Skin Friction between Various Soils and Construction Materials. Geotechnique, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 339\u0026ndash;353.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReddy, E.S., Chapman, D.N. and O Reilly, M.P., (1998). Design and Performance of Soil-Pile-Slip Test Apparatus for Tension Piles. Geotechnical Testing J.,Vol. 21, No.2, pp. 132\u0026ndash;139.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSu, L. J., Zhou, W. H., Chen, W. B., \u0026amp; Jie, X. (2018). Effects of relative roughness and mean particle size on the shear strength of sand-steel interface. 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Soils and Foundations, 30(1), 115\u0026ndash;128.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang, X., Wang, X. Z., Zhu, C. Q., \u0026amp; Meng, Q. S. (2019). Shear tests of interfaces between calcareous sand and steel. Marine Georesources \u0026amp; Geotechnology, 37(9), 1095\u0026ndash;1104.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang, X. Z., Tan, F. Y., Jiao, Y. Y., \u0026amp; Wang, R. (2014). A new apparatus for testing the bearing capacity of calcareous sand in laboratory. Marine Georesources \u0026amp; Geotechnology, 32(4), 379\u0026ndash;386.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWust, R. Bustin, RM. and Lavkulich, LM. (2003). New classification systems for tropical organic-rich deposits based on studies of the Tasek Bera Basin, Malaysia. Catena 53:133\u0026ndash;163.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYoshimi Y and Kishida T (1981). A ring Torsion apparatus for evaluating friction between soil and metal surface. Geotechnical testing journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 4, No.4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Direct shear test, Internal friction angle, Interface friction angle, Pile model test, Sand","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study compares the internal friction angle of sand at interface with different construction materials of concrete, steel, and wood. Material properties have been determined by the direct shear and pile model tests in the laboratory. Impacts of shearing rates of sand and other materials at interface were examined by the direct shear test. Pile model tests were conducted based on similar loading rates of direct shear test. According to the experimental results, a straight line of semi-logarithmic plot represents relationship among internal friction angle, interface friction angle and the shearing rate. In addition, shearing rate is increased with the enlargement of the pile diameter. Also, the interface friction angle is increased by the incremental variations of the internal friction angle of sand. Interface angles of various construction materials are less than the internal friction angle of sand because of the fluctuation of the shearing rate. However, it can be said that the interface angle depends proportionally on the roughness of materials, shearing rate, and pile diameter.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of the Friction Angle of Sand at the Interface of Various Construction Materials","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-06-17 17:58:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4485719/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-06-25T07:45:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-22T04:32:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-09T11:34:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-08T15:37:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"220796513553102374007997219923136751201","date":"2024-06-05T05:41:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"240245543392154266712084737569514828855","date":"2024-06-04T23:45:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"11993220371621632569839719333698154125","date":"2024-06-04T18:13:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-06-04T17:00:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-06-04T06:12:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-04T06:05:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Geoscience","date":"2024-05-27T14:27:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-geoscience","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Geoscience](https://www.springer.com/journal/44288)","snPcode":"44288","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44288","title":"Discover Geoscience","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"11a8954b-1e7c-492c-a8cd-4eebe5be3969","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 17th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-19T07:14:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-06-17 17:58:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4485719","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4485719","identity":"rs-4485719","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}