Radiation-Induced Defect Modeling and Performance Degradation in PERC Silicon Solar Cells Under Heavy Ion Irradiation

Radiation-Induced Defect Modeling and Performance Degradation in PERC Silicon Solar Cells Under Heavy Ion Irradiation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Radiation-Induced Defect Modeling and Performance Degradation in PERC Silicon Solar Cells Under Heavy Ion Irradiation Muhammad Imran, Rabia Yasmin Khosa, Aamenah Siddiqui, Muhammad Usman This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7453177/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The effects of heavy ion irradiation on the electrical properties of passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) silicon solar cells are investigated. The study employs technology computer-aided design (TCAD)-based device simulations using a radiation effect module (REM), which integrates vacancy data from Monte Carlo code-based simulations with device simulations. Furthermore, the non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) phenomenon is incorporated to understand the impact of radiation at various fluence levels and energies encountered in the space environment. The model is used to simulate the irradiation of solar cells with Oxygen (O), Argon (Ar), and Iron (Fe) ions. The solar cell design used in the simulations represents an actual device, with the average difference between simulated and experimental parameters being 0.67, 0.05, 0.03, and 0.19% for efficiency, fill factor, J SC , and V OC , respectively. The degradation caused by irradiation is primarily due to the loss of efficiency at different ion fluence levels and energies. It is observed that iron is the most detrimental to solar cell performance within the same projected range due to its higher NIEL value. This approach provides new opportunities to investigate novel radiation-tolerant solar cell structures by enabling the qualification of radiation hardness. PERC Solar Cells TCAD simulations REM Heavy Ions Monte-Carlo simulations NIEL Module Irradiations effects Space-environment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction Silicon solar cells currently dominate the global solar market due to their low cost, high efficiency, and commercial success [ 1 ]. Radiation is abundant in the space environment and poses significant risks to space missions by degrading materials used in electronic systems in various ways over their lifespan [ 2 ], [ 3 ], [ 4 ], [ 5 ]. The radiation in space consists of different types of particles, including protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions, in addition to electrons and gamma rays. The specific type of radiation encountered by space instruments, including solar cells, depends on their location in space [ 6 ], [ 7 ]. After protons and alpha particles, the presence of heavy ions is also significant (up to 1%) in the space environment [ 8 ]. This poses a challenge for solar cells used in aerospace applications due to the expected performance degradation caused by prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation [ 9 ], [ 10 ]. Although III-V-based solar cells are a viable energy resource in space applications [ 11 ], [ 12 ], silicon solar cells are also considered for certain space applications due to their lower cost. However, many optimization, fabrication, and testing cycles are required to gain deep knowledge about the radiation effects on silicon solar cells. The availability of device simulation tools facilitates the quick determination of solar cell parameters. However, prior knowledge of radiation-induced defects is essential for conducting such simulations, and this knowledge is typically acquired through experiments. Space is frequently subjected to solar particle events, including solar flares and coronal mass ejections, resulting in the release of mainly protons [ 13 ] and alpha particles [ 17 ], along with a smaller fraction of heavy ions [ 9 ], encompassing a wide range of fluences and energies. The aforementioned particles have the potential to affect the functionality of electronic equipment during space missions through various mechanisms, such as total ionizing dose (TID), single-event upset (SEU), and displacement damage (D d ), which constitute the primary focus of the present investigation [ 18 ]. Atoms displaced by irradiation result in the formation of vacancies, commonly referred to as Frenkel pairs, which generate traps within the bandgap, consequently leading to a decline in the device's operational efficiency. It is, therefore, essential for aerospace engineers to be capable of forecasting the detrimental effects induced by solar events to adequately assess the reliability and longevity of solar panels used in space missions. Displacement damage investigated in laboratory settings has been documented in several studies [ 3 ], [ 13 ], [ 17 ], [ 19 ], [ 20 ]; however, the range of heavy ions, energies, and fluences covered in these studies limits the conclusions that can be drawn. Hence, multiple irradiation experiments are required to fully investigate displacement damage caused by the space environment. In order to overcome this limitation and avoid costly experimentation for in-depth analysis, the present work adopts an approach that studies radiation impacts solely through device simulation, utilizing the NIEL method to simulate displacement damage (D d ) in the Silvaco ATLAS technology computer-aided design (TCAD) device simulator [ 20 ], [ 21 ]. This approach incorporates information extracted from the Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter (SRIM) tool. It then evaluates the extent of deterioration caused by heavy ion radiation at various energies and fluences on a commercial passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) silicon solar cell. The results indicate that solar cells are adversely affected by heavy ions with energy levels between 10 MeV and 100 MeV. It is estimated that the maximum fluence of heavy ions that silicon-based PERC solar cells can withstand before failure is 10 14 cm − 2 . Device Structure and Simulation Setup The effect of heavy ion irradiation is demonstrated through the simulation of a commercial p-type PERC silicon solar cell using Silvaco ATLAS. The device structure employed in this work is based on the solar cell developed and reported by M. Kerr et al. [ 22 ], as shown in Fig. 1 . The solar cell consists of a 300 µm thick p-type base doped at 5.87 × 10 16 cm − 3 and an n-type emitter with a sheet resistance of 115–130 Ω/□. Si 3 N 4 is applied to both the front and back surfaces as an anti-reflection coating (ARC) and passivation layer. Shockley-Read-Hall recombination, Klassen bandgap narrowing, and concentration-dependent mobility models were employed in the simulation under AM 1.5 spectral conditions. The characteristics of the simulated solar cell are as follows: fill factor = 0.8066, efficiency = 17.92%, J SC = 33.12 mA, and V OC = 666 mV. When the simulated model is compared with the experimental metrics, the average percentage difference is less than 0.25%, indicating the reliability of the developed model. All subsequent irradiation simulations use the same device architecture and model, which has been benchmarked against the experimentally fabricated PERC solar cell. Simulating Displacement Damage One of the most widely used techniques for characterizing trap levels in irradiated materials is deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), which provides values for trap density, energy level location within the bandgap, and capture cross-section. However, such experimental methods lack the flexibility to track changes in radiation damage as the design of the photovoltaic device evolves. To overcome this limitation, the present work adopts an approach that does not require lengthy irradiation trials to evaluate and predict radiation damage in solar cells [ 13 ], [ 17 ]. This approach relies on the concept of non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL), also known as displacement damage, to determine the total radiation-induced degradation in the cell. The Radiation Effects Module (REM) in the Silvaco ATLAS device simulator incorporates the NIEL model parameters, which are computed using SRIM. The NIEL values depend on the energy of the incident particles and the physical characteristics of the device, such as layer thickness and material density [ 25 ], [ 26 ]. The density and depth distribution of vacancies generated by different ion energies are discussed in in [ 13 ], [ 17 ], [ 26 ], [ 27 ], [ 28 ], [ 29 ], [ 30 ]. To calculate the density of Frenkel pairs, REM requires three additional input parameters in addition to the NIEL values: material density (in g·cm⁻³), incident radiation fluence, and a damage factor. The damage factor is derived by comparing the NF equation used in REM [ 31 ] with the theoretical definition of Frenkel pair density (N F ): $$\:\:{\varvec{N}}_{\varvec{F}}=\frac{\varvec{D}\varvec{P}\varvec{A}\times\:{\varvec{N}}_{\varvec{A}}\times\:\varvec{\rho\:}}{\varvec{A}}$$ The Avogadro-constant is represented by N A , the mass-number by A, the target material's density by ρ, and the displacement per atom by DPA, which is the amount of lattice vacancies created by the impinging ion and can be computed via SRIM simulations. Radiation damage estimated for Si-based solar cell configuration that has been simulated in the device simulator if all of the REM's input parameters are known. The Avogadro constant is denoted by N A ​, the mass number by A, the density of the target material by ρ, and the displacement per atom (DPA) represents the number of lattice vacancies created by the impinging ion. The DPA can be computed using SRIM simulations. Radiation damage in the simulated Si-based solar cell configuration can be estimated using the device simulator, provided that all necessary input parameters for the Radiation Effect Module (REM) are known. Figure 2 outlines the steps used to estimate radiation-induced damage through TCAD simulations and the Radiation Effect Module (REM). To evaluate the performance of p-type PERC solar cells after radiation exposure in space, we compare the modeled solar cell parameters before and after exposure to heavy ions in this study. It is worth noting that, after protons and alpha particles, heavy ions are also prevalent in the space environment [ 8 ]. Therefore, heavy ions such as iron and oxygen are selected for this investigation. In order to accurately understand the impact of individual ions on solar cells, it is important to tailor their energies such that the projected range is nearly the same. Figure 3 shows the NIEL versus solar cell depth for ions with different energies, adjusted to achieve a common projected range (R p ) of approximately 16 µm in all cases [ 13 ]. Monte Carlo simulations indicate that the projected range of protons is ~ 20 µm at 1.10 MeV. Different ions have specific Rₚ values in the silicon wafer at different energies; for instance, alpha particles, oxygen, and iron ions have Rₚ values of ~ 20 µm at 4.0, 27.5, 70.0, and 100 MeV, respectively. It is important to note that heavier ions require higher energies to reach similar depths in the same material. Figure 4 shows the NIEL for different ions and protons at different energies such that the projected range is 80 µm for all the ions. Table 1 Number of vacancies produced per ion for different ions, such that their projected range is ~ 20, ~80, ~ 300 and ~ 500 µm. Particles/Heavy ions Rp (µm) Energies (MeV) Vacancy/ion Proton 20, 80,300,500 1.10, 2.75, 6.0, 8.0 18, 23,5,3 Alpha particles 20, 80, 300,500 4.0, 10.5, 24, 32.5 156, 201,20,15 Oxygen ions 20, 80, 300,500 27.5, 85, 210, 285 1766, 2090,136,101 Iron ions 20, 80, 300,500 100, 425, 700, 985 15320, 17698, 847, 584 As shown in Table 1 , higher energies produce a large number of vacancies at specific depths of silicon-based solar cells and have different projected ranges for each type of ions and energy. Effects of Different Heavy Ions’ Irradiations on PERC Solar Cell The efficiency of the PERC solar cell degrades after exposure to heavy ion radiation at various energies (MeV) and fluences (cm − 2 ). This degradation in electrical performance including efficiency, short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and fill factor is shown in Fig. 5 . As anticipated, the cell’s efficiency decreases with increasing irradiation fluence and ceases to produce any useful output when the proton fluence exceeds > 10 13 cm − 2 , as reported in [ 13 ] for 1 MeV protons. It is also observed that heavy ions (O, Ar, and Fe) exhibit similar trends to protons and alpha particles [ 17 ]. Figure 5 presents the normalized power efficiency versus fluence for protons and heavy ions, with their energies tailored to induce maximum damage at ~ 20 µm depth within the solar cell. Moreover, 1.10 MeV protons have the least effect on silicon-based solar cells and show a critical fluence (above which the cell stops producing output) of > 10 15 cm − 2 . This is because protons produce the fewest vacancies compared to other ions, even when the projected range is similar, as shown in Table 1 —an effect attributed to the lower mass of protons. Similarly, 4 MeV alpha particles with a projected range of 20 µm in silicon have a critical fluence of > 10 14 cm − 2 , while 100 MeV iron ions and 27.5 MeV oxygen ions, both with projected ranges of 20 µm, result in critical fluences of > 10 13 cm − 2 and > 10 12 cm − 2 , respectively. The degradation trends seen are consistent with earlier studies on proton and alpha irradiation of Si-based solar cells, where displacement damage is mainly driven by vacancy generation and clustering of defects [ 19 , 32 ]. Our results extend these findings by demonstrating that higher non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) due to heavy ions such as Fe and O induces a much higher vacancy density at similar projected ranges. This suggests that, despite having a relatively low abundance of heavy ions (~ 1%) in the near-Earth space environment, their contribution to long-term performance degradation of Si-based solar cells can be significantly large. Therefore, the present findings of considering heavy ion contributions in the overall radiation spectrum of space are important to incorporate, which are often neglected in ground-based radiation tests primarily focusing on protons and electrons only. Protons with an energy of 7 MeV and a projected range (R p ) of 500 µm have the least effect on silicon-based solar cells, exhibiting a critical fluence of > 10 10 cm − 2 . In contrast, 250 MeV oxygen ions with a similar projected range (~ 80 µm) have a lower critical fluence of > 10⁸ and 10 7 cm − 2 , respectively, due to their higher mass, which results in greater vacancy production in the silicon lattice. Iron ions have the most pronounced effect on Si-based PERC solar cells because of their significantly higher mass, as shown in Fig. 6 . Iron ions with an energy of 1.5 GeV cause maximum efficiency degradation, with a critical fluence of > 10 7 cm − 2 . Effects of Damage Peak Depth on PERC Solar Cells’ Degradation Figure 7 shows the effect of protons with different energies (and thus different projected ranges) on the normalized power efficiency of the solar cells. As seen in the figure, protons with higher projected ranges are slightly more detrimental to solar cell performance. This is because, as proton energy increases, defects are created throughout the entire depth of the solar cell, resulting in more significant damage. In contrast, for lower-energy protons, such as 1 MeV, the damage is confined to the first 20 µm of the solar cell depth. A similar trend is observed for helium, iron, and oxygen ions, as shown in Figs. 8 , 9 and 10 . The dependence of degradation over the projected range suggests that both the fluence and the penetration depth of radiation induced defects determine the device reliability. For instance, low energy ions tend to localize damage near the emitter, which strongly affects carrier collection, while high-energy ions distribute defects more uniformly across the base, leading to gradual but cumulative efficiency losses. This finding provides important design insights where optimization of base thickness and selective passivation strategies may reduce the effects of deeply penetrating ions. Similar strategies have previously been proposed in thin-film Si solar cells, where reduced absorber thickness leads to enhanced radiation tolerance [ 25 , 30 ]. The displacement damage (D d ) curve obtained in Fig. 11 validates the applicability of the NIEL scaling hypothesis for predicting the degradation of solar cell performance across different particle types and energies. By collapsing diverse irradiation conditions into a single characteristic curve, this approach enables rapid pre-qualification of solar cell designs without the need for exhaustive irradiation campaigns. This is particularly relevant for future space missions where cost and testing time are important constraints. Moreover, the approach opens opportunities to virtually screen advanced cell architectures, such as heterojunction or tandem solar cells, for their radiation tolerance before initiating fabrication. To analyze all the results collectively, the data points in Figs. 5 – 8 are converted from fluence to displacement damage (D d ) by multiplying the fluence with the respective NIEL value of each ion, as shown in Fig. 11 . The D d curve is qualitatively consistent with the studies reported in [ 19 ], [ 32 ], [ 33 ]. As evident from the figure, all the data points fall on a single characteristic curve, which can be used to evaluate radiation damage in the simulated PERC solar cell for any ion at any energy and fluence without the need for additional simulations or experiments. Although the present work demonstrates the utilization of TCAD modeling and simulations in predicting heavy ion irradiation effects, there are still certain limitations. For example, the Radiation Effects Module (REM) of Silvaco TCAD assumes uniform defect generation but does not fully capture complex defect clustering. Moreover, self-annealing effects after the prolonged exposure are not possible to incorporate. Future extensions of the present work could incorporate defect dynamics models and temperature-dependent annealing behavior to provide a more comprehensive reliability forecast. Additionally, the methodology can be extended to explore novel materials such as Ga₂O₃ and SiC, which are gaining attention for space photovoltaics due to their wider bandgaps and potentially superior radiation hardness. Conclusion In conclusion, determining the survivability of solar modules in space requires knowledge of the reliability of solar cells under specific environmental conditions. This work employs TCAD simulations to demonstrate the impact of heavy ion irradiation on the efficiency of a commercially available, simplified PERC silicon-based solar cell. Alpha particles with energies ranging from 10 to 100 MeV are shown to have varying detrimental effects on solar cell efficiency, with iron causing the most degradation compared to oxygen ions. The findings of this study offer new opportunities for optimizing solar panel parameters to enhance their reliability in space applications. Declarations Conflict of Interest: All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Funding: No funding was received for the present research. Author Contribution M.I. : Data curation, Simulation, Writing—original draftR. Y. K. : Visualization, SupervisionA. S. : Methodology, Software, Visualization M. U.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Review-original draft, Supervision, Project administration Data Availability The data will be made available upon reasonable request. 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The energy is tailored such that the projected range is 20 µm for all the ions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/636f53dbc3e16cd0b358b397.jpg"},{"id":91158519,"identity":"d0738a64-8a1c-4909-afb8-4ce864b189f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:35:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180443,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNon-ionizing energy loss at versus depth caused by different heavy ions. The energy is tailored such that the projected range is ~80 µm for all the ions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/910bef150deb3fe78fb23f4a.jpg"},{"id":91158273,"identity":"6da074f7-f55e-45cf-86f3-d7fb61a4ed07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:27:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":181125,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDegradation efficiency due proton (H), alpha particles (He), and heavy ions irradiation at different energy and fluences at 20 µm maximum damage peak in PERC solar cells.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/2265abe20235eea110d44511.jpg"},{"id":91159811,"identity":"b35ac60f-3665-4b39-8d9d-1a89afac2a53","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:51:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180290,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePERC solar cells' degradation efficiency as the consequence of being exposed to heavy ions, alpha particles, and protons at varying energies and fluences at a maximum damage peak of 80 µm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/7b9318f2e925cc80762eb6ad.jpg"},{"id":91158522,"identity":"615e1d0d-9a97-4dbe-8ce3-d6fd0528bc94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:35:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":176677,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of proton (H) with different energies (and projected range) on the PERC solar cell efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/8d4acc6a83683772fd810ab4.jpg"},{"id":91158279,"identity":"bf1c9ada-c11d-4557-aa10-163c2f74ae23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:27:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":179727,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of alpha particles (He) with different energies (and projected range) on the PERC solar cell efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/28fa7e5a6ad51b4b7ff83c73.jpg"},{"id":91158523,"identity":"f9ad7ea3-ed4b-4357-92fb-1bac1bf01490","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:35:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":162773,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of iron (Fe) ions with different energies (and projected range) on the PERC solar cell efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/42b1701670cee41fd92d314a.jpg"},{"id":91158278,"identity":"e5ef9309-ed07-4e66-a7c8-d3183913b73d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:27:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":173574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of oxygen (O) ions with different energies (and projected range) on the PERC solar cell efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/c8f33fc7b51b898aae656473.jpg"},{"id":91158282,"identity":"1e08e397-8374-4510-87ff-bf037c28d765","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 08:27:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":198429,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDisplacement-damage (D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e) curve produced in Silvaco by modeling the effects of proton irradiation and heavy ions on Si-based solar cells (PERC).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/a85cbbedb9c4bf3ea90ed15f.jpg"},{"id":94471942,"identity":"7d932b4b-5931-4e97-af9c-08c1cee90a10","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 15:40:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2252745,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7453177/v1/5da75faf-8921-43b5-a148-caf17906f426.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Radiation-Induced Defect Modeling and Performance Degradation in PERC Silicon Solar Cells Under Heavy Ion Irradiation","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSilicon solar cells currently dominate the global solar market due to their low cost, high efficiency, and commercial success [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Radiation is abundant in the space environment and poses significant risks to space missions by degrading materials used in electronic systems in various ways over their lifespan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The radiation in space consists of different types of particles, including protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions, in addition to electrons and gamma rays. The specific type of radiation encountered by space instruments, including solar cells, depends on their location in space [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. After protons and alpha particles, the presence of heavy ions is also significant (up to 1%) in the space environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. This poses a challenge for solar cells used in aerospace applications due to the expected performance degradation caused by prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Although III-V-based solar cells are a viable energy resource in space applications [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], silicon solar cells are also considered for certain space applications due to their lower cost. However, many optimization, fabrication, and testing cycles are required to gain deep knowledge about the radiation effects on silicon solar cells. The availability of device simulation tools facilitates the quick determination of solar cell parameters. However, prior knowledge of radiation-induced defects is essential for conducting such simulations, and this knowledge is typically acquired through experiments. Space is frequently subjected to solar particle events, including solar flares and coronal mass ejections, resulting in the release of mainly protons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] and alpha particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], along with a smaller fraction of heavy ions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], encompassing a wide range of fluences and energies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe aforementioned particles have the potential to affect the functionality of electronic equipment during space missions through various mechanisms, such as total ionizing dose (TID), single-event upset (SEU), and displacement damage (D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e), which constitute the primary focus of the present investigation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Atoms displaced by irradiation result in the formation of vacancies, commonly referred to as Frenkel pairs, which generate traps within the bandgap, consequently leading to a decline in the device's operational efficiency. It is, therefore, essential for aerospace engineers to be capable of forecasting the detrimental effects induced by solar events to adequately assess the reliability and longevity of solar panels used in space missions. Displacement damage investigated in laboratory settings has been documented in several studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]; however, the range of heavy ions, energies, and fluences covered in these studies limits the conclusions that can be drawn. Hence, multiple irradiation experiments are required to fully investigate displacement damage caused by the space environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to overcome this limitation and avoid costly experimentation for in-depth analysis, the present work adopts an approach that studies radiation impacts solely through device simulation, utilizing the NIEL method to simulate displacement damage (D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e) in the Silvaco ATLAS technology computer-aided design (TCAD) device simulator [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. This approach incorporates information extracted from the Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter (SRIM) tool. It then evaluates the extent of deterioration caused by heavy ion radiation at various energies and fluences on a commercial passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) silicon solar cell. The results indicate that solar cells are adversely affected by heavy ions with energy levels between 10 MeV and 100 MeV. It is estimated that the maximum fluence of heavy ions that silicon-based PERC solar cells can withstand before failure is 10\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Device Structure and Simulation Setup","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe effect of heavy ion irradiation is demonstrated through the simulation of a commercial p-type PERC silicon solar cell using Silvaco ATLAS. The device structure employed in this work is based on the solar cell developed and reported by M. Kerr et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The solar cell consists of a 300 µm thick p-type base doped at 5.87 × 10\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e− 3\u003c/sup\u003e and an n-type emitter with a sheet resistance of 115–130 Ω/□. Si\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e is applied to both the front and back surfaces as an anti-reflection coating (ARC) and passivation layer. Shockley-Read-Hall recombination, Klassen bandgap narrowing, and concentration-dependent mobility models were employed in the simulation under AM 1.5 spectral conditions. The characteristics of the simulated solar cell are as follows: fill factor = 0.8066, efficiency = 17.92%, J\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e = 33.12 mA, and V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e = 666 mV. When the simulated model is compared with the experimental metrics, the average percentage difference is less than 0.25%, indicating the reliability of the developed model. All subsequent irradiation simulations use the same device architecture and model, which has been benchmarked against the experimentally fabricated PERC solar cell.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Simulating Displacement Damage","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most widely used techniques for characterizing trap levels in irradiated materials is deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), which provides values for trap density, energy level location within the bandgap, and capture cross-section. However, such experimental methods lack the flexibility to track changes in radiation damage as the design of the photovoltaic device evolves. To overcome this limitation, the present work adopts an approach that does not require lengthy irradiation trials to evaluate and predict radiation damage in solar cells [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis approach relies on the concept of non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL), also known as displacement damage, to determine the total radiation-induced degradation in the cell. The Radiation Effects Module (REM) in the Silvaco ATLAS device simulator incorporates the NIEL model parameters, which are computed using SRIM. The NIEL values depend on the energy of the incident particles and the physical characteristics of the device, such as layer thickness and material density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The density and depth distribution of vacancies generated by different ion energies are discussed in in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo calculate the density of Frenkel pairs, REM requires three additional input parameters in addition to the NIEL values: material density (in g·cm⁻³), incident radiation fluence, and a damage factor. The damage factor is derived by comparing the NF equation used in REM [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] with the theoretical definition of Frenkel pair density (N\u003csub\u003eF\u003c/sub\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\:{\\varvec{N}}_{\\varvec{F}}=\\frac{\\varvec{D}\\varvec{P}\\varvec{A}\\times\\:{\\varvec{N}}_{\\varvec{A}}\\times\\:\\varvec{\\rho\\:}}{\\varvec{A}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Avogadro-constant is represented by N\u003csub\u003eA\u003c/sub\u003e, the mass-number by A, the target material's density by ρ, and the displacement per atom by DPA, which is the amount of lattice vacancies created by the impinging ion and can be computed via SRIM simulations. Radiation damage estimated for Si-based solar cell configuration that has been simulated in the device simulator if all of the REM's input parameters are known.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Avogadro constant is denoted by N\u003csub\u003eA\u003c/sub\u003e ​, the mass number by A, the density of the target material by ρ, and the displacement per atom (DPA) represents the number of lattice vacancies created by the impinging ion. The DPA can be computed using SRIM simulations. Radiation damage in the simulated Si-based solar cell configuration can be estimated using the device simulator, provided that all necessary input parameters for the Radiation Effect Module (REM) are known.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e outlines the steps used to estimate radiation-induced damage through TCAD simulations and the Radiation Effect Module (REM). To evaluate the performance of p-type PERC solar cells after radiation exposure in space, we compare the modeled solar cell parameters before and after exposure to heavy ions in this study. It is worth noting that, after protons and alpha particles, heavy ions are also prevalent in the space environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, heavy ions such as iron and oxygen are selected for this investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to accurately understand the impact of individual ions on solar cells, it is important to tailor their energies such that the projected range is nearly the same. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the NIEL versus solar cell depth for ions with different energies, adjusted to achieve a common projected range (R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e) of approximately 16 µm in all cases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Monte Carlo simulations indicate that the projected range of protons is ~ 20 µm at 1.10 MeV. Different ions have specific Rₚ values in the silicon wafer at different energies; for instance, alpha particles, oxygen, and iron ions have Rₚ values of ~ 20 µm at 4.0, 27.5, 70.0, and 100 MeV, respectively. It is important to note that heavier ions require higher energies to reach similar depths in the same material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure 4 shows the NIEL for different ions and protons at different energies such that the projected range is 80 µm for all the ions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of vacancies produced per ion for different ions, such that their projected range is ~ 20, ~80, ~ 300 and ~ 500 µm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticles/Heavy ions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRp (µm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergies (MeV)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVacancy/ion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProton\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20, 80,300,500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.10, 2.75, 6.0, 8.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18, 23,5,3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAlpha particles\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20, 80, 300,500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0, 10.5, 24, 32.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156, 201,20,15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOxygen ions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20, 80, 300,500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5, 85, 210, 285\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1766, 2090,136,101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIron ions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20, 80, 300,500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100, 425, 700, 985\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15320, 17698, 847, 584\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, higher energies produce a large number of vacancies at specific depths of silicon-based solar cells and have different projected ranges for each type of ions and energy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Effects of Different Heavy Ions’ Irradiations on PERC Solar Cell","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe efficiency of the PERC solar cell degrades after exposure to heavy ion radiation at various energies (MeV) and fluences (cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e). This degradation in electrical performance including efficiency, short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and fill factor is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. As anticipated, the cell\u0026rsquo;s efficiency decreases with increasing irradiation fluence and ceases to produce any useful output when the proton fluence exceeds\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, as reported in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] for 1 MeV protons. It is also observed that heavy ions (O, Ar, and Fe) exhibit similar trends to protons and alpha particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the normalized power efficiency versus fluence for protons and heavy ions, with their energies tailored to induce maximum damage at ~\u0026thinsp;20 \u0026micro;m depth within the solar cell.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, 1.10 MeV protons have the least effect on silicon-based solar cells and show a critical fluence (above which the cell stops producing output) of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e. This is because protons produce the fewest vacancies compared to other ions, even when the projected range is similar, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026mdash;an effect attributed to the lower mass of protons. Similarly, 4 MeV alpha particles with a projected range of 20 \u0026micro;m in silicon have a critical fluence of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, while 100 MeV iron ions and 27.5 MeV oxygen ions, both with projected ranges of 20 \u0026micro;m, result in critical fluences of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe degradation trends seen are consistent with earlier studies on proton and alpha irradiation of Si-based solar cells, where displacement damage is mainly driven by vacancy generation and clustering of defects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Our results extend these findings by demonstrating that higher non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) due to heavy ions such as Fe and O induces a much higher vacancy density at similar projected ranges. This suggests that, despite having a relatively low abundance of heavy ions (~\u0026thinsp;1%) in the near-Earth space environment, their contribution to long-term performance degradation of Si-based solar cells can be significantly large. Therefore, the present findings of considering heavy ion contributions in the overall radiation spectrum of space are important to incorporate, which are often neglected in ground-based radiation tests primarily focusing on protons and electrons only.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtons with an energy of 7 MeV and a projected range (R\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e) of 500 \u0026micro;m have the least effect on silicon-based solar cells, exhibiting a critical fluence of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e. In contrast, 250 MeV oxygen ions with a similar projected range (~\u0026thinsp;80 \u0026micro;m) have a lower critical fluence of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10⁸ and 10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e, respectively, due to their higher mass, which results in greater vacancy production in the silicon lattice. Iron ions have the most pronounced effect on Si-based PERC solar cells because of their significantly higher mass, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. Iron ions with an energy of 1.5 GeV cause maximum efficiency degradation, with a critical fluence of \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Effects of Damage Peak Depth on PERC Solar Cells’ Degradation","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows the effect of protons with different energies (and thus different projected ranges) on the normalized power efficiency of the solar cells. As seen in the figure, protons with higher projected ranges are slightly more detrimental to solar cell performance. This is because, as proton energy increases, defects are created throughout the entire depth of the solar cell, resulting in more significant damage. In contrast, for lower-energy protons, such as 1 MeV, the damage is confined to the first 20 \u0026micro;m of the solar cell depth. A similar trend is observed for helium, iron, and oxygen ions, as shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dependence of degradation over the projected range suggests that both the fluence and the penetration depth of radiation induced defects determine the device reliability. For instance, low energy ions tend to localize damage near the emitter, which strongly affects carrier collection, while high-energy ions distribute defects more uniformly across the base, leading to gradual but cumulative efficiency losses. This finding provides important design insights where optimization of base thickness and selective passivation strategies may reduce the effects of deeply penetrating ions. Similar strategies have previously been proposed in thin-film Si solar cells, where reduced absorber thickness leads to enhanced radiation tolerance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe displacement damage (D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e) curve obtained in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e validates the applicability of the NIEL scaling hypothesis for predicting the degradation of solar cell performance across different particle types and energies. By collapsing diverse irradiation conditions into a single characteristic curve, this approach enables rapid pre-qualification of solar cell designs without the need for exhaustive irradiation campaigns. This is particularly relevant for future space missions where cost and testing time are important constraints. Moreover, the approach opens opportunities to virtually screen advanced cell architectures, such as heterojunction or tandem solar cells, for their radiation tolerance before initiating fabrication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo analyze all the results collectively, the data points in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e are converted from fluence to displacement damage (D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e) by multiplying the fluence with the respective NIEL value of each ion, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e. The D\u003csub\u003ed\u003c/sub\u003e curve is qualitatively consistent with the studies reported in [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. As evident from the figure, all the data points fall on a single characteristic curve, which can be used to evaluate radiation damage in the simulated PERC solar cell for any ion at any energy and fluence without the need for additional simulations or experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the present work demonstrates the utilization of TCAD modeling and simulations in predicting heavy ion irradiation effects, there are still certain limitations. For example, the Radiation Effects Module (REM) of Silvaco TCAD assumes uniform defect generation but does not fully capture complex defect clustering. Moreover, self-annealing effects after the prolonged exposure are not possible to incorporate. Future extensions of the present work could incorporate defect dynamics models and temperature-dependent annealing behavior to provide a more comprehensive reliability forecast. Additionally, the methodology can be extended to explore novel materials such as Ga₂O₃ and SiC, which are gaining attention for space photovoltaics due to their wider bandgaps and potentially superior radiation hardness.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, determining the survivability of solar modules in space requires knowledge of the reliability of solar cells under specific environmental conditions. This work employs TCAD simulations to demonstrate the impact of heavy ion irradiation on the efficiency of a commercially available, simplified PERC silicon-based solar cell. Alpha particles with energies ranging from 10 to 100 MeV are shown to have varying detrimental effects on solar cell efficiency, with iron causing the most degradation compared to oxygen ions. The findings of this study offer new opportunities for optimizing solar panel parameters to enhance their reliability in space applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for the present research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.I. : Data curation, Simulation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draftR. Y. K. : Visualization, SupervisionA. S. : Methodology, Software, Visualization M. U.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Review-original draft, Supervision, Project administration\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data will be made available upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eP. Viebahn, O. Soukup, S. Samadi, J. Teubler, K. Wiesen, and M. Ritthoff, \u0026ldquo;Assessing the need for critical minerals to shift the German energy system towards a high proportion of renewables,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eRenew. Sustain. Energy Rev.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 49, pp. 655\u0026ndash;671, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.070.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. ur Rehman, S. H. Lee, and S. H. Lee, \u0026ldquo;Silicon space solar cells: progression and radiation-resistance analysis,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eJ. Korean Phys. Soc.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 593\u0026ndash;598, 2016, doi: 10.3938/jkps.68.593.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. Fedoseyev and S. 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Available: http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en\u0026amp;btnG=Search\u0026amp;q=intitle:ATLAS+User+\u0026rsquo;+s+Manual#3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eG. Khrypunov, A. Romeo, F. Kurdesau, D. L. B\u0026auml;tzner, H. Zogg, and A. N. Tiwari, \u0026ldquo;Recent developments in evaporated CdTe solar cells,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eSol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 90, no. 6 SPEC. ISS., pp. 664\u0026ndash;677, 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2005.04.003.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. Michael, \u0026ldquo;A novel approach for the modeling of advanced photovoltaic devices using the SILVACO/ATLAS virtual wafer fabrication tools,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eSol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 87, no. 1\u0026ndash;4, pp. 771\u0026ndash;784, 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2004.07.050.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"PERC Solar Cells, TCAD simulations, REM, Heavy Ions, Monte-Carlo simulations, NIEL, Module, Irradiations effects, Space-environment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7453177/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7453177/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe effects of heavy ion irradiation on the electrical properties of passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) silicon solar cells are investigated. The study employs technology computer-aided design (TCAD)-based device simulations using a radiation effect module (REM), which integrates vacancy data from Monte Carlo code-based simulations with device simulations. Furthermore, the non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) phenomenon is incorporated to understand the impact of radiation at various fluence levels and energies encountered in the space environment. The model is used to simulate the irradiation of solar cells with Oxygen (O), Argon (Ar), and Iron (Fe) ions. The solar cell design used in the simulations represents an actual device, with the average difference between simulated and experimental parameters being 0.67, 0.05, 0.03, and 0.19% for efficiency, fill factor, J\u003csub\u003eSC\u003c/sub\u003e, and V\u003csub\u003eOC\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively. The degradation caused by irradiation is primarily due to the loss of efficiency at different ion fluence levels and energies. It is observed that iron is the most detrimental to solar cell performance within the same projected range due to its higher NIEL value. This approach provides new opportunities to investigate novel radiation-tolerant solar cell structures by enabling the qualification of radiation hardness.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Radiation-Induced Defect Modeling and Performance Degradation in PERC Silicon Solar Cells Under Heavy Ion Irradiation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-12 08:27:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7453177/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1d589da9-18f3-46aa-ab9c-8f1261ac73aa","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T14:19:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-12 08:27:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7453177","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7453177","identity":"rs-7453177","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}