Profile of Anatomy Teachers of Students in Healthcare Professions: A Scoping Review

Profile of Anatomy Teachers of Students in Healthcare Professions: A Scoping Review | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Profile of Anatomy Teachers of Students in Healthcare Professions: A Scoping Review Joanne Fevry, Salomon Fotsing, Meriem Merghem, Anne Roberge, Rayan Ramdani, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468584/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Medical Education → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background / Objective: Health education programs present a wide variety of teacher profiles in human anatomy. This study aimed to explore the academic backgrounds of these teachers, the health professions in which they teach, the content delivered, and the teaching strategies employed. Methods: This work followed the steps outlined by Arksey and O'Malley, as well as the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Data were sourced from major academic databases. Five reviewers used Covidence to analyze the articles. Data on teachers and their strategies were extracted and then narratively synthesized. Results: Of the 6,779 studies analyzed, 42 were selected. Teachers held a variety of degrees, including PhDs in anatomy and medicine. Most were full-time faculty members, including professors, lecturers and assistant professors with over twenty years of experience. Teaching strategies combined traditional and modern approaches, and assessments included written, practical, and continuous examinations. Discussion / Conclusion: This study demonstrated that anatomy teachers do not share a single profile. Teaching strategies need to be adapted to regional and institutional contexts. It is therefore necessary to support these teachers to better meet the contemporary demands of anatomy education. anatomy education anatomy teacher profile health professions education teaching strategies anatomy instructor qualifications human anatomy Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Anatomy learning is the best way for students in healthcare professions to acquire essential knowledge of the structure of the human body, regardless of their field of study 1 – 5 . Anatomy enables students to acquire knowledge and skills essential to their future clinical practice 1 , 4 – 6 and is considered to be the cornerstone of medical programs 7 . Anatomy teachers play an important role in transmitting this knowledge to students, knowing that this course is indispensable to medical practice and is the key to success for physicians in their practice, regardless of their specialty 1 , 5 , 8 . In fact, according to clinicians and anatomists, a solid grounding in anatomy acquired during medical training contributes significantly to both the physical examination of the patient in order to render a diagnosis and also to the understanding of pathologies to provide better patient care 5 , 6 , 9 . Furthermore, gaps in clinicians’ and surgeons’ anatomy knowledge are often related to educators’ lack of expertise in teaching this subject 9 , 10 . It is therefore important that students be trained by teachers capable of transmitting anatomy knowledge. In the various health professions education programs, there is a wide variety in the profile of anatomy teachers. We found that these teachers have not received the same basic training. For example, they may be clinicians with or without basic training in anatomy teaching 10 – 12 , teachers with medical training and experience in cadaveric dissection 11 , or teachers with or without basic medical training 11 , 13 . To our knowledge, no exhaustive synthesis of current knowledge has specifically addressed the profiles of anatomy teachers, along with the teaching and the evaluation strategies they use. This lack of synthesis complicates the identification of training needs, and the development of context specific recommendations. By providing a structured overview of these elements, this scoping review aims to fill this gap by clarifying teacher profiles and teaching practices to improve anatomy education for health science students. Hence, we conducted a scoping review aimed at exploring the profile of these teachers in healthcare professionals’ education, in particular with regard to their prior academic training, the healthcare professions in which they teach, course content taught to students, the teaching strategies they use, as well as evaluation strategies and their impact on students’ education. More specifically, the research questions are: (1) What is the current state of knowledge on the prior training of anatomy teachers, depending on the healthcare profession? (2) What are the teaching strategies used based on the content to be taught? (3) What are the evaluation strategies and the impact of teaching in this context? METHODOLOGY Study design This scoping review was planned and conducted according to the frameworks introduced by Arksey and O’Malley 14 , then enhanced by Levac and colleagues 15 . The steps included: 1) identifying the research questions, 2) identifying relevant studies, 3) study selection, 4) charting the data, 5) collating, summarizing and reporting the results. This study was carried out in accordance with PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews) guidelines for writing and reading a scoping review 16 . This exploratory study was registered with Open Science Framework (OSF) on March 4, 2025 (doi: 10.17605/OSF.IO/GH5QT ). Step 1: Identifying the research questions The purpose of this study was to explore the profile of anatomy teachers in the healthcare professions. More specifically, our research questions are: 1) What is the current state of knowledge on the prior training of anatomy teachers, depending on the healthcare profession? 2) What are the teaching strategies used based on the content to be taught? 3) What are the evaluation strategies and the impact of teaching in this context? Step 2: Identifying relevant studies The search strategy was developed by an academic librarian (Marie-Cécile Domecq) in consultation with the research team. In accordance with the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guide 17 , the strategy was subsequently reviewed by a second librarian. This search strategy is presented in Appendix 1 and focuses on keywords used to describe teachers’ academic profile and strategies they use for teaching and evaluating students. The search included published and peer-reviewed articles from various electronic databases. The search was limited to English and French articles, with no publication date restriction. A first iteration of the search strategy was developed in Medline (OVID) on June 26, 2024, with the final search strategy established on July 16, 2024. Our search identified a total of 10,032 articles: 4384 from Embase, 2962 from MEDLINE, 1267 from CINAHL, 505 from Eric, 487 from PsycINFO, 215 from Education Source and 212 from Web of Science. Step 3: Study selection Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined according to the PCC (Population, Concept, Context) framework as recommended by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) 18 . The population included anatomy teachers working in health professions; the concept focused on their academic and professional profiles, teaching and assessment strategies; and the context was higher education in health-related programs. The studies identified were uploaded to Covidence (version 2.0, Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia) systematic review and web-based software, where we conducted the article screening and extraction phases. Duplicates were removed. A pilot assessment and screening tool was developed by the research team and tested on 30 articles selected at random. Study selection was done in two steps. First, five reviewers: (Joanne Fevry, JF; Meriem Merghem, MM; Anne Roberge, AR; Ryan Ramdani, RR; Isabelle Filion, IF) independently screened titles and abstracts to determine study eligibility based on established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Second, the full texts of articles were screened by the same reviewers, using the same criteria. Two votes were required for the inclusion of articles. At this stage, articles that, according to the independent reviewers, did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Each assessment and screening step was performed by two reviewers and discrepancies were resolved by a third reviewer (JF). The final list of articles was reviewed by the research team to determine whether additional articles should be included or excluded, and no further modifications were made. Overall, our inclusion criteria included: 1) all studies conducted among human anatomy teachers in healthcare professions; 2) all study designs used to describe the profile of these teachers, whether qualitative or quantitative, regardless of the purpose of the studies; 3) peer-reviewed studies; 4) articles published in French or English with no date restriction. These articles were published in scientific journals, books, book chapters and theses. Articles were excluded if they: 1) lacked stratification in the teacher population in the healthcare professions studied, 2) were not peer-reviewed. The full selection criteria are detailed in Table 1 below. Table 1 Study selection criteria Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria Studies involving human anatomy teachers working in healthcare professional education programs (e.g., medicine, nursing, physiotherapy). Studies that do not clearly identify or stratify the anatomy teacher population. Study designs: randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (NRCTs), matched comparison studies, pre-post/post-only studies, cohort studies, qualitative studies. Non-peer-reviewed publications (e.g., grey literature). Studies reporting on the professional profile, qualifications, teaching experience, or pedagogical strategies of anatomy teachers. Conference abstracts, letters to the editor and commentaries. Articles published in French or English. — No restriction on publication date. — Step 4: Charting the data JF developed the extraction data sheet through an iterative process of revision with the lead supervisors: Alireza Jalali (AJ), Salomon Fotsing (SF). A data extraction grid was then developed by the research team, then tested before being incorporated into Microsoft Excel version 2306 for extraction of variables by independent reviewers (JF, AR, IF). This grid was used for articles from both scientific databases and the grey literature. The extraction sheet included data on publication characteristics (name of lead author, year of publication, publication journal, journal’s impact factor, country of data collection, funding source, and study registration if applicable), study characteristics (study design, sample size, participants, healthcare professions in which data were collected, inclusion and exclusion criteria), socio-demographic characteristics of participants (gender and age), years of anatomy teaching experience, university degrees, anatomy teachers’ prior academic training, academic titles, academic contracts, teaching strategies they use, content of courses they teach, evaluation strategies and their impact in this context, depending on the purpose of the study. A pilot data extraction with one article was conducted with all reviewers to ensure consistent understanding of the variables on the data extraction sheet. No further modifications were subsequently made to the list of variables. Step 5: Collating, summarizing and reporting the results Following data extraction, the results were analyzed and synthesized by the lead author (JF), reviewed by the supervisors (AJ, SF), and then by all co-authors. One reviewer (JF) subsequently analyzed thematic trends using the information extracted from all articles. We conducted a narrative summary of the qualitative data. The reviewer (JF) then compiled a descriptive summary of the extracted data using key characteristics and themes. The results were structured around information on characteristics of the selected studies and on socio-demographic characteristics of participants, years of teaching experience, university degrees, academic training, academic titles and contracts, teaching strategies used, content of courses taught, evaluation strategies adopted and the impact of this teaching. We synthesized the information gathered to produce a summary of the results, considering the similarities and differences between the studies that could influence our conclusions. RESULTS The initial search generated a total of 10,032 articles. After duplicates were removed, 6779 articles were screened for eligibility and 381 were selected for full-text review (see Fig. 1 below). Among those, 339 articles were excluded and 42 were selected for data extraction as they met the inclusion criteria. Several excluded articles were not reviewed because of their type (conference abstracts, commentaries, letters to the editor, etc.) (n = 143); some were excluded due to a lack of teacher stratification (n = 87); others had content not relevant to the research question (n = 74), a study design not clearly defined (n = 22), wrong context (n = 10), results not aligned with our study (n = 2), or language of publication not consistent with the pre-established criteria (n = 1). The majority of articles were published in English (n = 41), with one publication (n = 1) in French. Detailed data extraction tables for all included studies are available in Appendix 2 (Tables 1 a, 1 b, 2 , 3 , 4). In the main text, tables are presented to summarize the main results. Characteristics of the selected studies The studies included in this scoping review were spread across various geographical regions. Most studies were conducted in America (n = 21) and Europe (n = 11), with fewer from Africa, Asia and Oceania (see Table 2 below). Of the 18 studies from the American continent, 10 were based solely on data from the United States, while 4 included data from both United States and Canada, and 3 included data from both United States and European countries. Four additional studies used data from Chile and Mexico (see Appendix 2 for more details). These studies were conducted with human anatomy teachers 19 , 20 , heads of anatomy departments or academic programs, candidates for anatomy teaching positions, medical students and anatomy teachers, student-tutors in medicine or other healthcare professions, anatomy teachers and researchers, and heads of clinical training programs (diagnostic radiology, general surgery, emergency medicine, family medicine) (see Table 1 b in Appendix 2 for details). These data were collected in several healthcare professions, mainly in medicine (n = 32) (Table 2 ). Added to this are physiotherapy (n = 9), nursing, occupational therapy, dentistry and other paramedical professions, as well as academic disciplines such as anatomy and physiology (Table 1 b - Appendix 2). The 42 articles included were published between 1961 and 2024 (Table 2 ). These studies used descriptive and/or transverse study designs (n = 36), with comparative (n = 8), exploratory (n = 1), evaluative (n = 2), documentary (n = 1), observational (n = 2) and correlational (n = 1) analyses, as well as pre-test/post-test study designs (n = 2), narrative (n = 1) and systematic (n = 2) reviews. These articles mostly used quantitative approaches, followed by mixed then qualitative approaches (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Descriptive characteristics of the 42 included studies: Distribution by year of publication, continent, methodology, socio-demographic characteristics and health professions involved in the data collection Variable Category Studies (n) Year of publication Before 2020 In or after 2020 28 14 Geographic continent America Europe Africa Asia Oceania America/Eur. 18 11 4 3 3 3 Methodology Quantitative Mixed Qualitative 32 6 4 Socio-demographic characteristics Gender 1 : M > F F > M M = F Age : Less than 35 y/o More than 35 y/o Years of anatomy teaching : 0–10 years 10–20 years More than 20 years 11 5 1 10 9 12 6 8 Health professions Medicine Physical Therapy Other: Nursing, Pharmacy, Occupational Therapy, Radiographic Technology, Optometry, Dentistry, Chiropractic, Public Health, etc. 32 9 9 1 M: male, F: female; y/o: years old Socio-demographic characteristics The articles analyzed showed that the majority of anatomy teachers are male (n = 10). However, some recent studies show a predominance of women (Table 2 ). One study indicates both genders equally represented 21 , while others show variations among groups studied 22 , 23 . The results indicate that there is no clear majority regarding age. Some studies report that most anatomy teachers are aged 35 and over, generally between the ages of 31 and 50, or even older 23 – 26 . They are considered to be the most experienced, most of whom are physicians 13 . Others, younger than age 35 22,27 , are also very represented, and some are teacher-tutors whose average age in one study is 20.48 years 28 . (See Appendix 2 for further details). Years of anatomy teaching experience The articles analyzed show a wide variation in terms of experience among the teachers studied (Table 2 ). As indicated in several studies, some teachers had taught anatomy for 5 years or less 23 , 29 , 30 , particularly those employed as anatomy demonstrators with approximately one year of experience 31 , or as teacher-tutors with experience varying from 1 to 7 semesters 30 . Others have more experience, up to 10 years 23 , 24 , 29 , or even 30 years or more 21 , 23 , 24 , 32 . (Appendix 2 for more details). Academic titles and contracts Our data show that anatomy teachers are recruited as full professors 23 , 24 , 33 – 35 , lecturers working under the supervision of course directors 27 , 29 , 34 , 36 , assistant teachers and adjunct professors 19 , 23 , 37 , associate teachers 24 , 29 , 38 , senior lecturers 25 , 39 and anatomy demonstrators or facilitators 35 , 40 , 41 . Others are student-tutors 29 , 30 , 42 or researchers who teach anatomy, some of whom do not have formal clinical or pedagogical training 11 , 34 (see Appendix 2 for further details) . Chairs of anatomy and senior lecturers are generally permanent positions 19 , 25 , 35 , 42 , whereas assistant teachers, adjunct professors, demonstrators and teacher-tutors are in most cases temporary positions and they are hired for specific academic missions 33 , 37 , 41 . Regarding their academic contracts, some are employed full-time and assigned to their institutions on a permanent basis, providing them with long-term job stability 13 , 23 , 37 , while others are employed part-time, for a shorter term or half-time 33 , 43 , 44 . Teachers’ academic titles and contracts are detailed in Appendix 2. University degrees Our data show that anatomy teachers have diverse university degrees and professional qualifications, with differences by region and institution. Their educational qualifications vary from bachelor’s 25,29,42 , master’s 10,29,45,46 and doctorate 11 , 19 , 36 degrees, to certifications 39 , 46 , as well as fellowships and post-doctoral training 29 , 41 , 47 , sometimes with a combination of qualifications. (for further details see Appendix 2). Table 3 Summary of teacher training, teaching strategies, content taught, assessment strategies. Variable Category n Academic training Doctorate in anatomy or a related field and/or clinicians (physicians or other health professionals). Master's degree in anatomy or a related field. Bachelor's degree in anatomy or a related field. Certifications for continuing education Researchers Postdoctoral training 25 13 9 3 3 5 Teaching strategies Traditional approach (lectures, human cadaveric dissection/prosection, ect.) Mixed approached (traditional and modern approaches such as VR 1 , online learning, NPT 2 , , ect.) Content taught Macroanatomy: (musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, renal, endocrine, gastrointestinal, skeletal and neuroanatomy systems). Microanatomy: (embryology, histology) 10 22 Evaluation strategies and impact Oral exams: Improved critical thinking. Multiple-choice and open-ended questions: Improved comprehension. Identifying imagery structures: Improved practical skills. Timed vs. untimed tests: No significant difference. Multiple-choice questions only: Impairs long-term retention. Prior academic training Our results show that doctorate degrees in medicine and science (PhD) are very common among anatomy teachers’ qualifications (Table 3 ). Among those with doctorate degrees in medicine, we find professional clinicians and physicians in training in medical-surgical specializations 11 , 12 , 27 , 30 , 40 , 48 . Others are clinicians or surgeons who are retired 25 , 35 . In this category of medically-trained teachers, we also find students with advanced medical training or from other healthcare professions, employed as teacher-tutors in charge of teaching those just beginning their program of study 22 , 28 , 30 , 33 . Regarding those teaching in non-medical schools, most of them have qualifications related to the discipline in which they teach. These are physiotherapists 32 , 38 , 46 , occupational therapists 32 , neuroscientists 48 , chiropractors 42 . The data also reveal that some of these teachers have qualifications in anatomy or in a related discipline 6 , 37 , and others have continuing education certifications 39 . Others hold degrees in other disciplines such as biology 19 , 46 , 48 , physiology 46 , 48 , anthropology 23 , 45 , 48 , veterinary medicine 49 and zoology 46 . In addition, we note that some of these teachers are neither qualified in medicine nor in education, but are scientists hired for their research skills, and some have had anatomy teacher training sessions through their affiliated institutions in order to teach students 11 , 21 , 37 . See details in Appendix 2. Teaching strategies and content of courses taught As part of anatomy teaching, various teaching strategies are implemented by anatomy teachers and institutions for delivering varied content to students. Anatomy teachers employ traditional teaching strategies sometimes combined with more modern approaches (Table 3 ), depending on the availability of these resources 23 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 42 , 43 , 48 , 50 . The most commonly used traditional approaches include human cadaveric dissection 6 , 23 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 45 , 51 , human cadaveric prosection and lectures 33 , 41 , 52 , use of plastinated specimens 42 , 43 , physical anatomical models 38 , 51 , and histology and embryology laboratories 10 , 23 , 36 , 48 . In contrast, modern approaches rely on technology to teach anatomical content to students 36 , 53 . This includes medical imaging techniques 34 , 48 , virtual dissection 34 , 45 , virtual reality 32 , 38 , tutorial platforms 6 , 25 , 33 , 41 and online learning 34 , 48 . Added to this are multimodal approaches combining traditional strategies with modern ones that are frequently used by teachers. This is generally done via seminar sessions held in small groups 25 , practical work using the flipped classroom approach 34 , problem-based or case-based learning 10 , 12 , 50 or additional integration of clinical hour sessions for more interactive and participatory learning 28 . In addition, there is also near peer teaching, another type of teaching strategy adopted by some institutions, in which more advanced level students pass on their anatomical knowledge to novice peers or those less advanced 23 , 28 , 41 . (See details in Appendix 2). The courses taught cover content related not only to macroscopic anatomy, but also to surface, functional, progressive, comparative and microscopic anatomy, which uses tools for studying histological and embryological structures 35 , 39 , 45 (details are provided in Appendix 2). Anatomy is sometimes taught as an interdisciplinary subject with other subjects such as physiology, biology, radiology and clinical cases in order to enhance the application and understand of concepts 19 , 43 , 45 . The content taught varies from one profession to another. It includes a range of anatomical systems, as detailed in Table 3 above and the Appendix 2. Evaluation strategies and their impact in teaching In order to evaluate anatomy students’ theoretical and practical knowledge, teachers use different approaches for testing students’ level of comprehension (see Table 3 ). These are written evaluations in the form of short/long answer or multiple-choice questions (MCQ) 6 , 47 , case studies 10 , 33 , drawings 6 , true or false questions, developmental or match questions 33 . We also note practical evaluations such as oral tests 6 , 27 , 35 , 36 , 47 , practical tests in anatomy and osteology laboratories 6 , 10 , 36 , 38 , 47 , 51 , 54 , identification of structures using images or human cadavers 6 , one-off practical tests 36 , spotter examinations 51 and timed or untimed spot tests 47 . Next, we note the use of continuous evaluations, such as unplanned surprise quizzes 11 , 33 , 42 , formal review sessions and weekly evaluations for continuous monitoring of students’ acquired knowledge 11 , 54 . Evaluations are sometimes done using histological slides and radiological images 22 , 48 . A study mentioned the use of synoptic exams at the end of courses and end of the academic year 35 , national exams for medical school students in the United States 27 , as well as student projects in some study programs 10 . Evaluation strategies are summarized in Table 3 , with full details in Appendix 2. Regarding the impact of anatomy teaching as measured by student performance on evaluations, this review reports that MCQ and open-ended questions yield similar results for evaluating acquired knowledge 6 . However, it is indicated that exclusive and systematic use of MCQ for student evaluation may not be adequate to measure in-depth understanding and may adversely affect long-term retention 6 . Another study conducted in several medical schools in South Africa states that timed spot tests are the most widely used, but that no significant difference is observed with untimed spot tests in terms of students’ academic performance 47 . However, oral tests seem to promote a more detailed evaluation of anatomical concepts since they require students to structure and clearly explain their ideas 47 . Other authors note that the identification of anatomical structures on ultrasound images is an effective way to evaluate students’ ability to put their knowledge into practice in a clinical context 22 (Table 3 ). DISCUSSION This review looks at the profile of anatomy teachers working in healthcare professions. While other studies have focused on anatomy teachers, to our knowledge, no work has yet offered a detailed compilation of their profiles. The 42 articles selected describe a range of profiles in the anatomy teacher population. Most of them hold a doctorate in anatomy (PhD), sometimes combined with a medical degree. The teaching strategies integrate traditional approaches, such as practical laboratory work and lectures, often combined with modern approaches such as virtual technologies. The content taught varies depending on the healthcare professions in which they teach. To evaluate students, they use diverse evaluation strategies, such as written, practical and continuous tests. The teaching provided has a significant impact on theoretical knowledge and the practical application of concepts learned by the students. Firstly, the results concerning anatomy teachers’ academic training are comparable to the data in the current literature. In our study, we observe a strong presence of doctorate degrees in anatomy or related disciplines, sometimes combined with a doctorate degree in medicine, particularly in North American medical schools, such as those in the United States and Canada 19 , 37 , 48 , 55 . This aligns with authors, who note that many anatomy teachers in medical schools in the United States are holders of medical degrees often combined with a PhD in anatomy, whereas in other international contexts, these teachers are recruited for their clinical expertise 56 . The study by Kramer (2008), which gathers data from six African countries, as well as other studies conducted in Mexico or France, report that anatomy teachers are mostly clinicians, few of whom have formal training in anatomy or in education 24 , 34 , 36 , 52 . These observations align with other findings, who state that, depending on the context, anatomy teachers are clinicians who add a practical dimension to the teaching of this discipline 57 . These authors therefore propose a collaboration with competent anatomists to ensure quality training 57 . In addition, literature state that, in other healthcare professions, such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy and dentistry, these teachers generally have degrees related to the healthcare disciplines in which they teach 56 , as also shown by our results 29 , 42 , 46 . Our study also reports a notable shift in teachers’ clinical and anatomical qualifications towards scientific research 29 . Several studies confirm this trend and express their concerns regarding the quality of teaching, in view of the priority given to research skills when recruiting these teachers, sometimes to the detriment of clinical and anatomical skills 56 , 58 . According to researchers, this trend could jeopardize the quality of the theoretical and practical teaching of this discipline, and they suggest adapting this teaching to the particular needs of each profession and strengthening teacher training in order to better meet the scientific requirements of modern pedagogy 56 , 58 , 59 . They also emphasize the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to teaching anatomy and the need to consolidate the academic training of these teachers 56 , 58 , 60 – 62 . Secondly, the teaching strategies employed by anatomy teachers are consistent with scientific literature and the choice of pedagogical approaches depends on the availability of institutional resources and their academic titles. According to our study, institutions well-equipped in human, material and financial resources tend to combine traditional strategies with modern ones 23 , 32 , 43 . However, entities with limited resources tend to rely on more conventional approaches that include the use of chalk and blackboards, as well as restricted dissection sessions or the use of prosected specimens 23 , 34 , 36 , 43 . These results are in line with those observed by other researchers, who highlight that better funded institutions have greater opportunities to combine such things as lectures and cadaveric dissection with contemporary approaches such as imaging and virtual reality, in order to provide students with more balanced training 63 , 64 . These results find that structural challenges facing institutions have a significant impact on the choice of pedagogical approaches 63 . However, our results call into question the effectiveness of exclusively using modern strategies compared to traditional ones 34 , which is consistent with the literature that highlights the importance of traditional approaches, particularly cadaveric dissection which remains a cornerstone in the training of future physicians 65 , 66 . Our results also report that professors holding the chair of anatomy often use approaches that focus on theoretical teaching and generally have more resources at their disposal 25 , 34 , 36 . Unlike those hired on a temporary basis, such as lecturers or assistant professors, who have limited access to institutional resources, their approaches are more interactive and collaborative, such as small group sessions (e.g., dissection or seminars) 33 , 50 . These results are in keeping with those of other researchers who note that tenured teachers, because of their institutional obligations, are more inclined to use more traditional approaches that are often research-oriented 56 , 64 , as opposed to non-tenured teachers, who are more flexible and tend to favour more active and participatory approaches that are student-centered 64 . In contrast with these observations, other writings emphasize that, regardless of teachers’ institutional status, teachers should be able to choose their own approach, even if these decisions are influenced by institutional resources and policies 67 . Our study finds that the content taught to students varies essentially according to the healthcare profession. However, none of the included articles established a direct relationship between the strategies applied and the content to be taught. As observed in the University of Ottawa’s Faculty of Medicine, manipulable structures, for example muscles, are studied using cadaveric material, whereas more delicate structures like parts of the eye or the limbic system are better explored using a multimodal approach, combining dissection, prosected materials, plastic anatomical models or other technological resources available. This observation aligns with studies, who report that neuroanatomical content is better studied using a multimodal approach because of its complexity, in order to facilitate students’ understanding 68 . This is also in line with the writings of Singh et al. (2019), who emphasize the importance of a multimodal approach to better integrate theoretical concepts with practice and stimulate students’ long-term memorization 69 . Lastly, the evaluation strategies used for testing anatomy students’ knowledge are also used to measure the impact of teaching this subject, as described in the current literature. The writings agree on the importance of adapting evaluations to pedagogical objectives 6 , 69 . Our study criticizes the exclusive and continuous use of MCQ and proposes a more diversified approach. This approach consists of combining various categories of tests to evaluate students, such as timed practical tests to identify structures, oral tests for understanding concepts, and open-ended questions to develop students’ critical reasoning 6 , 47 . This diversity in evaluations is useful for measuring student competencies and to better determine their ability to apply anatomical knowledge in the clinical setting. Other authors support our results and emphasize that this combining provides a more comprehensive and beneficial evaluation, useful for measuring the real impact of human anatomy teaching on students’ learning 69 , 70 . These findings also report that this approach has a notable influence on student comprehension, long-term memorization and critical thinking, which would be beneficial for professional practice 69 , 70 . Conversely, Thompson et al. (2016) state that MCQ with either a simple or complex format, while presenting some challenges, are also useful for comprehension and developing clinical reasoning 71 . In addition, our study is critical of timed practical tests, as according to the authors, these types of tests can underestimate students’ real abilities due to the time limits often imposed and the stress they can cause 22 . This aligns with the writings of Thompson et al. (2016), who emphasize the importance of thoughtful organization of the different categories of questions asked of students during evaluative exams, so as not to compromise their overall performance 71 . Limitations This review on the profile of anatomy teachers presents several limitations. Firstly, most of articles included in this review are from the America continent particularly in United States while the other searches are divided between different countries. This could lead to a geographical bias, given that the skills and experience of these teachers varies from one region or institution to another, while some countries are underrepresented. As a result, more representative studies of continents would help to obtain a more comprehensive view of the ideal profile of anatomy teachers on a global scale. Next, there is wide variation in the objectives of the articles included. For example, some may focus on academic training without really addressing the strategies they employ, and vice versa. This could lead to unclear interpretations of points discussed superficially. Lastly, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all healthcare professions, since the studies were largely conducted in medical schools with a lower representation of the other professions. CONCLUSION This scoping review aimed to explore the profile of anatomy teachers, as well as their teaching and evaluation strategies. Analysis of the 42 studies reveals a wide range of profiles : the majority hold a doctorate degree in anatomy or a related discipline, sometimes combined with a medical degree. However, depending on regional and institutional contexts, some are clinicians without formal training in anatomy or pedagogy, while others are researchers. Consequently, there is no single profile. The teaching strategies are mostly multimodal, and the evaluations aim to measure memorization and the clinical application of acquired knowledge. No study established a clear link between the content taught and the pedagogical approaches used. Future research studies could explore the best strategies to adopt based on the content taught, as well as the ideal profile a teacher should have in order to teach anatomy courses, to guide training and professional development in this field. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable Consent for publication: Not applicable Availability of data and materials: The datasets generated and analysed during this scoping review are included in this published article and its supplementary files. The data extraction table is provided as a supplementary file. Screening and data management were performed using Covidence (www.covidence.org). Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding: No funding was received for this study Authors' contributions: AJ and SF supervised the study and provided critical revisions. JF designed the study, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. MCD, in collaboration with the team, developed the search strategy. MM, AR, RR, and IF contributed to study selection and data extraction. All authors revised and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements : The authors would like to thank the department of anatomy and francophone affairs of the faculty of medicine at the university of Ottawa for their involvement in this research. References Totlis T, Tishukov M, Piagkou M, Kostares M, Natsis K. Online educational methods vs. traditional teaching of anatomy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anatomy Cell Biol . 2021 oct 1;54(3):332. 10.5115/acb.21.006 Jalali A, Ramnanan CJ. An innovative master in anatomy: combining anatomy with an educational scholarship. J Med Educ Curric Dev. 2023. 10.1177/23821205231183866 . Mwabaleke J, Usman I, Tito A, Edet Obeten K, Umar Isyaku M, Etukudo E et al. Perceptions and challenges faced by undergraduate medical students in studying anatomy: A case study at Kampala International University – Western Campus, Uganda. AMEP . 2023 oct; 14:1129 35. 10.2147/AMEP.S427136 Arráez-Aybar LA, Sánchez-Montesinos I, Mirapeix RM, Mompeo-Corredera B, Sañudo-Tejero JR. 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16:41:54","extension":"html","order_by":30,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":187019,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468584/v1/ef1586605cd5291a06d23562.html"},{"id":94484946,"identity":"d4536d84-3320-4fe3-99b2-058e46f7b666","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 16:38:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":367422,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustrating the different steps in the selection process ▾ of studies included - PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468584/v1/cb56dd9c3b52510895eab8fa.png"},{"id":102786367,"identity":"295a3983-98e7-4da8-b97c-0151b02e0378","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 16:13:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1484284,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468584/v1/6a16f1d4-e158-4cce-81df-3add94c45c85.pdf"},{"id":94485257,"identity":"b66409a7-317e-401d-84b6-42a83d425554","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 16:40:15","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":62794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fevryetal.2025Supp.appendices.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7468584/v1/79314462b0f43d53999034d5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Profile of Anatomy Teachers of Students in Healthcare Professions: A Scoping Review","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnatomy learning is the best way for students in healthcare professions to acquire essential knowledge of the structure of the human body, regardless of their field of study \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Anatomy enables students to acquire knowledge and skills essential to their future clinical practice \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and is considered to be the cornerstone of medical programs \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Anatomy teachers play an important role in transmitting this knowledge to students, knowing that this course is indispensable to medical practice and is the key to success for physicians in their practice, regardless of their specialty \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn fact, according to clinicians and anatomists, a solid grounding in anatomy acquired during medical training contributes significantly to both the physical examination of the patient in order to render a diagnosis and also to the understanding of pathologies to provide better patient care \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, gaps in clinicians\u0026rsquo; and surgeons\u0026rsquo; anatomy knowledge are often related to educators\u0026rsquo; lack of expertise in teaching this subject \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is therefore important that students be trained by teachers capable of transmitting anatomy knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the various health professions education programs, there is a wide variety in the profile of anatomy teachers. We found that these teachers have not received the same basic training. For example, they may be clinicians with or without basic training in anatomy teaching \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, teachers with medical training and experience in cadaveric dissection \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or teachers with or without basic medical training \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, no exhaustive synthesis of current knowledge has specifically addressed the profiles of anatomy teachers, along with the teaching and the evaluation strategies they use. This lack of synthesis complicates the identification of training needs, and the development of context specific recommendations. By providing a structured overview of these elements, this scoping review aims to fill this gap by clarifying teacher profiles and teaching practices to improve anatomy education for health science students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHence, we conducted a scoping review aimed at exploring the profile of these teachers in healthcare professionals\u0026rsquo; education, in particular with regard to their prior academic training, the healthcare professions in which they teach, course content taught to students, the teaching strategies they use, as well as evaluation strategies and their impact on students\u0026rsquo; education. More specifically, the research questions are: (1) What is the current state of knowledge on the prior training of anatomy teachers, depending on the healthcare profession? (2) What are the teaching strategies used based on the content to be taught? (3) What are the evaluation strategies and the impact of teaching in this context?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review was planned and conducted according to the frameworks introduced by Arksey and O\u0026rsquo;Malley \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, then enhanced by Levac and colleagues \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The steps included: 1) identifying the research questions, 2) identifying relevant studies, 3) study selection, 4) charting the data, 5) collating, summarizing and reporting the results. This study was carried out in accordance with PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews) guidelines for writing and reading a scoping review \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This exploratory study was registered with Open Science Framework (OSF) on March 4, 2025 (doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.17605/OSF.IO/GH5QT\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.17605/OSF.IO/GH5QT\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStep 1: Identifying the research questions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study was to explore the profile of anatomy teachers in the healthcare professions. More specifically, our research questions are:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1) What is the current state of knowledge on the prior training of anatomy teachers, depending on the healthcare profession?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2) What are the teaching strategies used based on the content to be taught?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3) What are the evaluation strategies and the impact of teaching in this context?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStep 2: Identifying relevant studies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe search strategy was developed by an academic librarian (Marie-C\u0026eacute;cile Domecq) in consultation with the research team. In accordance with the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guide \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the strategy was subsequently reviewed by a second librarian. This search strategy is presented in Appendix 1 and focuses on keywords used to describe teachers\u0026rsquo; academic profile and strategies they use for teaching and evaluating students. The search included published and peer-reviewed articles from various electronic databases. The search was limited to English and French articles, with no publication date restriction. A first iteration of the search strategy was developed in Medline (OVID) on June 26, 2024, with the final search strategy established on July 16, 2024. Our search identified a total of 10,032 articles: 4384 from Embase, 2962 from MEDLINE, 1267 from CINAHL, 505 from Eric, 487 from PsycINFO, 215 from Education Source and 212 from Web of Science.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStep 3: Study selection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInclusion and exclusion criteria were defined according to the PCC (Population, Concept, Context) framework as recommended by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The population included anatomy teachers working in health professions; the concept focused on their academic and professional profiles, teaching and assessment strategies; and the context was higher education in health-related programs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe studies identified were uploaded to Covidence (version 2.0, Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia) systematic review and web-based software, where we conducted the article screening and extraction phases. Duplicates were removed. A pilot assessment and screening tool was developed by the research team and tested on 30 articles selected at random. Study selection was done in two steps. First, five reviewers: (Joanne Fevry, JF; Meriem Merghem, MM; Anne Roberge, AR; Ryan Ramdani, RR; Isabelle Filion, IF) independently screened titles and abstracts to determine study eligibility based on established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Second, the full texts of articles were screened by the same reviewers, using the same criteria. Two votes were required for the inclusion of articles. At this stage, articles that, according to the independent reviewers, did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Each assessment and screening step was performed by two reviewers and discrepancies were resolved by a third reviewer (JF). The final list of articles was reviewed by the research team to determine whether additional articles should be included or excluded, and no further modifications were made. Overall, our inclusion criteria included: 1) all studies conducted among human anatomy teachers in healthcare professions; 2) all study designs used to describe the profile of these teachers, whether qualitative or quantitative, regardless of the purpose of the studies; 3) peer-reviewed studies; 4) articles published in French or English with no date restriction. These articles were published in scientific journals, books, book chapters and theses. Articles were excluded if they: 1) lacked stratification in the teacher population in the healthcare professions studied, 2) were not peer-reviewed. The full selection criteria are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy selection criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies involving human anatomy teachers working in healthcare professional education programs (e.g., medicine, nursing, physiotherapy).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies that do not clearly identify or stratify the anatomy teacher population.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy designs: randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (NRCTs), matched comparison studies, pre-post/post-only studies, cohort studies, qualitative studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-peer-reviewed publications (e.g., grey literature).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies reporting on the professional profile, qualifications, teaching experience, or pedagogical strategies of anatomy teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConference abstracts, letters to the editor and commentaries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticles published in French or English.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo restriction on publication date.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStep 4: Charting the data\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJF developed the extraction data sheet through an iterative process of revision with the lead supervisors: Alireza Jalali (AJ), Salomon Fotsing (SF). A data extraction grid was then developed by the research team, then tested before being incorporated into Microsoft Excel version 2306 for extraction of variables by independent reviewers (JF, AR, IF). This grid was used for articles from both scientific databases and the grey literature. The extraction sheet included data on publication characteristics (name of lead author, year of publication, publication journal, journal\u0026rsquo;s impact factor, country of data collection, funding source, and study registration if applicable), study characteristics (study design, sample size, participants, healthcare professions in which data were collected, inclusion and exclusion criteria), socio-demographic characteristics of participants (gender and age), years of anatomy teaching experience, university degrees, anatomy teachers\u0026rsquo; prior academic training, academic titles, academic contracts, teaching strategies they use, content of courses they teach, evaluation strategies and their impact in this context, depending on the purpose of the study. A pilot data extraction with one article was conducted with all reviewers to ensure consistent understanding of the variables on the data extraction sheet. No further modifications were subsequently made to the list of variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStep 5: Collating, summarizing and reporting the results\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing data extraction, the results were analyzed and synthesized by the lead author (JF), reviewed by the supervisors (AJ, SF), and then by all co-authors. One reviewer (JF) subsequently analyzed thematic trends using the information extracted from all articles. We conducted a narrative summary of the qualitative data. The reviewer (JF) then compiled a descriptive summary of the extracted data using key characteristics and themes. The results were structured around information on characteristics of the selected studies and on socio-demographic characteristics of participants, years of teaching experience, university degrees, academic training, academic titles and contracts, teaching strategies used, content of courses taught, evaluation strategies adopted and the impact of this teaching. We synthesized the information gathered to produce a summary of the results, considering the similarities and differences between the studies that could influence our conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe initial search generated a total of 10,032 articles. After duplicates were removed, 6779 articles were screened for eligibility and 381 were selected for full-text review (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below). Among those, 339 articles were excluded and 42 were selected for data extraction as they met the inclusion criteria. Several excluded articles were not reviewed because of their type (conference abstracts, commentaries, letters to the editor, etc.) (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;143); some were excluded due to a lack of teacher stratification (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;87); others had content not relevant to the research question (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;74), a study design not clearly defined (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22), wrong context (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10), results not aligned with our study (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), or language of publication not consistent with the pre-established criteria (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1). The majority of articles were published in English (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41), with one publication (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) in French. Detailed data extraction tables for all included studies are available in Appendix 2 (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, 4). In the main text, tables are presented to summarize the main results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCharacteristics of the selected studies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe studies included in this scoping review were spread across various geographical regions. Most studies were conducted in America (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21) and Europe (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11), with fewer from Africa, Asia and Oceania (see Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below). Of the 18 studies from the American continent, 10 were based solely on data from the United States, while 4 included data from both United States and Canada, and 3 included data from both United States and European countries. Four additional studies used data from Chile and Mexico (see Appendix 2 for more details).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese studies were conducted with human anatomy teachers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, heads of anatomy departments or academic programs, candidates for anatomy teaching positions, medical students and anatomy teachers, student-tutors in medicine or other healthcare professions, anatomy teachers and researchers, and heads of clinical training programs (diagnostic radiology, general surgery, emergency medicine, family medicine) (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb in Appendix 2 for details).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese data were collected in several healthcare professions, mainly in medicine (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Added to this are physiotherapy (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9), nursing, occupational therapy, dentistry and other paramedical professions, as well as academic disciplines such as anatomy and physiology (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb - Appendix 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 42 articles included were published between 1961 and 2024 (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These studies used descriptive and/or transverse study designs (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36), with comparative (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8), exploratory (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), evaluative (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), documentary (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), observational (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) and correlational (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) analyses, as well as pre-test/post-test study designs (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2), narrative (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) and systematic (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) reviews. These articles mostly used quantitative approaches, followed by mixed then qualitative approaches (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive characteristics of the 42 included studies: Distribution by year of publication, continent, methodology, socio-demographic characteristics and health professions involved in the data collection\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies (n)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear of publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn or after 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeographic continent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmerica\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEurope\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfrica\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAsia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOceania\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmerica/Eur.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethodology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;M\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;F\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLess than 35 y/o\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore than 35 y/o\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYears of anatomy teaching\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;10 years\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;20 years\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore than 20 years\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHealth professions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhysical Therapy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOther: Nursing, Pharmacy, Occupational Therapy, Radiographic Technology, Optometry, Dentistry, Chiropractic, Public Health, etc.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eM: male, F: female; y/o: years old\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe articles analyzed showed that the majority of anatomy teachers are male (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10). However, some recent studies show a predominance of women (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). One study indicates both genders equally represented \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, while others show variations among groups studied \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results indicate that there is no clear majority regarding age. Some studies report that most anatomy teachers are aged 35 and over, generally between the ages of 31 and 50, or even older \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. They are considered to be the most experienced, most of whom are physicians \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Others, younger than age 35 \u003csup\u003e22,27\u003c/sup\u003e, are also very represented, and some are teacher-tutors whose average age in one study is 20.48 years \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. (See Appendix 2 for further details).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eYears of anatomy teaching experience\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe articles analyzed show a wide variation in terms of experience among the teachers studied (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). As indicated in several studies, some teachers had taught anatomy for 5 years or less \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, particularly those employed as anatomy demonstrators with approximately one year of experience \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or as teacher-tutors with experience varying from 1 to 7 semesters \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Others have more experience, up to 10 years \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or even 30 years or more \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. (Appendix 2 for more details).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcademic titles and contracts\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur data show that anatomy teachers are recruited as full professors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, lecturers working under the supervision of course directors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, assistant teachers and adjunct professors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, associate teachers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, senior lecturers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and anatomy demonstrators or facilitators \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Others are student-tutors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or researchers who teach anatomy, some of whom do not have formal clinical or pedagogical training \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003e(see Appendix 2 for further details)\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChairs of anatomy and senior lecturers are generally permanent positions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, whereas assistant teachers, adjunct professors, demonstrators and teacher-tutors are in most cases temporary positions and they are hired for specific academic missions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Regarding their academic contracts, some are employed full-time and assigned to their institutions on a permanent basis, providing them with long-term job stability \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, while others are employed part-time, for a shorter term or half-time \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Teachers\u0026rsquo; academic titles and contracts are detailed in Appendix 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eUniversity degrees\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur data show that anatomy teachers have diverse university degrees and professional qualifications, with differences by region and institution. Their educational qualifications vary from bachelor\u0026rsquo;s \u003csup\u003e25,29,42\u003c/sup\u003e, master\u0026rsquo;s \u003csup\u003e10,29,45,46\u003c/sup\u003e and doctorate \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e degrees, to certifications \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, as well as fellowships and post-doctoral training \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, sometimes with a combination of qualifications. (for further details see Appendix 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSummary of teacher training, teaching strategies, content taught, assessment strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcademic training\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDoctorate in anatomy or a related field and/or clinicians (physicians or other health professionals).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaster's degree in anatomy or a related field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBachelor's degree in anatomy or a related field.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCertifications for continuing education\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearchers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePostdoctoral training\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTeaching strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditional approach (lectures, human cadaveric dissection/prosection, ect.)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed approached (traditional and modern approaches such as VR\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, online learning, NPT\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003c/sup\u003e, ect.)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContent taught\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMacroanatomy: (musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, renal, endocrine, gastrointestinal, skeletal and neuroanatomy systems).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMicroanatomy: (embryology, histology)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluation strategies and impact\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOral exams: Improved critical thinking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMultiple-choice and open-ended questions: Improved comprehension.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdentifying imagery structures: Improved practical skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTimed vs. untimed tests: No significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMultiple-choice questions only: Impairs long-term retention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePrior academic training\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur results show that doctorate degrees in medicine and science (PhD) are very common among anatomy teachers\u0026rsquo; qualifications (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Among those with doctorate degrees in medicine, we find professional clinicians and physicians in training in medical-surgical specializations \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Others are clinicians or surgeons who are retired \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this category of medically-trained teachers, we also find students with advanced medical training or from other healthcare professions, employed as teacher-tutors in charge of teaching those just beginning their program of study \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Regarding those teaching in non-medical schools, most of them have qualifications related to the discipline in which they teach. These are physiotherapists \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, occupational therapists \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, neuroscientists \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, chiropractors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data also reveal that some of these teachers have qualifications in anatomy or in a related discipline \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and others have continuing education certifications \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Others hold degrees in other disciplines such as biology \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, physiology \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, anthropology \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, veterinary medicine \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and zoology \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, we note that some of these teachers are neither qualified in medicine nor in education, but are scientists hired for their research skills, and some have had anatomy teacher training sessions through their affiliated institutions in order to teach students \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. See details in Appendix 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTeaching strategies and content of courses taught\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs part of anatomy teaching, various teaching strategies are implemented by anatomy teachers and institutions for delivering varied content to students. Anatomy teachers employ traditional teaching strategies sometimes combined with more modern approaches (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), depending on the availability of these resources \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The most commonly used traditional approaches include human cadaveric dissection \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, human cadaveric prosection and lectures \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, use of plastinated specimens \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, physical anatomical models \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and histology and embryology laboratories \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In contrast, modern approaches rely on technology to teach anatomical content to students \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This includes medical imaging techniques \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, virtual dissection \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, virtual reality \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, tutorial platforms \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and online learning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Added to this are multimodal approaches combining traditional strategies with modern ones that are frequently used by teachers. This is generally done via seminar sessions held in small groups \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, practical work using the flipped classroom approach \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, problem-based or case-based learning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or additional integration of clinical hour sessions for more interactive and participatory learning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, there is also near peer teaching, another type of teaching strategy adopted by some institutions, in which more advanced level students pass on their anatomical knowledge to novice peers or those less advanced \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. (See details in Appendix 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe courses taught cover content related not only to macroscopic anatomy, but also to surface, functional, progressive, comparative and microscopic anatomy, which uses tools for studying histological and embryological structures \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (details are provided in Appendix 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnatomy is sometimes taught as an interdisciplinary subject with other subjects such as physiology, biology, radiology and clinical cases in order to enhance the application and understand of concepts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The content taught varies from one profession to another. It includes a range of anatomical systems, as detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e above and the Appendix 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEvaluation strategies and their impact in teaching\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn order to evaluate anatomy students\u0026rsquo; theoretical and practical knowledge, teachers use different approaches for testing students\u0026rsquo; level of comprehension (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These are written evaluations in the form of short/long answer or multiple-choice questions (MCQ) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, case studies \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, drawings \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, true or false questions, developmental or match questions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. We also note practical evaluations such as oral tests \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, practical tests in anatomy and osteology laboratories \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, identification of structures using images or human cadavers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, one-off practical tests \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, spotter examinations \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and timed or untimed spot tests \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Next, we note the use of continuous evaluations, such as unplanned surprise quizzes \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, formal review sessions and weekly evaluations for continuous monitoring of students\u0026rsquo; acquired knowledge \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Evaluations are sometimes done using histological slides and radiological images \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A study mentioned the use of synoptic exams at the end of courses and end of the academic year \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, national exams for medical school students in the United States \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, as well as student projects in some study programs \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Evaluation strategies are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, with full details in Appendix 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the impact of anatomy teaching as measured by student performance on evaluations, this review reports that MCQ and open-ended questions yield similar results for evaluating acquired knowledge \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, it is indicated that exclusive and systematic use of MCQ for student evaluation may not be adequate to measure in-depth understanding and may adversely affect long-term retention \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Another study conducted in several medical schools in South Africa states that timed spot tests are the most widely used, but that no significant difference is observed with untimed spot tests in terms of students\u0026rsquo; academic performance \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, oral tests seem to promote a more detailed evaluation of anatomical concepts since they require students to structure and clearly explain their ideas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Other authors note that the identification of anatomical structures on ultrasound images is an effective way to evaluate students\u0026rsquo; ability to put their knowledge into practice in a clinical context \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis review looks at the profile of anatomy teachers working in healthcare professions. While other studies have focused on anatomy teachers, to our knowledge, no work has yet offered a detailed compilation of their profiles. The 42 articles selected describe a range of profiles in the anatomy teacher population. Most of them hold a doctorate in anatomy (PhD), sometimes combined with a medical degree. The teaching strategies integrate traditional approaches, such as practical laboratory work and lectures, often combined with modern approaches such as virtual technologies. The content taught varies depending on the healthcare professions in which they teach. To evaluate students, they use diverse evaluation strategies, such as written, practical and continuous tests. The teaching provided has a significant impact on theoretical knowledge and the practical application of concepts learned by the students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the results concerning anatomy teachers\u0026rsquo; academic training are comparable to the data in the current literature. In our study, we observe a strong presence of doctorate degrees in anatomy or related disciplines, sometimes combined with a doctorate degree in medicine, particularly in North American medical schools, such as those in the United States and Canada \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This aligns with authors, who note that many anatomy teachers in medical schools in the United States are holders of medical degrees often combined with a PhD in anatomy, whereas in other international contexts, these teachers are recruited for their clinical expertise \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The study by Kramer (2008), which gathers data from six African countries, as well as other studies conducted in Mexico or France, report that anatomy teachers are mostly clinicians, few of whom have formal training in anatomy or in education \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These observations align with other findings, who state that, depending on the context, anatomy teachers are clinicians who add a practical dimension to the teaching of this discipline \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These authors therefore propose a collaboration with competent anatomists to ensure quality training \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, literature state that, in other healthcare professions, such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy and dentistry, these teachers generally have degrees related to the healthcare disciplines in which they teach \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, as also shown by our results \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our study also reports a notable shift in teachers\u0026rsquo; clinical and anatomical qualifications towards scientific research \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Several studies confirm this trend and express their concerns regarding the quality of teaching, in view of the priority given to research skills when recruiting these teachers, sometimes to the detriment of clinical and anatomical skills \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. According to researchers, this trend could jeopardize the quality of the theoretical and practical teaching of this discipline, and they suggest adapting this teaching to the particular needs of each profession and strengthening teacher training in order to better meet the scientific requirements of modern pedagogy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. They also emphasize the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to teaching anatomy and the need to consolidate the academic training of these teachers \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR61\" citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, the teaching strategies employed by anatomy teachers are consistent with scientific literature and the choice of pedagogical approaches depends on the availability of institutional resources and their academic titles. According to our study, institutions well-equipped in human, material and financial resources tend to combine traditional strategies with modern ones \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, entities with limited resources tend to rely on more conventional approaches that include the use of chalk and blackboards, as well as restricted dissection sessions or the use of prosected specimens \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These results are in line with those observed by other researchers, who highlight that better funded institutions have greater opportunities to combine such things as lectures and cadaveric dissection with contemporary approaches such as imaging and virtual reality, in order to provide students with more balanced training \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These results find that structural challenges facing institutions have a significant impact on the choice of pedagogical approaches \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, our results call into question the effectiveness of exclusively using modern strategies compared to traditional ones \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which is consistent with the literature that highlights the importance of traditional approaches, particularly cadaveric dissection which remains a cornerstone in the training of future physicians \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our results also report that professors holding the chair of anatomy often use approaches that focus on theoretical teaching and generally have more resources at their disposal \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Unlike those hired on a temporary basis, such as lecturers or assistant professors, who have limited access to institutional resources, their approaches are more interactive and collaborative, such as small group sessions (e.g., dissection or seminars) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These results are in keeping with those of other researchers who note that tenured teachers, because of their institutional obligations, are more inclined to use more traditional approaches that are often research-oriented \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, as opposed to non-tenured teachers, who are more flexible and tend to favour more active and participatory approaches that are student-centered \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In contrast with these observations, other writings emphasize that, regardless of teachers\u0026rsquo; institutional status, teachers should be able to choose their own approach, even if these decisions are influenced by institutional resources and policies \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur study finds that the content taught to students varies essentially according to the healthcare profession. However, none of the included articles established a direct relationship between the strategies applied and the content to be taught. As observed in the University of Ottawa\u0026rsquo;s Faculty of Medicine, manipulable structures, for example muscles, are studied using cadaveric material, whereas more delicate structures like parts of the eye or the limbic system are better explored using a multimodal approach, combining dissection, prosected materials, plastic anatomical models or other technological resources available. This observation aligns with studies, who report that neuroanatomical content is better studied using a multimodal approach because of its complexity, in order to facilitate students\u0026rsquo; understanding \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This is also in line with the writings of Singh et al. (2019), who emphasize the importance of a multimodal approach to better integrate theoretical concepts with practice and stimulate students\u0026rsquo; long-term memorization \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLastly, the evaluation strategies used for testing anatomy students\u0026rsquo; knowledge are also used to measure the impact of teaching this subject, as described in the current literature. The writings agree on the importance of adapting evaluations to pedagogical objectives \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our study criticizes the exclusive and continuous use of MCQ and proposes a more diversified approach. This approach consists of combining various categories of tests to evaluate students, such as timed practical tests to identify structures, oral tests for understanding concepts, and open-ended questions to develop students\u0026rsquo; critical reasoning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This diversity in evaluations is useful for measuring student competencies and to better determine their ability to apply anatomical knowledge in the clinical setting. Other authors support our results and emphasize that this combining provides a more comprehensive and beneficial evaluation, useful for measuring the real impact of human anatomy teaching on students\u0026rsquo; learning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These findings also report that this approach has a notable influence on student comprehension, long-term memorization and critical thinking, which would be beneficial for professional practice \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Conversely, Thompson et al. (2016) state that MCQ with either a simple or complex format, while presenting some challenges, are also useful for comprehension and developing clinical reasoning \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, our study is critical of timed practical tests, as according to the authors, these types of tests can underestimate students\u0026rsquo; real abilities due to the time limits often imposed and the stress they can cause \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This aligns with the writings of Thompson et al. (2016), who emphasize the importance of thoughtful organization of the different categories of questions asked of students during evaluative exams, so as not to compromise their overall performance \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis review on the profile of anatomy teachers presents several limitations. Firstly, most of articles included in this review are from the America continent particularly in United States while the other searches are divided between different countries. This could lead to a geographical bias, given that the skills and experience of these teachers varies from one region or institution to another, while some countries are underrepresented. As a result, more representative studies of continents would help to obtain a more comprehensive view of the ideal profile of anatomy teachers on a global scale. Next, there is wide variation in the objectives of the articles included. For example, some may focus on academic training without really addressing the strategies they employ, and vice versa. This could lead to unclear interpretations of points discussed superficially. Lastly, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all healthcare professions, since the studies were largely conducted in medical schools with a lower representation of the other professions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis scoping review aimed to explore the profile of anatomy teachers, as well as their teaching and evaluation strategies. Analysis of the 42 studies reveals a wide range of profiles : the majority hold a doctorate degree in anatomy or a related discipline, sometimes combined with a medical degree. However, depending on regional and institutional contexts, some are clinicians without formal training in anatomy or pedagogy, while others are researchers. Consequently, there is no single profile. The teaching strategies are mostly multimodal, and the evaluations aim to measure memorization and the clinical application of acquired knowledge. No study established a clear link between the content taught and the pedagogical approaches used. Future research studies could explore the best strategies to adopt based on the content taught, as well as the ideal profile a teacher should have in order to teach anatomy courses, to guide training and professional development in this field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during this scoping review are included in this published article and its supplementary files. The data extraction table is provided as a supplementary file. Screening and data management were performed using Covidence (www.covidence.org).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funding was received for this study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAJ and SF supervised the study and provided critical revisions. JF designed the study, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. MCD, in collaboration with the team, developed the search strategy. MM, AR, RR, and IF contributed to study selection and data extraction. All authors revised and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors would like to thank the department of anatomy and francophone affairs of the faculty of medicine at the university of Ottawa for their involvement in this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTotlis T, Tishukov M, Piagkou M, Kostares M, Natsis K. Online educational methods vs. traditional teaching of anatomy during the COVID-19 pandemic. \u003cem\u003eAnatomy Cell Biol\u003c/em\u003e. 2021 oct 1;54(3):332. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.5115/acb.21.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5115/acb.21.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJalali A, Ramnanan CJ. 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Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1002/ase.1866\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ase.1866\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. [2025 Feb 20].\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSingh K, Bharatha A, Sa B, Adams OP, Majumder MAA. Teaching anatomy using an active and engaging learning strategy. BMC Med Educ d\u0026eacute;c. 2019;19(1):149. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s12909-019-1590-2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12909-019-1590-2\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRyan AT, Wilkinson TJ. Rethinking Assessment Design: Evidence-Informed Strategies to Boost Educational Impact in the Anatomical Sciences. Anatomical Sci Ed mai. 2021;14(3):361\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1002/ase.2075\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ase.2075\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThompson AR, Kelso RS, Ward PJ, Wines K, Hanna JB. Assessment Driven Learning: The Use of Higher-Order and Discipline-Integrated Questions on Gross Anatomy Practical Examinations. Med Sci Educ d\u0026eacute;c. 2016;26(4):587\u0026ndash;96. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s40670-016-0306-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s40670-016-0306-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-medical-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"meed","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Medical Education](http://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/meed/default.aspx","title":"BMC Medical Education","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"anatomy education, anatomy teacher profile, health professions education, teaching strategies, anatomy instructor qualifications, human anatomy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468584/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468584/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground / Objective: \u003c/strong\u003eHealth education programs present a wide variety of teacher profiles in human anatomy. This study aimed to explore the academic backgrounds of these teachers, the health professions in which they teach, the content delivered, and the teaching strategies employed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eThis work followed the steps outlined by Arksey and O'Malley, as well as the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Data were sourced from major academic databases. Five reviewers used Covidence to analyze the articles. Data on teachers and their strategies were extracted and then narratively synthesized.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eOf the 6,779 studies analyzed, 42 were selected. Teachers held a variety of degrees, including PhDs in anatomy and medicine. Most were full-time faculty members, including professors, lecturers and assistant professors with over twenty years of experience. Teaching strategies combined traditional and modern approaches, and assessments included written, practical, and continuous examinations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiscussion / Conclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eThis study demonstrated that anatomy teachers do not share a single profile. Teaching strategies need to be adapted to regional and institutional contexts. It is therefore necessary to support these teachers to better meet the contemporary demands of anatomy education.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Profile of Anatomy Teachers of Students in Healthcare Professions: A Scoping Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-27 16:12:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7468584/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-10T08:37:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-08T08:37:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"116050759634002080105854349055732232619","date":"2025-12-04T03:20:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-18T03:19:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"91988818200062863820794524470632688260","date":"2025-11-02T19:37:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-13T12:20:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-13T11:51:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T18:15:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T12:55:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Medical Education","date":"2025-09-25T12:41:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-medical-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"meed","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Medical Education](http://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/meed/default.aspx","title":"BMC Medical Education","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fcd265b2-fc24-41c1-bf2a-332c57a585cc","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T16:10:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7468584","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-026-08721-x","journal":{"identity":"bmc-medical-education","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Medical Education"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-12 15:58:07","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 12th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-27 16:12:52","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12909-026-08721-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-026-08721-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7468584","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7468584","identity":"rs-7468584","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}