Immediate Effects of Specific Warm-Up and Static Stretching on Cardiovascular and Oxygen Consumption Parameters during 5 Km Treadmill Running

Immediate Effects of Specific Warm-Up and Static Stretching on Cardiovascular and Oxygen Consumption Parameters during 5 Km Treadmill Running | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Immediate Effects of Specific Warm-Up and Static Stretching on Cardiovascular and Oxygen Consumption Parameters during 5 Km Treadmill Running Thachawan Limphatcharaporn, Komsak Sinsurin, Prasert Sakulsriprasert, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose of the study: to examine the immediate effect of specific warm-up and static stretching on cardiovascular response and oxygen consumption during a 5 km treadmill run using a randomized controlled trial. Method: twenty active participants were randomly assigned to either a specific warm-up (9 males, 1 female; age 20.20 ± 1.03 years) or static stretching group (7 males, 3 females; age 21.00 ± 1.24 years). The warm-up group performed 10 moderate-intensity movements targeting six major muscles, while the stretching group performed light self-stretching. All participants then ran 5 km on a treadmill at 8.5 km/h. Results: Peak cardiovascular responses were mostly similar, except heart rate, which was significantly higher in the warm-up group (170.50 ± 10.72 bpm) than in the stretching group (156.20 ± 12.44 bpm, p = 0.013). No significant differences were observed in VO₂ kinetics (p > 0.05). Conclusion: Specific warm-up increased heart rate during running, reflecting a cardiovascular response without substantial changes in cardiac output, suggesting that overall oxygen delivery was not markedly altered. Although VO₂ kinetics did not differ significantly between conditions, specific warm-up may facilitate a fast component of oxygen uptake, likely reflecting enhanced peripheral oxygen. Trial registration: This study was registered at the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20230109001), approved on 9 January 2023. Available at: https://www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20230109001 specific warm-up cardiovascular oxygen consumption running Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 INTRODUCTION Warm-up is a fundamental component of athletic preparation, serving to enhance physiological readiness, improve psychological focus, and reduce the risk of sports-related injuries ( 1 – 3 ). Among the various warm-up strategies, specific warm-ups have considerable attention in recent years. According to McArdle et al. ( 4 ), specific warm-ups consist of rhythmic, sport-related movements that engage large muscle groups to enhance performance. These movements are designed to activate the primary muscles required for a particular activity by mimicking its functional and neuromuscular demands ( 5 ). Warm-ups may involve single or combined movements incorporating strength, plyometric, and balance components to optimize neuromuscular performance ( 6 – 8 ). The performance effects of specific warm-ups have been well documented. Resistance-trained individuals have demonstrated improved vertical jump performance following warm-ups that include box jumps ( 6 ). Submaximal half-squat activity has produced a 2.39% improvement in vertical jump ability ( 9 ), while dynamic leg-movement warm-ups have enhanced vertical and long jump performance in baseball athletes ( 7 ). Sprint-specific warm-ups have also been shown to improve short-distance sprinting performance ( 8 ). These improvements are commonly attributed to the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) mechanism, which reflects an acute increase in skeletal muscle contractility following prior voluntary contractions ( 10 ). Electromyographic studies have demonstrated increases in twitch force and torque following both isometric and dynamic contractions, supporting the role of neuromuscular potentiation in enhancing explosive movements. ( 11 ). Static stretching represents another widely used warm-up method, typically performed by holding a joint at its end range of motion for a sustained duration ( 12 ). Whether performed actively or passively, static stretching is known to improve flexibility and reduce musculotendinous stiffness through alterations in viscoelastic properties ( 13 ). However, accumulating evidence has shown that static stretching may acutely impair muscle performance. This phenomenon—referred to as stretching-induced force deficit—has been associated with reductions in strength, power output, and neuromuscular activation ( 6 , 13 – 15 ). These deficits are commonly attributed to disruptions in the length–tension relationship and decreased cross-bridge formation resulting from excessive sarcomere elongation. While the muscular and neuromuscular effects of specific warm-ups and static stretching have been well established, far fewer studies have examined their physiological influence on cardiovascular responses and exercise economy-factors that are highly relevant to endurance performance. Previous research has primarily focused on short-term outcomes related to force production, power, and neuromuscular activation, with only limited evidence addressing how these warm-up strategies modulate cardiac function or oxygen utilization during prolonged exercise. To better understand how these warm-up strategies affect endurance exercise, this study aimed to examine the acute effects of specific warm-up and static stretching on cardiac function and VO₂ during constant-speed running, with particular emphasis on their influence on 5-kilometer performance. METHODS Experimental approach to the problem This study aimed to compare the effect of specific and static stretching warm-ups protocols on the treadmill running performance over a 5-kilmeter distance at a constant speed. A simple randomized experimental study design with a between-groups comparison was employed. The independent variables included physiological responses such as time to peak VO 2 in the fast component, peak VO 2 in the fast and slow component, and cardiovascular response parameters including heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume. Participants were recruited between July-December 2020. Participants Healthy recreational runners were voluntarily recruited for this study. Twenty runners capable of continuously completing a 5-kilometer run at a pace 7-7.5 min/km were randomly assigned to either the specific warm-up and static stretching group using simple random sampling. Participants had no history of systemic diseases, musculoskeletal disorder, or any medical contraindications to exercise. No additional interventions or concomitant care were provided during the study. The sample size was calculated using a formula for comparing two independent means based on a previous study by Hajoglou et al. ( 27 ). Using an expected mean difference (Δ) of 0.63, standard deviations of 0.56 and 0.35, a significance level of 0.05 (two-tailed), and a statistical power of 80%, the required sample size was calculated to be 9 participants per group. Considering potential dropout, the sample size was increased to 10 participants per group. In the specific warm-up group consisted of nine males and one female with a mean age of 20.20 ± 1.03 years, body mass of 61.60 ± 9.14 kg, and height of 171.70 ± 8.55 cm. The static stretching group consisted of seven males and three females with a mean age of 21.00 ± 1.24 years, body mass of 59.30 ± 4.96 kg, and height of 168.30 ± 4.96 cm. Ethical Considerations All participants provided written informed consent after receiving a clear explanation of the study protocol, potential risks, and discomforts. The study was approved by the Mahidol University Central Institutional Review Board (MU-CIRB), Thailand (protocol no. MU-CIRB 2020/074.2003; COA no. MU-CIRB 2020/060.2204). The trial protocol and statistical analysis plan are available at the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20230109001). Experimental conditions All testing sessions were conducted in a controlled laboratory environment at Faculty of physical therapy, Mahidol University, Thailand, at the same time of day, with room temperature maintained at 25°C. Participants were instructed to abstain from alcohol and caffeine for at least 24 hours before testing. They were also advised to refrain from eating and consuming carbonated beverages for a minimum of 2 hours and to avoid vigorous physical activity for 24 hours prior to testing. During all assessments, participants wore standard sports attire consisting of a T-shirt, shorts, and running shoes. Warm-up intervention Participants were randomly assigned to either the specific warm-up or static stretching group using a simple randomization method (drawing lots). Participants were enrolled and assigned to the intervention groups by the researcher. Blinding of participants and investigators was not feasible due to the nature of the intervention. All warm-up sessions were conducted under researcher supervision, and participants followed a standardized video demonstration to ensure consistency. Each warm-up protocol lasted 10 minutes, followed by a 10-minute seated rest period prior to the running test. Specific warm-up The specific warm-up was developed based on dynamic movements without jumping. A pilot study indicated that this protocol elicited moderate exercise intensity, corresponding to approximately 60–65% of maximal heart rate. The protocol consisted of eight movements (presented in Table 1 ): adapted high-knee, left and right-side leg raises, adapted jumping jack, front-step running, left and right reverse lunges, side-step running, adapted butt-kicking, and a non-plyometric squat jack with floor touch. Each movement was performed for 40 seconds followed by a 20-second rest interval. Table 1 Specific warm-up position description Specific warm-up Description 1. Adapted high knee Participants stood with feet hip-width apart, lifted one leg to ~ 90° hip and knee flexion while raising the opposite arm for balance, and alternated sides. 2. Side leg raise Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and slight knee flexion, lifted one leg laterally while maintaining balance, and alternated sides. 3. Adapted jumping jack Participants stood with feet together, stepped one foot laterally while raising both arms overhead, and alternated sides. 4. Front-step running Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one foot forward followed by the other, then returned to the starting position and repeated the movement in a continuous. 5. Reverse lunge Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, with hands positioned at chest level, stepped one foot backward, flexed the front knee to ~ 90° while lowering the back knee toward the ground, then returned to the starting position and alternated sides 6. Side-step running Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one foot laterally followed by the other, then returned to the starting position and repeated the movement 7. Adapted butt-kicking Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, lifted one heel toward the glutes by flexing the knee, then returned to the starting position and alternated sides in a continuous, controlled manner. 8. No plyometric squat jack with floor touch Participants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one leg laterally, lowered into a squat to approximately parallel thigh position, returned to standing, then performed three quick running steps in place and alternated sides. Static stretching protocol Participants assigned to the static stretching group performed self-administered lower-limb stretches as outlined in Table 2 . The stretching positions targeted major muscle groups of the lower extremities, including the hip flexors, hip extensors, hip adductors, knee flexors, knee extensors, and calf muscles. Each muscle group was stretched for 50 seconds to the point of mild discomfort but without pain. A 10-second rest period was provided after each stretch before transitioning from the left to the right side or moving to the next muscle group. All stretches were performed bilaterally, beginning with the dominant limb. The total duration of the stretching protocol was approximately 10 minutes. Table 2 Each stretching position description Stretching Description 1. Hip flexor stretch Participants assumed a lunge position with the rear knee on the floor, adjusted the back leg distance, and shifted the body forward until a stretch was felt in the hip flexors, then held the position. 2. Hip/glute stretch Participants sat with legs extended, crossed one leg over the opposite knee with the foot on the floor, pulled the knee toward the chest until a stretch was felt in the hip extensors, and held the position. 3. Hip adductor stretch Participants assumed a lunge position with the rear knee on the floor, adjusted the back leg distance, and shifted the body forward until a stretch was felt in the hip flexors, then held the position. 4. Hamstring stretch Participants sat with legs extended, maintained a straight back, reached forward toward the toes until a stretch was felt in the hamstrings, and held the position. 5. Quadriceps stretch Participants stood with one hand on a wall for balance, flexed one knee and grasped the ankle, raised the heel toward the glutes until a stretch was felt in the quadriceps, and held the position. 6. Calf stretch Participants stood with one arm against a wall, extended one leg backward with the heel on the ground, adjusted the position until a stretch was felt in the calf muscles, and held the position. Running performance evaluation The running performance was assessed using a treadmill-based protocol simulating a 5-kilometer run at a constant pace of 7.0 min/km on a motorized treadmill (FullVision, TrackMaster Model: TMX425CP, USA). The protocol consisted of three phases: acceleration, constant speed, and deceleration. Acceleration Phase : The treadmill speed increased from 0.9 km/hr to 8.5 km/hr over 1 minute. Speed increments occurred every 20 seconds, progressing from 0.9 → 3.5 km/hr, 3.5 → 6.0 km/hr, and 6.0 → 8.5 km/hr. Constant Speed Phase : Following acceleration, participants maintained a constant running speed of 7.0 or 8.5 km/hr from minute 1 until completing the 5-kilometer distance. The duration of the constant-speed phase was 35 minutes. Deceleration Phase : After completing the distance, treadmill speed was reduced from 8.5 km/hr to 0.9 km/hr over 1 minute, following the same decrement pattern as the acceleration phase. Participants were instructed to refrain from drinking water during the running performance test. All treadmill trials were performed without incline adjustments (0% grade). Measurement A non-invasive cardiac output monitor (PhysioFlow® PF07 Enduro™ system, Manatec Biomedical, France) was used to measure heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output. Six ECG electrodes were placed on the neck and thoracic regions according to the manufacturer’s guideline. The PhysioFlow® portable unit was positioned at the participant’s waist using a secured strap, and all electrode cables were reinforced to minimize movement artifacts. System calibration was performed prior to data collection Cardiovascular response was recorded at 5-seconds interval throughout both the warm-up interventions and the treadmill running test. The peak value of heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output were identified as the highest point observed readings during the running test. For analysis, each time point of cardiovascular and VO 2 data was averaged from three consecutive data points to reduce variability. VO 2 kinetics variables were obtained during the treadmill running test using a portable breath-by-breath metabolic analyzer (Oxycon™ mobile, Vyaire Medical, USA). During the 10-minute pre-test resting period, participants were fitted with the gas analysis system, including O₂ and CO₂ analyzers and the transmitter unit secured to the upper trunk via a shoulder harness. A face mask covering the nose and mouth was used to collect expired gases. Gas analyzers were calibrated before each measurement session. VO₂ data were recorded at 5-second intervals during the entire running protocol. In this study, the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was used to indirectly distinguish between the fast and slow components of VO₂ kinetics. Following Molé and Hoffmann ( 16 ), lower RER values (< 1.0) were interpreted as reflecting predominantly aerobic metabolism and were therefore associated with the fast component, whereas higher RER values and greater carbohydrate oxidation were considered to reflect the slow component. Peak VO₂ in the fast component was defined as the highest VO₂ value observed during periods when RER remained below 1.0, while peak VO₂ in the slow component was defined as the highest value observed during the later stage of the running protocol. For consistency, cardiovascular and VO₂ measurements were calculated as the mean of three consecutive data points. No adverse events or harms were observed during the study. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version 22.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. For normally distributed variables, between-group differences were analyzed using an independent t-test, whereas the Mann–Whitney U test was applied for non-normally distributed data. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval. All analyses were conducted using data from participants who completed the study. No missing data were observed. This study was conducted and reported in accordance with the CONSORT 2010 guidelines for randomized controlled trials (Fig. 1 .). RESULTS Participant Characteristics All 20 participants were randomized, completed the intervention, and were included in the final analysis, with no exclusions after randomization. All participants adhered to the assigned warm-up protocols under researcher supervision, and no deviations from the planned intervention were observed. Participant characteristics are presented in Table 3. Anthropometric variables are expressed as mean ± standard deviation and were compared between groups using an independent t-test, except for height, which was analyzed using the Mann–Whitney U test. No significant differences were observed between the specific warm-up and static stretching groups for any baseline characteristics ( p > 0.05). Table 3. Participant characteristics. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Characteristics Specific warm-up Static stretching p -value Gender Male (n) Female (n) Age (years) Weight (kg) Height (cm) BMI (km/m 2 ) Heart rate (bpm) Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 9 1 20.20 ± 1.03 61.60 ± 9.14 171.70 ± 8.55 20.79 ± 1.62 75.20 ± 10.51 115.80 ± 12.70 66.80 ± 9.01 7 3 21.00 ± 1.24 59.30 ± 4.96 168.30 ± 4.96 20.91 ± 1.17 71.0 ± 8.12 112.20 ± 7.89 66.20 ± 5.07 0.136 a 0.494 a 0.291 b 0.852 a 0.331 a 0.130 a 0.857 a a calculated using independent t -test. b calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test. Cardiovascular variables Peak cardiovascular responses during the treadmill running test are summarized in Table 4. The specific warm-up group demonstrated a significantly higher peak heart rate compared with the static stretching group ( p = 0.013). Although peak stroke volume was lower in the specific warm-up group than in the static stretching group, this difference was not statistically significant ( p > 0.05). Peak cardiac output was higher in the specific warm-up group; however, the difference was also not statistically significant ( p > 0.05). Table 4. Peak cardiovascular responses during the 5-km treadmill running test following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Parameters during running Specific warm-up Static stretching p -value Peak HR (bpm) Peak SV (ml/min) Peak CO (l/min) 170.50 ± 10.72 125.67 ± 21.91 21.390 ± 3.548 156.20 ± 12.44 128.26 ± 17.87 19.92 ± 2.518 0.013* 0.775 0.300 Statistically significant difference at p < 0.05 (independent t-test). Units of measurement: beats per minute (bpm), milliliters per minute (mL/min), and liters per minute (L/min). Figure 2 illustrates the time-course changes in cardiovascular variables throughout the 5-kilometer treadmill run for both groups. Heart rate differed significantly between groups immediately after the warm-up intervention ( p = 0.000) and at the end of the running test (35th minute) ( p = 0.013), based on independent t -test results. In contrast, there were no significant between-group differences in the development of stroke volume or cardiac output at any time point during the running test ( p > 0.05). Figure 2. Time-course changes in cardiovascular variables during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean ± SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) indicates a statistically significant between-group difference at p < 0.05. Units of measurement are beats per minute (bpm), milliliters per minute (mL/min), and liters per minute (L/min). Oxygen consumption variables Baseline VO₂ measured during the 1-minute period prior to the running test did not differ significantly between the warm-up conditions. The time required to reach peak VO₂ in the fast component during the run was shorter following the specific warm-up compared with static stretching; however, this difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, peak VO₂ in the fast component was slightly higher after the specific warm-up, but no significant between-group differences were observed ( Table 5 ). In addition, no significant differences were found in the slow component of VO₂ between the specific warm-up and static stretching groups. Table 5. Oxygen consumption kinetics during the 5-km treadmill running test in the specific warm-up and static stretching groups. Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Parameters during running Specific warm-up Static stretching p -value Baseline 1 min of VO 2 (ml/min/kg) Time to peak VO 2 in fast component (min) Peak VO 2 in the fast component (ml/min/kg) Peak VO 2 in the slow component (ml/min/kg) 5.61 ± 1.93 3.73 ± 0.92 28.37 ± 3.24 31.98 ± 3.70 4.66 ± 0.89 4.11 ± 0.85 26.76 ± 3.66 31.97 ± 3.39 0.174 a 0.165 b 0.313 a 0.997 a a calculated using an independent t -test. b calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test. Figure 3 illustrates the VO₂ responses throughout the 5-kilometer treadmill running test. A significant difference between the warm-up conditions was observed at the 3rd minute of running ( p = 0.009), based on the independent t-test. No significant differences were detected between groups at any other time point. Figure 3. Oxygen consumption kinetics during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean ± SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) denotes a statistically significant between-group difference at p < 0.05. DISCUSSION Regarding cardiovascular responses, the specific warm-up reveals a significantly higher peak heart rate during the 5-km treadmill run, whereas peak stroke volume and peak cardiac output did not differ between the intervention groups. This cardiovascular response may be explained by enhancement of autonomic nervous system, particularly increased sympathetic activation ( 17 ). It is possible that the dynamic movements involved in the specific warm-up stimulated intramuscular mechanoreceptors ( 18 ) and metaboreceptors ( 18 ), leading to increased sympathetic drive and vagal withdrawal. This response may be attributed to a priming effect by an increased heart rate ( 19 , 20 ) and an acceleration of VO₂ kinetic ( 20 ) prior to exercise. Although the specific warm-up was performed at a moderate intensity (~ 65% HRmax), the total duration of the warm-up (10 minutes) was likely insufficient to substantially increase venous return or to fully activate the skeletal muscle pump. As a result, ventricular preload may not have increased sufficiently to build up stroke volume. In addition, the elevated heart rate response may have reduced diastolic filling time, leading to a limitation in further increases in stroke volume ( 21 , 22 ). Accordingly, the peak stroke volume response in this study showed a slight decrease during running following the specific warm-up. These findings are consistent with those of Fritzsche et al., who reported that prolonged moderate-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in heart rate accompanied by a reduction in stroke volume ( 21 ). Furthermore, the treadmill running protocol was conducted at a constant speed without incline adjustment, indicating a steady external workload throughout the 35-minute running test. Under such conditions, cardiac afterload is unlikely to increase progressively, which may explain the absence of significant differences in stroke volume and cardiac output between warm-up protocols. As illustrated in Fig. 2 , the time-course analysis of cardiovascular variables demonstrated a consistently higher heart rate following the specific warm-up throughout the running test. This pattern suggests that, in the present study, heart rate functioned as the primary cardiovascular adjustment to the specific warm-up, whereas stroke volume and cardiac output remained relatively unchanged during prolonged constant-speed running. Although the results demonstrated an increase in heart rate as a part of the cardiovascular response, these changes do not necessarily indicate that the VO₂ responses were primarily driven by central oxygen delivery. This may be explained by the absence of significant differences in cardiac output between conditions, likely due to the compensatory interaction between increased heart rate and reduced stroke volume. Instead, the alterations trend of VO₂ variables may reflect peripheral adjustments in intramuscular oxygen utilization. Regarding the fast component of VO₂ kinetics, the shorter time-to-peak VO₂ observed in the specific warm-up group suggests a trend toward a more rapid transition from anaerobic energy contribution at exercise onset to oxidative metabolism. This accelerated adjustment may facilitate a more rapid transition to steady-state oxidative metabolism during exercise. These findings are consistent with De Roia et al. ( 20 ), who demonstrated that high-intensity warm-up accelerates oxidative metabolism by reducing the time constant of the fast component of VO₂ kinetics. Their study attributed this response to enhanced local oxygen extraction, as indicated by muscle deoxygenation patterns. Additionally, the higher peak VO₂ observed in the fast component following the specific warm-up may indicate enhanced oxygen utilization within the working muscles. Similarly, Burnley et al. ( 19 ) reported an increased amplitude of the VO₂ fast component during heavy exercise following prior warm-up, suggesting that warm-up protocols may prime oxidative metabolism. This response may reflect greater motor unit recruitment during the initial phase of exercise. Alterations in the VO₂ slow component are typically associated with exercise intensity ( 23 ), motor unit recruitment ( 24 ), and increased metabolic cost related to fatigue processes ( 25 , 26 ). In the present study, the running protocol was performed at a constant speed and moderate intensity without incline adjustments, which likely limited the progressive recruitment of additional motor units. Consequently, although the specific warm-up may enhance early-phase oxidative metabolism, it does not appear to substantially influence the development of the VO₂ slow component under these conditions. Although the present study included a priori sample size calculation and demonstrated an adequate sample for the primary analysis, the relatively small sample size and homogeneous participant characteristics may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations, such as older adults, elite athletes, or individuals with clinical conditions. In addition, the use of indirect methods to characterize VO₂ kinetics may limit the precision of physiological interpretation. Future studies should compare specific warm-up protocols with a broader range of warm-up strategies, such as running drill protocols. CONCLUSION The specific warm-up protocol in this study may have induced a priming effect on the cardiovascular system, thereby preparing the body for subsequent running exercise. This effect was primarily reflected in an increase in heart rate, whereas cardiac output did not appear to change substantially, suggesting that overall oxygen delivery remained relatively stable. These findings suggest that such central adaptations may not play a dominant role in determining VO₂ kinetics. Instead, VO₂ kinetics may be more strongly influenced by peripheral mechanisms, particularly in the fast component, which likely reflects factors such as mitochondrial activation, oxidative enzyme activity, and oxygen extraction capacity. Declarations Ethics approval This study was approved by the Mahidol University Central Institutional Review Board (MU-CIRB), Thailand (protocol no. MU-CIRB 2020/074.2003; COA no. MU-CIRB 2020/060.2204). The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were recreational runners capable of completing a continuous 5-km treadmill run and provided written informed consent prior to participation. Consent for publication Not applicable. Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, conduct, reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Use of artificial intelligence (AI) tools The authors independently drafted the original manuscript and subsequently used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve language, sentence structure, and clarity. All content was critically reviewed and approved by the authors, who take full responsibility for the final version of the manuscript. No AI tools were used to generate primary data, perform analyses, or draw scientific conclusions. Funding No specific funding was received for this study from any public, commercial, or not-for-profit organizations. Author Contribution Author Contributions:T.L. designed the study, performed conceptualization and methodology, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript.K.S. contributed to study design, conceptualization, and methodology.P.S. contributed to study design, conceptualization, and methodology.W.K. contributed to study design, conceptualization, methodology, and data analysis.All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank all participants who volunteered for this study. The authors also express their sincere appreciation to the staff and colleagues at the Faculty of Physical Therapy, Mahidol University, for their assistance throughout the research process. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions. However, de-identified participant data, the data dictionary, statistical code, and additional materials are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Bishop D. Warm up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm up on exercise performance. Sports Med. 2003;33(6):439–54. Needham RA, Morse CI, Degens H. The acute effect of different warm-up protocols on anaerobic performance in elite youth soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(9):2614–20. Girard O, Carbonnel Y, Candau R, Millet G. Running versus strength-based warm-up: acute effects on isometric knee extension function. 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Effects of priming exercise on the speed of adjustment of muscle oxidative metabolism at the onset of moderate-intensity step transitions in older adults. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;302(10):R1158–66. Fritzsche RG, Switzer TW, Hodgkinson BJ, Coyle EF. Stroke volume decline during prolonged exercise is influenced by the increase in heart rate. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;86(3):799–805. Stöhr EJ, González-Alonso J, Shave R. Left ventricular mechanical limitations to stroke volume in healthy humans during incremental exercise. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011;301(2):H478–87. Jones AM, Grassi B, Christensen PM, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J, Poole DC. Slow component of VO₂ kinetics: mechanistic bases and practical applications. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(11):2046–62. Borrani F, Candau R, Millet GY, Perrey S, Fuchslocher J, Rouillon JD. Is the VO₂ slow component dependent on progressive recruitment of fast-twitch fibers in trained runners? J Appl Physiol (1985). 2001;90(6):2212–2220. Wüst RCI, McDonald JR, Sun Y, Ferguson BS, Rogatzki MJ, Spires J, et al. Slowed muscle oxygen uptake kinetics with raised metabolism are not dependent on blood flow or recruitment dynamics. J Physiol. 2014;592(8):1857–71. Cannon DT, White AC, Andriano MF, Kolkhorst FW, Rossiter HB. Skeletal muscle fatigue precedes the slow component of oxygen uptake kinetics during exercise in humans. J Physiol. 2010;589(Pt 3):727–39. Hajoglou A, Foster C, De Koning JJ, Lucia A, Kernozek TW, Porcari JP. Effect of warm-up on cycle time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(9):1608–14. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 30 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 21 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 21 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 20 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 20 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9399762","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":631028759,"identity":"973a1d91-9c1a-42a6-a788-8559097aa79e","order_by":0,"name":"Thachawan Limphatcharaporn","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mahidol University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thachawan","middleName":"","lastName":"Limphatcharaporn","suffix":""},{"id":631028760,"identity":"87a0a014-9a9b-4ba9-96a4-6469d2c16363","order_by":1,"name":"Komsak Sinsurin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mahidol University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Komsak","middleName":"","lastName":"Sinsurin","suffix":""},{"id":631028761,"identity":"fa87c187-644b-48da-a29c-29c32d2f8eca","order_by":2,"name":"Prasert Sakulsriprasert","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mahidol University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prasert","middleName":"","lastName":"Sakulsriprasert","suffix":""},{"id":631028762,"identity":"7f7a7d74-bbf4-49c0-a3b0-a3025c268e53","order_by":3,"name":"Watesinee Kaewkhuntee","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABG0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACAxDBBsQVQDYzkPsALMyDQzkzspYzUC0JYAF8WhigWhjbwNrxazE4fv7gwx8Fd+T4GdgSP3yct03enJ1544MEBjt5BvneA1i1nElmNuYxeGYs2cB2WHLmttuGO5vZig0SGJING9j4ErBpMTuQzCbNYHA4ccMB9gZp3m23GTcc5jGTSGBgTgA6zACrlvOP2X/+MDhcv/8Ae/Pvv3Nu20O11OPWciOZjYHH4HCCAQPbMWnGhtuJUC2HcWqxv/HYWBqoxXDGYbY0y55jt5M3HAb5xeC4YRtbDlYtkv2JDz/++HNYnr+9zfjGj5rbthvOH9744ENFtTw/8xmsWhCAGYVnAInaUTAKRsEoGAXkAQAWMFyO9gI+KwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Mahidol University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Watesinee","middleName":"","lastName":"Kaewkhuntee","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-13 06:53:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108804548,"identity":"0d389ff0-f2d1-4d29-8ef5-699800d3e1ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:21:31","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67333,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCONSORT flow diagram of participant progression through the randomized controlled trial.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9399762/v1/0ca6582bd10c9eca3ecaa00e.png"},{"id":108388978,"identity":"ecef2bfb-26c8-4af4-b9dd-074daec3bc77","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 06:44:57","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":159300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime-course changes in cardiovascular variables during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean ± SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) indicates a statistically significant between-group difference at p \u0026lt; 0.05. Units of measurement are beats per minute (bpm), milliliters per minute (mL/min), and liters per minute (L/min).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9399762/v1/66a244c8db381cb1478c77f9.png"},{"id":108388979,"identity":"0e7a4a2f-3275-4fa1-a622-114e0560f1e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-04 06:44:57","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":94177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOxygen consumption kinetics during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean ± SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) denotes a statistically significant between-group difference at p \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9399762/v1/34867f53ef2b64920110ba3e.png"},{"id":108809335,"identity":"05352cc1-9d44-4c82-9b06-611c552b5951","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:52:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":568146,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9399762/v1/05274fa4-eaab-41f8-a06d-8ac4d64d7d22.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Immediate Effects of Specific Warm-Up and Static Stretching on Cardiovascular and Oxygen Consumption Parameters during 5 Km Treadmill Running","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWarm-up is a fundamental component of athletic preparation, serving to enhance physiological readiness, improve psychological focus, and reduce the risk of sports-related injuries (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Among the various warm-up strategies, specific warm-ups have considerable attention in recent years. According to McArdle et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), specific warm-ups consist of rhythmic, sport-related movements that engage large muscle groups to enhance performance. These movements are designed to activate the primary muscles required for a particular activity by mimicking its functional and neuromuscular demands (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Warm-ups may involve single or combined movements incorporating strength, plyometric, and balance components to optimize neuromuscular performance (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe performance effects of specific warm-ups have been well documented. Resistance-trained individuals have demonstrated improved vertical jump performance following warm-ups that include box jumps (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Submaximal half-squat activity has produced a 2.39% improvement in vertical jump ability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e), while dynamic leg-movement warm-ups have enhanced vertical and long jump performance in baseball athletes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Sprint-specific warm-ups have also been shown to improve short-distance sprinting performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). These improvements are commonly attributed to the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) mechanism, which reflects an acute increase in skeletal muscle contractility following prior voluntary contractions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Electromyographic studies have demonstrated increases in twitch force and torque following both isometric and dynamic contractions, supporting the role of neuromuscular potentiation in enhancing explosive movements. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatic stretching represents another widely used warm-up method, typically performed by holding a joint at its end range of motion for a sustained duration (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Whether performed actively or passively, static stretching is known to improve flexibility and reduce musculotendinous stiffness through alterations in viscoelastic properties (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). However, accumulating evidence has shown that static stretching may acutely impair muscle performance. This phenomenon\u0026mdash;referred to as stretching-induced force deficit\u0026mdash;has been associated with reductions in strength, power output, and neuromuscular activation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). These deficits are commonly attributed to disruptions in the length\u0026ndash;tension relationship and decreased cross-bridge formation resulting from excessive sarcomere elongation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the muscular and neuromuscular effects of specific warm-ups and static stretching have been well established, far fewer studies have examined their physiological influence on cardiovascular responses and exercise economy-factors that are highly relevant to endurance performance. Previous research has primarily focused on short-term outcomes related to force production, power, and neuromuscular activation, with only limited evidence addressing how these warm-up strategies modulate cardiac function or oxygen utilization during prolonged exercise. To better understand how these warm-up strategies affect endurance exercise, this study aimed to examine the acute effects of specific warm-up and static stretching on cardiac function and VO₂ during constant-speed running, with particular emphasis on their influence on 5-kilometer performance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental approach to the problem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to compare the effect of specific and static stretching warm-ups protocols on the treadmill running performance over a 5-kilmeter distance at a constant speed. A simple randomized experimental study design with a between-groups comparison was employed. The independent variables included physiological responses such as time to peak VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the fast component, peak VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the fast and slow component, and cardiovascular response parameters including heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume. Participants were recruited between July-December 2020.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHealthy recreational runners were voluntarily recruited for this study. Twenty runners capable of continuously completing a 5-kilometer run at a pace 7-7.5 min/km were randomly assigned to either the specific warm-up and static stretching group using simple random sampling. Participants had no history of systemic diseases, musculoskeletal disorder, or any medical contraindications to exercise. No additional interventions or concomitant care were provided during the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample size was calculated using a formula for comparing two independent means based on a previous study by Hajoglou et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Using an expected mean difference (Δ) of 0.63, standard deviations of 0.56 and 0.35, a significance level of 0.05 (two-tailed), and a statistical power of 80%, the required sample size was calculated to be 9 participants per group. Considering potential dropout, the sample size was increased to 10 participants per group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the specific warm-up group consisted of nine males and one female with a mean age of 20.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.03 years, body mass of 61.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.14 kg, and height of 171.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.55 cm. The static stretching group consisted of seven males and three females with a mean age of 21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.24 years, body mass of 59.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.96 kg, and height of 168.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.96 cm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e All participants provided written informed consent after receiving a clear explanation of the study protocol, potential risks, and discomforts. The study was approved by the Mahidol University Central Institutional Review Board (MU-CIRB), Thailand (protocol no. MU-CIRB 2020/074.2003; COA no. MU-CIRB 2020/060.2204). The trial protocol and statistical analysis plan are available at the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20230109001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental conditions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll testing sessions were conducted in a controlled laboratory environment at Faculty of physical therapy, Mahidol University, Thailand, at the same time of day, with room temperature maintained at 25\u0026deg;C. Participants were instructed to abstain from alcohol and caffeine for at least 24 hours before testing. They were also advised to refrain from eating and consuming carbonated beverages for a minimum of 2 hours and to avoid vigorous physical activity for 24 hours prior to testing. During all assessments, participants wore standard sports attire consisting of a T-shirt, shorts, and running shoes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWarm-up intervention\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were randomly assigned to either the specific warm-up or static stretching group using a simple randomization method (drawing lots). Participants were enrolled and assigned to the intervention groups by the researcher. Blinding of participants and investigators was not feasible due to the nature of the intervention. All warm-up sessions were conducted under researcher supervision, and participants followed a standardized video demonstration to ensure consistency. Each warm-up protocol lasted 10 minutes, followed by a 10-minute seated rest period prior to the running test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSpecific warm-up\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific warm-up was developed based on dynamic movements without jumping. A pilot study indicated that this protocol elicited moderate exercise intensity, corresponding to approximately 60\u0026ndash;65% of maximal heart rate. The protocol consisted of eight movements (presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e): adapted high-knee, left and right-side leg raises, adapted jumping jack, front-step running, left and right reverse lunges, side-step running, adapted butt-kicking, and a non-plyometric squat jack with floor touch. Each movement was performed for 40 seconds followed by a 20-second rest interval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific warm-up position description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific warm-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Adapted high knee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026nbsp;stood with feet hip-width apart, lifted one leg to ~\u0026thinsp;90\u0026deg; hip and knee flexion while raising the opposite arm for balance, and alternated sides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Side leg raise\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and slight knee flexion, lifted one leg laterally while maintaining balance, and alternated sides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Adapted jumping jack\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026nbsp;stood with feet together, stepped one foot laterally while raising both arms overhead, and alternated sides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Front-step running\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one foot forward followed by the other, then returned to the starting position and repeated the movement in a continuous.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Reverse lunge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, with hands positioned at chest level, stepped one foot backward, flexed the front knee to ~\u0026thinsp;90\u0026deg; while lowering the back knee toward the ground, then returned to the starting position and alternated sides\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Side-step running\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one foot laterally followed by the other, then returned to the starting position and repeated the movement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Adapted butt-kicking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, lifted one heel toward the glutes by flexing the knee, then returned to the starting position and alternated sides in a continuous, controlled manner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. No plyometric squat jack with floor touch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with feet hip-width apart and a straight back, stepped one leg laterally, lowered into a squat to approximately parallel thigh position, returned to standing, then performed three quick running steps in place and alternated sides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatic stretching protocol\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants assigned to the static stretching group performed self-administered lower-limb stretches as outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The stretching positions targeted major muscle groups of the lower extremities, including the hip flexors, hip extensors, hip adductors, knee flexors, knee extensors, and calf muscles. Each muscle group was stretched for 50 seconds to the point of mild discomfort but without pain. A 10-second rest period was provided after each stretch before transitioning from the left to the right side or moving to the next muscle group. All stretches were performed bilaterally, beginning with the dominant limb. The total duration of the stretching protocol was approximately 10 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach stretching position description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStretching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Hip flexor stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants assumed a lunge position with the rear knee on the floor, adjusted the back leg distance, and shifted the body forward until a stretch was felt in the hip flexors, then held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Hip/glute stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants sat with legs extended, crossed one leg over the opposite knee with the foot on the floor, pulled the knee toward the chest until a stretch was felt in the hip extensors, and held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Hip adductor stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants assumed a lunge position with the rear knee on the floor, adjusted the back leg distance, and shifted the body forward until a stretch was felt in the hip flexors, then held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Hamstring stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants sat with legs extended, maintained a straight back, reached forward toward the toes until a stretch was felt in the hamstrings, and held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Quadriceps stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with one hand on a wall for balance, flexed one knee and grasped the ankle, raised the heel toward the glutes until a stretch was felt in the quadriceps, and held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Calf stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants stood with one arm against a wall, extended one leg backward with the heel on the ground, adjusted the position until a stretch was felt in the calf muscles, and held the position.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRunning performance evaluation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe running performance was assessed using a treadmill-based protocol simulating a 5-kilometer run at a constant pace of 7.0 min/km on a motorized treadmill (FullVision, TrackMaster Model: TMX425CP, USA). The protocol consisted of three phases: acceleration, constant speed, and deceleration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAcceleration Phase\u003c/em\u003e: The treadmill speed increased from 0.9 km/hr to 8.5 km/hr over 1 minute. Speed increments occurred every 20 seconds, progressing from 0.9 \u0026rarr; 3.5 km/hr, 3.5 \u0026rarr; 6.0 km/hr, and 6.0 \u0026rarr; 8.5 km/hr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eConstant Speed Phase\u003c/em\u003e: Following acceleration, participants maintained a constant running speed of 7.0 or 8.5 km/hr from minute 1 until completing the 5-kilometer distance. The duration of the constant-speed phase was 35 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eDeceleration Phase\u003c/em\u003e: After completing the distance, treadmill speed was reduced from 8.5 km/hr to 0.9 km/hr over 1 minute, following the same decrement pattern as the acceleration phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were instructed to refrain from drinking water during the running performance test. All treadmill trials were performed without incline adjustments (0% grade).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA non-invasive cardiac output monitor (PhysioFlow\u0026reg; PF07 Enduro\u0026trade; system, Manatec Biomedical, France) was used to measure heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output. Six ECG electrodes were placed on the neck and thoracic regions according to the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s guideline. The PhysioFlow\u0026reg; portable unit was positioned at the participant\u0026rsquo;s waist using a secured strap, and all electrode cables were reinforced to minimize movement artifacts. System calibration was performed prior to data collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCardiovascular response was recorded at 5-seconds interval throughout both the warm-up interventions and the treadmill running test. The peak value of heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output were identified as the highest point observed readings during the running test. For analysis, each time point of cardiovascular and VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e data was averaged from three consecutive data points to reduce variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e kinetics variables were obtained during the treadmill running test using a portable breath-by-breath metabolic analyzer (Oxycon\u0026trade; mobile, Vyaire Medical, USA). During the 10-minute pre-test resting period, participants were fitted with the gas analysis system, including O₂ and CO₂ analyzers and the transmitter unit secured to the upper trunk via a shoulder harness. A face mask covering the nose and mouth was used to collect expired gases. Gas analyzers were calibrated before each measurement session. VO₂ data were recorded at 5-second intervals during the entire running protocol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was used to indirectly distinguish between the fast and slow components of VO₂ kinetics. Following Mol\u0026eacute; and Hoffmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e), lower RER values (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.0) were interpreted as reflecting predominantly aerobic metabolism and were therefore associated with the fast component, whereas higher RER values and greater carbohydrate oxidation were considered to reflect the slow component. Peak VO₂ in the fast component was defined as the highest VO₂ value observed during periods when RER remained below 1.0, while peak VO₂ in the slow component was defined as the highest value observed during the later stage of the running protocol. For consistency, cardiovascular and VO₂ measurements were calculated as the mean of three consecutive data points. No adverse events or harms were observed during the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version 22.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test. For normally distributed variables, between-group differences were analyzed using an independent t-test, whereas the Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test was applied for non-normally distributed data. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, with a 95% confidence interval. All analyses were conducted using data from participants who completed the study. No missing data were observed. This study was conducted and reported in accordance with the CONSORT 2010 guidelines for randomized controlled trials (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eParticipant Characteristics\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll 20 participants were randomized, completed the intervention, and were included in the final analysis, with no exclusions after randomization. All participants adhered to the assigned warm-up protocols under researcher supervision, and no deviations from the planned intervention were observed. Participant characteristics are presented in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Anthropometric variables are expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation and were compared between groups using an independent t-test, except for height, which was analyzed using the Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test. No significant differences were observed between the specific warm-up and static stretching groups for any baseline characteristics (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Participant characteristics. Values are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable style=\"border-width: medium; border-style: none; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: initial; width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecific warm-up\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatic stretching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale (n)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale (n)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeight (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBMI (km/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeart rate (bpm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSystolic blood pressure (mmHg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiastolic blood pressure (mmHg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.20 \u0026plusmn; 1.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.60 \u0026plusmn; 9.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e171.70 \u0026plusmn; 8.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.79 \u0026plusmn; 1.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.20 \u0026plusmn; 10.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e115.80 \u0026plusmn; 12.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.80 \u0026plusmn; 9.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.00 \u0026plusmn; 1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.30 \u0026plusmn; 4.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e168.30 \u0026plusmn; 4.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.91 \u0026plusmn; 1.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.0 \u0026plusmn; 8.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.20 \u0026plusmn; 7.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.20 \u0026plusmn; 5.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.136\u003csup\u003ea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.494\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.291\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.852\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.331\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.130\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.857\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e calculated using independent \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eCardiovascular variables\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeak cardiovascular responses during the treadmill running test are summarized in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u003c/strong\u003e The specific warm-up group demonstrated a significantly higher peak heart rate compared with the static stretching group (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.013). Although peak stroke volume was lower in the specific warm-up group than in the static stretching group, this difference was not statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05). Peak cardiac output was higher in the specific warm-up group; however, the difference was also not statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u003c/strong\u003e Peak cardiovascular responses during the 5-km treadmill running test following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable style=\"border-width: medium; border-style: none; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: initial; width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters during running\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecific warm-up\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatic stretching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeak HR (bpm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeak SV (ml/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeak CO (l/min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170.50 \u0026plusmn; 10.72\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125.67 \u0026plusmn; 21.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.390 \u0026plusmn; 3.548\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e156.20 \u0026plusmn; 12.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128.26 \u0026plusmn; 17.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.92 \u0026plusmn; 2.518\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.775\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistically significant difference at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05 (independent t-test).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnits of measurement: beats per minute (bpm), milliliters per minute (mL/min), and liters per minute (L/min).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eillustrates the time-course changes in cardiovascular variables throughout the 5-kilometer treadmill run for both groups. Heart rate differed significantly between groups immediately after the warm-up intervention (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.000) and at the end of the running test (35th minute) (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.013), based on independent \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test results. In contrast, there were no significant between-group differences in the development of stroke volume or cardiac output at any time point during the running test (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Time-course changes in cardiovascular variables during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) indicates a statistically significant between-group difference at p \u0026lt; 0.05. Units of measurement are beats per minute (bpm), milliliters per minute (mL/min), and liters per minute (L/min).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eOxygen consumption variables\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBaseline VO₂ measured during the 1-minute period prior to the running test did not differ significantly between the warm-up conditions. The time required to reach peak VO₂ in the fast component during the run was shorter following the specific warm-up compared with static stretching; however, this difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, peak VO₂ in the fast component was slightly higher after the specific warm-up, but no significant between-group differences were observed (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e). In addition, no significant differences were found in the slow component of VO₂ between the specific warm-up and static stretching groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u003c/strong\u003e Oxygen consumption kinetics during the 5-km treadmill running test in the specific warm-up and static stretching groups. Values are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"width: 4.5e+2pt;border: none;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParameters during running\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecific warm-up\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatic stretching\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaseline 1 min of VO\u003csub\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(ml/min/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime to peak VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in fast component\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(min)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeak VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the fast component (ml/min/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeak VO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the slow component\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(ml/min/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.61 \u0026plusmn; 1.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.73 \u0026plusmn; 0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.37 \u0026plusmn; 3.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.98 \u0026plusmn; 3.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.66 \u0026plusmn; 0.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.11 \u0026plusmn; 0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.76 \u0026plusmn; 3.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.97 \u0026plusmn; 3.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.174\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.313\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.997\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e calculated using an independent \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3\u003c/strong\u003e illustrates the VO₂ responses throughout the 5-kilometer treadmill running test. A significant difference between the warm-up conditions was observed at the 3rd minute of running (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.009), based on the independent t-test. No significant differences were detected between groups at any other time point.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eOxygen consumption kinetics during the 5-km treadmill run following specific warm-up and static stretching protocols. Values are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; SD (N = 10). The asterisk (*) denotes a statistically significant between-group difference at p \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eRegarding cardiovascular responses, the specific warm-up reveals a significantly higher peak heart rate during the 5-km treadmill run, whereas peak stroke volume and peak cardiac output did not differ between the intervention groups. This cardiovascular response may be explained by enhancement of autonomic nervous system, particularly increased sympathetic activation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). It is possible that the dynamic movements involved in the specific warm-up stimulated intramuscular mechanoreceptors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e) and metaboreceptors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e), leading to increased sympathetic drive and vagal withdrawal. This response may be attributed to a priming effect by an increased heart rate (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e) and an acceleration of VO₂ kinetic (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e) prior to exercise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the specific warm-up was performed at a moderate intensity (~\u0026thinsp;65% HRmax), the total duration of the warm-up (10 minutes) was likely insufficient to substantially increase venous return or to fully activate the skeletal muscle pump. As a result, ventricular preload may not have increased sufficiently to build up stroke volume. In addition, the elevated heart rate response may have reduced diastolic filling time, leading to a limitation in further increases in stroke volume (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, the peak stroke volume response in this study showed a slight decrease during running following the specific warm-up. These findings are consistent with those of Fritzsche et al., who reported that prolonged moderate-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in heart rate accompanied by a reduction in stroke volume (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the treadmill running protocol was conducted at a constant speed without incline adjustment, indicating a steady external workload throughout the 35-minute running test. Under such conditions, cardiac afterload is unlikely to increase progressively, which may explain the absence of significant differences in stroke volume and cardiac output between warm-up protocols.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the time-course analysis of cardiovascular variables demonstrated a consistently higher heart rate following the specific warm-up throughout the running test. This pattern suggests that, in the present study, heart rate functioned as the primary cardiovascular adjustment to the specific warm-up, whereas stroke volume and cardiac output remained relatively unchanged during prolonged constant-speed running.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the results demonstrated an increase in heart rate as a part of the cardiovascular response, these changes do not necessarily indicate that the VO₂ responses were primarily driven by central oxygen delivery. This may be explained by the absence of significant differences in cardiac output between conditions, likely due to the compensatory interaction between increased heart rate and reduced stroke volume. Instead, the alterations trend of VO₂ variables may reflect peripheral adjustments in intramuscular oxygen utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the fast component of VO₂ kinetics, the shorter time-to-peak VO₂ observed in the specific warm-up group suggests a trend toward a more rapid transition from anaerobic energy contribution at exercise onset to oxidative metabolism. This accelerated adjustment may facilitate a more rapid transition to steady-state oxidative metabolism during exercise. These findings are consistent with De Roia et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e), who demonstrated that high-intensity warm-up accelerates oxidative metabolism by reducing the time constant of the fast component of VO₂ kinetics. Their study attributed this response to enhanced local oxygen extraction, as indicated by muscle deoxygenation patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the higher peak VO₂ observed in the fast component following the specific warm-up may indicate enhanced oxygen utilization within the working muscles. Similarly, Burnley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e) reported an increased amplitude of the VO₂ fast component during heavy exercise following prior warm-up, suggesting that warm-up protocols may prime oxidative metabolism. This response may reflect greater motor unit recruitment during the initial phase of exercise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlterations in the VO₂ slow component are typically associated with exercise intensity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e), motor unit recruitment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e), and increased metabolic cost related to fatigue processes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, the running protocol was performed at a constant speed and moderate intensity without incline adjustments, which likely limited the progressive recruitment of additional motor units. Consequently, although the specific warm-up may enhance early-phase oxidative metabolism, it does not appear to substantially influence the development of the VO₂ slow component under these conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the present study included a priori sample size calculation and demonstrated an adequate sample for the primary analysis, the relatively small sample size and homogeneous participant characteristics may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations, such as older adults, elite athletes, or individuals with clinical conditions. In addition, the use of indirect methods to characterize VO₂ kinetics may limit the precision of physiological interpretation. Future studies should compare specific warm-up protocols with a broader range of warm-up strategies, such as running drill protocols.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe specific warm-up protocol in this study may have induced a priming effect on the cardiovascular system, thereby preparing the body for subsequent running exercise. This effect was primarily reflected in an increase in heart rate, whereas cardiac output did not appear to change substantially, suggesting that overall oxygen delivery remained relatively stable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that such central adaptations may not play a dominant role in determining VO₂ kinetics. Instead, VO₂ kinetics may be more strongly influenced by peripheral mechanisms, particularly in the fast component, which likely reflects factors such as mitochondrial activation, oxidative enzyme activity, and oxygen extraction capacity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Mahidol University Central Institutional Review Board (MU-CIRB), Thailand (protocol no. MU-CIRB 2020/074.2003; COA no. MU-CIRB 2020/060.2204). The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were recreational runners capable of completing a continuous 5-km treadmill run and provided written informed consent prior to participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePatient and public involvement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatients and/or the public were not involved in the design, conduct, reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUse of artificial intelligence (AI) tools\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors independently drafted the original manuscript and subsequently used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve language, sentence structure, and clarity. All content was critically reviewed and approved by the authors, who take full responsibility for the final version of the manuscript. No AI tools were used to generate primary data, perform analyses, or draw scientific conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo specific funding was received for this study from any public, commercial, or not-for-profit organizations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions:T.L. designed the study, performed conceptualization and methodology, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript.K.S. contributed to study design, conceptualization, and methodology.P.S. contributed to study design, conceptualization, and methodology.W.K. contributed to study design, conceptualization, methodology, and data analysis.All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank all participants who volunteered for this study. The authors also express their sincere appreciation to the staff and colleagues at the Faculty of Physical Therapy, Mahidol University, for their assistance throughout the research process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions. However, de-identified participant data, the data dictionary, statistical code, and additional materials are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBishop D. Warm up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm up on exercise performance. Sports Med. 2003;33(6):439\u0026ndash;54.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeedham RA, Morse CI, Degens H. The acute effect of different warm-up protocols on anaerobic performance in elite youth soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(9):2614\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGirard O, Carbonnel Y, Candau R, Millet G. Running versus strength-based warm-up: acute effects on isometric knee extension function. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(4):573\u0026ndash;81.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Exercise physiology: nutrition, energy, and human performance. 8th ed. Philadelphia (PA): Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSander A, Keiner M, Schlumberger A, Wirth K, Schiffer T. Effects of functional exercises in the warm-up on sprint performances. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(4):995\u0026ndash;1001.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEvetovich TK, Nauman NJ, Conley DL, Todd JB. Effect of static stretching of the biceps brachii on torque, electromyography, and mechanomyography during concentric isokinetic muscle actions. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(3):484\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003edo Nascimento PC, de Lucas RD, de Souza KM, de Aguiar RA, Denadai BS, Guglielmo LGA. The effect of prior exercise intensity on oxygen uptake kinetics during high-intensity running exercise in trained subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2014;115(1):147\u0026ndash;56.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDanek N, Michalik K, Hebisz R, Zatoń M. Influence of warm-up prior to incremental exercise test on aerobic performance in physically active men. Pol J Sport Tourism. 2019;26(3):9\u0026ndash;13.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGourgoulis V, Aggeloussis N, Kasimatis P, Mavromatis G, Garas A. Effect of a submaximal half-squats warm-up program on vertical jumping ability. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(2):342\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFrantz TL, Ruiz MD. Effects of dynamic warm-up on lower body explosiveness among collegiate baseball players. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(11):2985\u0026ndash;90.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSale DG. Postactivation potentiation: role in human performance. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2002;30(3):138\u0026ndash;43.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChaabene H, Behm DG, Negra Y, Granacher U. Acute effects of static stretching on muscle strength and power: an attempt to clarify previous caveats. Front Physiol. 2019;10:1468.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBacurau RFP, Monteiro G, Ugrinowitsch C, Tricoli V, Cabral L, Aoki MS. Acute effect of a ballistic and a static stretching exercise bout on flexibility and maximal strength. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(1):304\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMarek SM, Cramer JT, Fincher AL, Massey LL, Dangelmaier SM, Purkayastha S, et al. Acute effects of static and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on muscle strength and power output. J Athl Train. 2005;40(2):94\u0026ndash;103.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAvela J, Kyr\u0026ouml;l\u0026auml;inen H, Komi PV. Altered reflex sensitivity after repeated and prolonged passive muscle stretching. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(4):1283\u0026ndash;91.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMol\u0026eacute; PA, Hoffmann JJ. VO₂ kinetics of mild exercise are altered by RER. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(6):2097\u0026ndash;106.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFreeman JV, Dewey FE, Hadley DM, Myers J, Froelicher VF. Autonomic nervous system interaction with the cardiovascular system during exercise. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;48(5):342\u0026ndash;62.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmann M. Group III and IV muscle afferents: role in exercise and cardiovascular regulation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2012;40(2):75\u0026ndash;82.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBurnley M, Doust JH, Ball D, Jones AM. Effects of prior heavy exercise on V̇O₂ kinetics during heavy exercise are related to changes in muscle activity. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2002;93(1):167\u0026ndash;74.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDe Roia G, Pogliaghi S, Adami A, Papadopoulou C, Capelli C. Effects of priming exercise on the speed of adjustment of muscle oxidative metabolism at the onset of moderate-intensity step transitions in older adults. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;302(10):R1158\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFritzsche RG, Switzer TW, Hodgkinson BJ, Coyle EF. Stroke volume decline during prolonged exercise is influenced by the increase in heart rate. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;86(3):799\u0026ndash;805.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSt\u0026ouml;hr EJ, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Alonso J, Shave R. Left ventricular mechanical limitations to stroke volume in healthy humans during incremental exercise. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011;301(2):H478\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJones AM, Grassi B, Christensen PM, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J, Poole DC. Slow component of VO₂ kinetics: mechanistic bases and practical applications. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(11):2046\u0026ndash;62.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorrani F, Candau R, Millet GY, Perrey S, Fuchslocher J, Rouillon JD. Is the VO₂ slow component dependent on progressive recruitment of fast-twitch fibers in trained runners? \u003cem\u003eJ Appl Physiol\u003c/em\u003e (1985). 2001;90(6):2212\u0026ndash;2220.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eW\u0026uuml;st RCI, McDonald JR, Sun Y, Ferguson BS, Rogatzki MJ, Spires J, et al. Slowed muscle oxygen uptake kinetics with raised metabolism are not dependent on blood flow or recruitment dynamics. J Physiol. 2014;592(8):1857\u0026ndash;71.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCannon DT, White AC, Andriano MF, Kolkhorst FW, Rossiter HB. Skeletal muscle fatigue precedes the slow component of oxygen uptake kinetics during exercise in humans. J Physiol. 2010;589(Pt 3):727\u0026ndash;39.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHajoglou A, Foster C, De Koning JJ, Lucia A, Kernozek TW, Porcari JP. Effect of warm-up on cycle time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(9):1608\u0026ndash;14.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"specific warm-up, cardiovascular, oxygen consumption, running","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePurpose of the study: to examine the immediate effect of specific warm-up and static stretching on cardiovascular response and oxygen consumption during a 5 km treadmill run using a randomized controlled trial.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod: twenty active participants were randomly assigned to either a specific warm-up (9 males, 1 female; age 20.20 ± 1.03 years) or static stretching group (7 males, 3 females; age 21.00 ± 1.24 years). The warm-up group performed 10 moderate-intensity movements targeting six major muscles, while the stretching group performed light self-stretching. All participants then ran 5 km on a treadmill at 8.5 km/h.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: Peak cardiovascular responses were mostly similar, except heart rate, which was significantly higher in the warm-up group (170.50 ± 10.72 bpm) than in the stretching group (156.20 ± 12.44 bpm, p = 0.013). No significant differences were observed in VO₂ kinetics (p \u0026gt; 0.05).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: Specific warm-up increased heart rate during running, reflecting a cardiovascular response without substantial changes in cardiac output, suggesting that overall oxygen delivery was not markedly altered. Although VO₂ kinetics did not differ significantly between conditions, specific warm-up may facilitate a fast component of oxygen uptake, likely reflecting enhanced peripheral oxygen.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrial registration: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study was registered at the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20230109001), approved on 9 January 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailable at: https://www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20230109001\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Immediate Effects of Specific Warm-Up and Static Stretching on Cardiovascular and Oxygen Consumption Parameters during 5 Km Treadmill Running","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-04 06:44:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9399762/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-30T09:53:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"112778247828171207373901405911085525986","date":"2026-04-23T08:07:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-21T12:07:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-21T12:05:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-21T11:55:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-20T14:23:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","date":"2026-04-20T13:28:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"26f86a55-3cee-4c73-806f-004ec581381f","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 4th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-30T09:53:22+00:00","index":47,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T06:44:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-04 06:44:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9399762","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9399762","identity":"rs-9399762","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}