The Investigation of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in  Male Sprinters and Endurance Runners Brains Based on fNIRS

The Investigation of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Male Sprinters and Endurance Runners Brains Based on fNIRS | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Investigation of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Male Sprinters and Endurance Runners Brains Based on fNIRS Mengqi Liu, Wenyan Zhao, Xiaocong Yan, Zhenghao Xue, Ying Qin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Apr, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective To investigate the impact of extended aerobic and anaerobic exercise on cerebral activity by analyzing the functional connectivity strength attributes of the cerebral cortex in endurance runners (aerobic) and sprint athletes (anaerobic) during the resting state with fNIRS. Method Thirteen sprinters and twelve endurance runners were assessed using a functional near-infrared spectroscopic imaging system to quantify resting-state functional connection strengths for HbO 2 , HbR, and HbT across the brain, namely in the prefrontal and primary motor cortex. Results 1. In the examination of functional connectivity of HbO 2 , the overall functional connection strength of the anaerobic group exceeded that of the aerobic group. In the regions of interest, the functional connection strength in the left and right prefrontal cortex of the anaerobic group surpassed that of the aerobic group. However, the functional connectivity strength in the right primary motor cortex of the aerobic group was greater than that of the anaerobic group. In comparisons between regions of interest, the functional connection strength between the left and right prefrontal cortex was greater in the anaerobic group. In contrast, the aerobic group had a more pronounced functional connectivity strength between the left and right primary motor cortex. 2. The functional connectivity study of HbR indicated that the mean whole-brain functional connection strength in the anaerobic group surpassed that of the aerobic group; however, no significant differences were seen between the two groups in intra- and inter-ROI comparisons. 3. The functional connectivity study of HbT indicated that the average brain-wide functional connection strength in the aerobic group surpassed that of the anaerobic group. In the regions of interest, the anaerobic group had greater functional connectivity strength in the right prefrontal cortex. In contrast, the aerobic group demonstrated more pronounced functional connectivity strength in the right primary motor cortex. The aerobic group exhibited greater functional connection strength between M1-R and M1-L throughout the regions of interest. Conclusion The aerobic group had enhanced functional brain connectivity in the primary motor cortex, whereas the anaerobic group demonstrated superior functional brain connectivity in the prefrontal lobe. Various exercise modalities will have distinct influences on neuroplasticity across different brain regions, establishing a novel theoretical framework for exercise training and clinical rehabilitation. Biological sciences/Neuroscience Biological sciences/Physiology Health sciences/Neurology Aerobic exercise Anaerobic exercise Resting-state functional connectivity Functional near-infrared spectroscopy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Physical activity provides significant benefits in improving physical fitness and fostering cognitive wellness. Prolonged engagement in physical activity can markedly improve cognitive performance and decelerate the brain's ageing process 1 . Moreover, engagement in physical activity helps mitigate sadness and anxiety while enhancing an individual's emotional regulation and adaptability to stress. Exercise specificity profoundly influences physiological and psychological systems; low-intensity sustained aerobic exercise and high-intensity intermittent anaerobic exercise induce adaptive modifications in the cardiovascular system 3 (cardiac output and stroke volume), the musculoskeletal system 4 (muscle fiber hypertrophy, mitochondrial density, and motor unit recruitment), and the peripheral nervous system via distinct metabolic pathways. Advancements in neuroimaging have directed researchers' attention to the impact of various movement patterns on the central nervous system, notably as seen by the intensity of resting-state functional connectivity. Functional connectivity strength denotes the synchronized activities or relationships among various brain regions utilized to comprehend the brain's functions across diverse states or tasks by quantifying the temporal correlation of neural signals between distinct brain areas 5,6 . Increased functional connection strength enhances the efficiency of information flow, integration, and collaboration among brain regions. Resting State Functional Connectivity (RSFC) is a metric specifically formulated to assess the interconnection of various brain regions or tissues during the resting state. The resting state does not represent complete 'rest'; instead, it reflects 'internal brain activity' or 'spontaneous brain activity.' The brain's energy consumption at rest is nearly equivalent to that during task performance 8 , indicating that the intensity of functional connection can characterize resting-state brain activity. Prior research has concentrated on the impact of individual exercise sessions on the strength of functional connectivity within the cerebral cortex 9–11 . At the same time, fewer investigations have explored the effects of prolonged aerobic and anaerobic training on resting-state functional connectivity in the brain, particularly among athletes. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a noninvasive, real-time technique for monitoring cerebral activity that is safe, portable, quiet, and relatively cost-effective. It is less cumbersome than other neurofunctional imaging modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET). The fNIRS technique for scanning cortical activity during the brain's resting state accurately captures the cumulative impacts of prolonged experience, as it is unaffected by external variables 12 . Prolonged systematic training results in distinct patterns of neuronal activation throughout several pertinent brain regions within the cerebral cortex network, potentially correlating with the motor talents or skills necessary for diverse movement patterns. This study identified the primary motor cortex (M1) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) as regions of interest (ROIs), which primarily govern motor control and cognitive functions, respectively, exhibiting significant adaptability in both structure and function based on training experience 12,13 . Anaerobic activity, such as sprinting, necessitates rapid decision-making and significant cognitive regulation, and the robustness of functional connections in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a center for advanced cognition, may be enhanced with high-repetition explosive training 14 . Aerobic activity, such as endurance running, facilitates synaptic remodeling and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the primary motor cortex (M1) by elevating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels 15 . Given the distinct impact of various exercise modalities on cerebral function, we hypothesized that resting-state prefrontal cortex functional connectivity strength would be significantly greater in chronically anaerobically trained athletes compared to aerobically trained athletes, whereas M1 functional connectivity strength would be superior in aerobically trained athletes. This study aims to compare the functional connectivity characteristics of various brain regions in the resting state between athletes engaged in long-term aerobic and anaerobic training utilizing the FNIRS technique. The objective is to offer novel research insights into how prolonged aerobic and anaerobic training fosters neural plasticity in the brain through a contemporary neuroimaging approach and to clarify the impact of distinct exercise modalities on the functional connectivity of brain networks, thereby enhancing the understanding of the neurological mechanisms underlying exercise training in the promotion of brain health. We will clarify the impact of various exercise modalities on the functional connectivity of brain networks and enhance the understanding of the neural mechanisms behind exercise training for brain health. Results This study encompasses measurements of HbO 2 , HbR, and HbT. Hemodynamic changes in cerebral activity can be deduced by analyzing the differential absorption of light by oxyhemoglobin (HbO 2 ) and deoxyhemoglobin (HbR), which absorb different wavelengths. HbT denotes the total of HbO 2 and HbR, reflecting fluctuations in both HbO 2 and HbR and providing comprehensive insights on blood supply and utilization in cerebral regions. This study discovered four intra-ROI connectivity patterns: PFC-L-PFC-L, PFC-R-PFC-R, M1-R-M1-R, and M1-L-M1-L. The six inter-ROI connectivity patterns included PFC-L-PFC-R, PFC-L-M1-R, PFC-L-M1-L, PFC-R-M1-R, PFC-R-M1-R, PFC-R-M1-L, and M1-R-M1-L. Comparison of functional connection strength in the brain among HbO 2 -based groups Figure 1 illustrates the average strength of whole brain HbO 2 resting state functional connectivity between aerobic and anaerobic groups. The mean functional connectivity strength in the anaerobic group was (0.53±0.16), while in the aerobic group it was (0.52±0.17). The average strength of whole-brain functional connectivity in the anaerobic group exceeded that of the aerobic group. Comparative analyses of functional connectivity strength within the four regions of interest (ROIs) and among the six ROI pairs in the two athlete groups demonstrated highly significant differences in correlation coefficients for PFC-L ( P =0.003, Hedges' g=1.48, 95% CI[0.74, 2.22]), PFC-R ( P =0.003, Hedges' g=1.49, 95% CI[0.75, 2.23]), M1-R ( P =0.003, Hedges' g=-1.34, 95% CI[-2.07, -0.61]), PFC-L-PFC-R ( P =0.004, Hedges' g=1.50, 95% CI[0.76, 2.24]), and M1-R-M1-L ( P =0.001, Hedges' g=-1.77, 95% CI[-2.26, -0.98]). The functional connectivity strength between PFC-L regions was greater in the anaerobic group (r=0.884±0.186) compared to the aerobic group (r=0.608±0.198), and the connectivity between PFC-R regions was also higher in the anaerobic group (r=0.928±0.226) than in the aerobic group (r=0.590±0.227). The functional connectivity between the PFC-L and PFC-R areas was greater in the anaerobic group (r=0.854±0.180) compared to the aerobic group (r=0.576±0.196). The functional connection strength between the M1-R areas was greater in the aerobic group (r=0. The functional connectivity in the aerobic group (r=0.802±0.160) was superior to that in the anaerobic group (r=0.519±0.154) within the M1-R-M1-L areas, indicating a greater amount of connectivity between them. The results are shown in Figure 2. Comparison of brain functional connectivity strength between HbR-based groups Figure 3 illustrates the average strength of whole-brain HbR resting-state functional connectivity between the aerobic and anaerobic groups. The mean strength of whole-brain functional connectivity in the anaerobic group was 0.18±0.13, while in the aerobic group, it was 0.17±0.12, indicating that the anaerobic group's functional connectivity strength was superior to that of the aerobic group. Comparative analyses of the mean degree of functional connectivity within and among the regions of interest (ROIs) indicated that the disparity between the two groups based on hemoglobin redox state (HbR) was not statistically significant ( P >0.05). The results are shown in Figure 4. Comparison of brain functional connectivity strength between HbT-based groups Figure 5 illustrates the average strength of whole brain HbT resting state functional connectivity between aerobic and anaerobic groups. The anaerobic group exhibited an average whole-brain functional connectivity of (0.63±0.19). In contrast, the aerobic group demonstrated a higher average of (0.65±0.21), indicating superior functional connectivity strength in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Comparative analyses of the strength of functional connectivity within the four regions of interest (ROIs) and among the six ROI pairs in the two athlete groups revealed significant differences in correlation coefficients for the PFC-R ( P =0.03, Hedges' g=1.05, 95% CI[0.35, 1.75]), M1-R ( P =0.02, Hedges' g=-1.27, 95% CI[-1.99, -0.55]), and M1-R-M1-L ( P =0.01, Hedges' g=-1.40, 95% CI[-2.14, -0.66]) regions. The functional connectivity strength was greater in the aerobic group (r=1.100±0.294) compared to the anaerobic group (r=0.720±0.305) in the M1-R region, and it was also higher in the aerobic group (r=0.992±0.305) than in the anaerobic group between the M1-R and M1-L regions. The functional connection strength in the aerobic group (r=0.992±0.305) surpassed that of the anaerobic group (r=0.641±0.148). The results are shown in Figure 6. Discussion The prefrontal cortex is essential for coordinating and executing motions, as it is involved in goal planning, decision making, motivation, and cognitive control 13 . The resting state is defined as the intrinsic activity of neurons in the brain during periods devoid of specialized cognitive tasks, illustrating the essential characteristics of neural function. The level of functional connection during the resting state offers a crucial viewpoint for evaluating the impact of aerobic and anaerobic exercise on cerebral function. The findings indicated that the strength of HbO 2 functional connection among the PFC-L, PFC-R, and PFC-L-PFC-R areas was greater in the anaerobic group compared to the aerobic group, and the connectivity strength between PFC-R surpassed that of PFC-L. The intensity of HbT functional connectivity between PFC-R areas surpassed that of the aerobic group. There is a paucity of prior research on aerobic and anaerobic activity at rest; nonetheless, this aligns with earlier findings during exercise 16 ; Kojima S et al. discovered that prefrontal functional connection strength was markedly greater in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Kojima S et al. observed a notable elevation in prefrontal cortex HbO 2 following the aerobic threshold (AT) during incremental loading exercise, with the oxygenation rate in the right prefrontal lobe preceding that of the left prefrontal lobe. Brief intervals of anaerobic exercise lead to increased prefrontal oxygenated hemoglobin levels 16 – 18 , thereby reducing deoxyhemoglobin, a phenomenon that may intensify with extended anaerobic training. Such changes may arise from external settings or learning demands that modify brain structure or function, a phenomenon referred to as neuroplasticity 19 . Research indicates that prolonged training substantially influences neuronal alterations, cerebral architecture, and neural network interconnectivity 20 . Sprinting is a quintessential anaerobic workout primarily fuelled by the phosphagen system, characterized by brief duration, high intensity, and rapid energy expenditure. Anaerobic exercise elicits significant alterations in neuronal function and brain structure 22 . Prior research indicates that anaerobic exercise generates lactic acid, which prompts the release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), resulting in heightened capillary density in the brain, and this augmentation in capillary density may modify the interactions between neurons and blood vessels 23 . Lactate additionally facilitates neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus 24 , and the proper functioning of the hippocampus is a crucial prerequisite for the prefrontal lobe to execute cognitive activities successfully 25 , hence allowing individuals to process information efficiently. Besides neurovascular adaptations, anaerobic exercise may induce morphological alterations in the brain, resulting in an increase in grey matter volume in the basal ganglia of athletes who have participated in extended anaerobic exercise 22 , which is closely associated with the regulation of motor skills. The basal ganglia predominantly receive signals from the prefrontal brain, which may represent the initial motor intention 26 . The elevated strength of functional connection in the prefrontal lobe within the anaerobic group may be attributed to neural adaptation, structural alterations in the brain, and additional factors. Modern sprinting tactics depend on the synchronization of the neuromuscular system to attain rapid movement, and proficient execution of these techniques enhances the athlete's focus, cognitive capacity, and overall performance throughout both the acceleration and sprint stages of the race 27 . The quality of strength is fundamental for athletes to execute technical motions; for sprinters, explosive power and speed endurance are significantly enhanced through resistance training. Research indicates that resistance training improves working memory and executive function 28 , 29 , potentially linked to increased levels of cognition-related hormones such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), irisin, and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) 13 . Resistance training induces increased hormone levels that enhance neuroplasticity and cognitive function 30 . The modified brain function in the anaerobic group may be ascribed to the characteristics of extended engagement in sport-specific skill training and energy sources that improve prefrontal function. The primary motor cortex is the key area of the cerebral cortex responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements. The findings indicated that the strength of HbO 2 functional connectivity between the M1-R and M1-R-M1-L regions was significantly greater in the aerobic group than in the anaerobic group, and the strength of HbT functional connectivity within the M1-R region was likewise superior in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Prior research indicated that comparisons of the strength of resting-state functional connectivity of HbO 2 in the motor cortex, conducted before and after moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, demonstrated significant differences solely within the high fitness level group among college students of varying fitness levels 5 . This study compared the resting-state functional connectivity strength of HbO 2 in the motor cortex with that of the high-fitness level group. This indicates that fitness level may diminish the impact of aerobic exercise on functional brain connections, implying that low-intensity aerobic exercise could be more advantageous for individuals with elevated fitness levels. The theory of transitory frontal lobe hypoplasia 30 indicates that extended physical activity results in a redistribution of the brain's finite metabolic resources and that exercise stimulates neural activation associated with motor patterns, sensory input processing, and autonomic regulation, consequently diminishing cortical activity in regions not pertinent to exercise 33 , 34 . Extended aerobic exercise generates structural and functional alterations in the brain, with the motor cortex significantly influencing aerobic activity 35 – 37 , potentially augmenting the strength of M1 connections. Endurance running is a conventional aerobic activity defined by aerobic oxidative energy production and sustained availability of energy substrates. The disparity in M1 between the aerobic and anaerobic groups may stem from many physiological factors. Aerobic exercise elevates BDNF levels at the cellular level, which is essential for neuronal remodeling, regulation of synaptic plasticity, and neurotransmitter release 34 . Endurance runners exhibit augmented grey matter volume and cortical surface area in the left precentral gyrus, along with improved functional connectivity between the right postcentral gyrus and precentral gyrus 38 , 39 . These regions are essential for conveying motor impulses to the body's muscles and are intricately linked to motor control. Research demonstrated that neoangiogenesis and capillary diameter increased in the rat motor cortex following a 5-week aerobic exercise regimen 38 , 39 . Aerobic exercise influences the function and organization of the primary motor cortex via many mechanisms that improve motor control and execution. This study clarifies the relationship between aerobic exercise and the primary motor cortex. Limitations This study has certain drawbacks. The limited sample size may restrict the generalisability of the findings; nonetheless, post hoc efficacy studies validated the statistical power required to identify bigger effect sizes. Secondly, while we accounted for acute factors (e.g., alcohol intake, late nights, etc.) during the 72-hour interval, enduring lifestyle disparities (e.g., food, living conditions, etc.) between aerobic and anaerobic athletes may remain and influence the study's outcomes. Notwithstanding these constraints, our results offer innovative perspectives on exercise-induced neurovascular changes and underscore the utility of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in athlete populations. Subsequent research should corroborate these findings by analyzing diverse viewpoints and bigger sample sizes across gender, age, and sport. Conclusion This study examined the level of functional connection in various brain regions between sprinters and endurance runners during the resting state. Sprinters had greater functional connectivity strength in the prefrontal lobe, whereas endurance runners demonstrated enhanced functional connectivity strength in the motor cortex. The study's findings possess significant practical implications; specifically, the ratio of aerobic to anaerobic training was modified based on varying exercise requirements to facilitate the synergistic improvement of cognitive and motor performance. The study's results have implications for clinical rehabilitation, indicating that aerobic exercise facilitates the recovery of motor area function. In contrast, anaerobic exercise enhances prefrontal connectivity, thereby improving executive function and emotional regulation in patients with cognitive or emotional disorders. Materials and Methods Participants A total of 25 subjects were recruited from Harbin Sports Institute for this study and were divided into 2 groups. Thirteen sprinters with many years of anaerobic training (100, 200, 400 meters, 110 meter hurdles) were assigned to the anaerobic group. At the same time, twelve endurance runners who have been trained aerobically for many years (5,000 and 10,000 meter run, 10km race walk) were assigned to the aerobic group. There was no significant difference between the two groups of subjects in terms of age, height, and years of training ( P > 0.05), as shown in Table 1 . Inclusion Criteria: 1. Normal intelligence, no history of mental illness or brain injury; 2. Right-handedness was confirmed using the Edinburgh Habitual Hand Scale; 3. No late night, alcohol consumption, or strenuous exercise in the 3 days prior to the test; 4. Athletes in both anaerobic and aerobic groups were at the level of national level 2 athletes or above. Exclusion Criteria: 1. broken skin or disease on the head; 2. inability to concentrate on the experiment. The design and conduct of this study were approved by the Ethics Committee of Harbin Institute of Physical Education (2024019) and strictly followed the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. To ensure the ethical nature of the study and to protect the rights and interests of the subjects, subjects signed a written informed consent form before the experiment. Table 1 Basic information of subjects Group n Age(years) height(cm) training years Anaerobic 13 21. 15 ± 0.25 179.5 ± 3.40 7.62 ± 0.40 Aerobic 12 21.50 ± 0.35 21.50 ± 0.35 7.50 ± 0. 12 P - 0.73 0.72 0.78 Experimental Instruments This investigation utilized a NirSmart-3000A device (Danyang Huichuang Medical Equipment Co., Ltd., China) to measure constantly and document fluctuations in the concentrations of cerebral oxyhemoglobin (HbO 2 ), deoxyhemoglobin (HbR) and total hemoglobin (HbT) throughout the job. The system comprises a near-infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and an avalanche photodiode (APD) as the detector, operating at wavelengths of 730 nm and 850 nm, respectively, with a sampling rate of 11 Hz. Experimental Procedure Prior to the experiment, the subjects engaged in no warm-up or preparatory activities; they remained seated in the test room, resting quietly for 3 minutes. Subsequently, they donned a head cap, closed their eyes, and maintained wakefulness while refraining from habitual thought processes, limb movement, and head bobbing, during which resting state data was collected for 8 minutes. A specimen of the examination is illustrated in Fig. 7 . Probe Arrangement The configuration of the probes is seen in Fig. 8 . The position of the nasal root at the junction of the occipital ramus and the anterior points of the right and left ears was identified as the Cz placement site in accordance with the International 10–20 method. This experiment utilized 17 transmitting probes and 15 receiving probes to establish 39 active channels, with an average inter-probe distance of 3 cm (ranging from 2.7 to 3.3 cm). The selection of regions of interest (ROIs) in this investigation was based on the Brodmann partitioning system, which delineates brain areas. The chosen ROIs included the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and primary motor cortex (M1), with the associated channels for each ROI presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Interest area and corresponding channel arrangement ROIs Cerebral hemisphere channel arrangement prefrontal right CH1,CH2,CH3,CH7,CH8,CH9,CH10,CH11 left CH4,CH5,CH6,CH12,CH13,CH14,CH15 Primary motor cortex right CH16,CH17,CH18,CH19,CH20,CH21,CH22, CH23,CH24,CH25,CH26,CH27 left CH28,CH29,CH30,CH31,CH32,CH33,CH34, CH35,CH36,CH37,CH38,CH39 Probe Arrangement The data was processed and analyzed through the NirSpark toolkit. The specific steps are as follows: 1. Quality testing: the raw data are processed by signal quality testing tools;2. Data clipping: eliminating time series that are not relevant to the experimental data;3. Motion correction: The motion artifact signal is modeled using spline interpolation and then removed from the test signal;4. Filtering: High-pass filtering (0.01Hz) and low-pass filtering (0.2Hz) are set using band-pass filtering for noise reduction and baseline drift correction;5. Signal conversion: The measured optical density signal is transformed into a signal of blood oxygen concentration change by the Beer-Lambert law.6. Functional connectivity strength calculation: The Pearson correlation coefficient between two channels was calculated, and the resting-state functional connectivity strength of 39 channels was calculated by Fisher r-to z conversion. Statistical Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted utilizing GraphPad Prism 10.0 software. The normality of functional connectivity strength data was assessed via the Shapiro-Wilk test and validated for homogeneity of variance using the Levene test, presented as (mean ± SD). The independent samples t-test (p < 0.05) was employed to evaluate differences in functional connectivity strength between groups. Numerous hypothesis tests among areas of interest (ROIs) were adjusted utilizing the false discovery rate (FDR) approach, and all statistics from this experiment underwent FDR correction. To evaluate the practical significance of intergroup differences, effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g with 95% confidence intervals, and sample sizes were examined through post hoc efficacy analyses using G*Power 3.1, demonstrating a statistical power of 89% for identifying large effect sizes (g > 1.3). Declarations Author contributions L.M.Q experimental manipulation, literature search, data analysis, and paper writing; Y.X.C experimental manipulation, paper proposal; Z.W.Y subject supervision, preliminary review, and revision of the paper; X.Z.H experimental design, paper revision; Q.Y paper proposal and revision; Data availability statement The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Additional Information Competing interests The author declare no competing interests. References Tarumi, T. & Zhang, R. Cerebral hennodynannics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise. Front. Physiol. 5 , 6 (2014). Hoffman, J. R., Ostfeld, I., Kaplan, Z., Zohar, J. & Cohen, H. Exercise Enhances the Behavioral Responses to Acute Stress in an Animal Model of PTSD. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 47 , 2043–2052 (2015). Xu, J. SPORTS IMPROVE THE INDEXES CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS. Rev Bras Med Esporte 28 , 114–116 (2022). Mcleod, J. C., Currier, B. S., Lowisz, C. V. & Phillips, S. M. The influence of resistance exercise training prescription variables on skeletal muscle mass, strength, and physical function in healthy adults: An umbrella review. J Sport Health Sci 13 , 47–60 (2024). Jalalvandi, M., Riyahi Alam, N., Sharini, H., Hashemi, H. & Nadimi, M. Brain cortical activation during imagining of the wrist movement using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). J. Biomed. Phys. Eng. 11 , 583–594 (2021). Jalalvandi, M., Sharini, H., Naderi, Y. & Alam, N. R. Assessment of brain cortical activation in passive movement during wrist task using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Front. Biomed. Technol. 6 , 99–105 (2019). Friston, K. J. Functional and Effective Connectivity: A Review. Brain Connectivity 1 , 13–36 (2011). Riedl, V. et al. Local activity determines functional connectivity in the resting human brain: a simultaneous FDG-PET/fMRI study. J Neurosci 34 , 6260–6266 (2014). Gomes da Silva, S. & Arida, R. M. Physical activity and brain development. Expert Rev Neurother 15 , 1041–1051 (2015). Bodensohn, L. et al. Inverted U-shape-like functional connectivity alterations in cognitive resting-state networks depending on exercise intensity: An fMRI study. Brain and Cognition 177 , 106156 (2024). Büchel, D., Sandbakk, Ø. & Baumeister, J. Exploring intensity-dependent modulations in EEG resting-state network efficiency induced by exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 121 , 2423–2435 (2021). Ben-Zeev, T., Shoenfeld, Y. & Hoffman, J. R. The Effect of Exercise on Neurogenesis in the Brain. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 24 , 533–538 (2022). Grafton, S. T. & Volz, L. J. From ideas to action: The prefrontal-premotor connections that shape motor behavior. Handb Clin Neurol 163 , 237–255 (2019). Kujach, S. et al. A transferable high-intensity intermittent exercise improves executive performance in association with dorsolateral prefrontal activation in young adults. Neuroimage 169 , 117–125 (2018). Thacker, J. S. et al. A single session of aerobic exercise mediates plasticity-related phosphorylation in both the rat motor cortex and hippocampus. Neuroscience 412 , 160–174 (2019). Kojima, S. et al. Temporal changes in cortical oxygenation in the motor-related areas and bilateral prefrontal cortex based on exercise intensity and respiratory metabolism during incremental exercise in male subjects: A near-Infrared spectroscopy study. Front. Physiol. 13 , (2022). Park, S.-Y., Reinl, M. & Schott, N. Effects of acute exercise at different intensities on fine motor-cognitive dual-task performance while walking: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. European Journal of Neuroscience 54 , 8225–8248 (2021). Manci, E., Günay, E., Güdücü, C., Özgören, M. & Bediz, C. S. Brain hemodynamic changes during sprint interval cycling exercise and recovery periods. Science & Sports 38 , 75–83 (2023). Wang, J. et al. Exploring brain functional plasticity in world-class gymnasts: a network analysis. Brain Struct Funct 221 , 3503–3519 (2016). Hötting, K. & Röder, B. Beneficial Effects of Physical Exercise on Neuroplasticity and Cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37 , 2243–2257 (2013). Reycraft, J. T. et al. Exercise Intensity and Recovery on Circulating Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor. Med Sci Sports Exerc 52 , 1210–1217 (2020). Zhang, K. et al. Exercise Intensity and Brain Plasticity: What’s the Difference of Brain Structural and Functional Plasticity Characteristics Between Elite Aerobic and Anaerobic Athletes? Front. Hum. Neurosci. 16 , (2022). Zhang, D. et al. Synaptic-like transmission between neural axons and arteriolar smooth muscle cells drives cerebral neurovascular coupling. Nat Neurosci 27 , 232–248 (2024). Lev-Vachnish, Y. et al. L-Lactate Promotes Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Front Neurosci 13 , 403 (2019). Shin, J. D., Tang, W. & Jadhav, S. P. Dynamics of Awake Hippocampal-Prefrontal Replay for Spatial Learning and Memory-Guided Decision Making. Neuron 104 , 1110-1125.e7 (2019). Bergman, H. The Hidden Life of the Basal Ganglia: At the Base of Brain and Mind . Humphreys, G. & Riddoch, M. Attention in Action: Advances from Cognitive Neuroscience . (Psychology Press, 2004). Yoon, D. H. et al. Effect of elastic band-based high-speed power training on cognitive function, physical performance and muscle strength in older women with mild cognitive impairment. Geriatr Gerontol Int 17 , 765–772 (2017). Strassnig, M. T. et al. High velocity circuit resistance training improves cognition, psychiatric symptoms and neuromuscular performance in overweight outpatients with severe mental illness. Psychiatry Res 229 , 295–301 (2015). Lourenco, M. V. et al. Exercise-linked FNDC5/irisin rescues synaptic plasticity and memory defects in Alzheimer’s models. Nat Med 25 , 165–175 (2019). Li, W. et al. Effects of acute aerobic exercise on resting state functional connectivity of motor cortex in college students. Sci Rep 14 , 14837 (2024). Dietrich, A. Transient hypofrontality as a mechanism for the psychological effects of exercise. Psychiatry Res 145 , 79–83 (2006). Jalalvandi, M., Sharini, H., Shafaghi, L. & Alam, N. R. Deciphering brain activation during wrist movements: comparative fMRI and fNIRS analysis of active, passive, and imagery states. Exp. Brain Res. 243 , 36 (2024). M, Y. P. et al. Identification of the cognitive interference effect related to Stroop stimulation: using dynamic causal modeling of effective connectivity in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). J. Biomed. Phys. Eng. 10 , 467–478 (2020). Lin, P.-Y., Chen, J.-J. J. & Lin, S.-I. The cortical control of cycling exercise in stroke patients: an fNIRS study. Hum Brain Mapp 34 , 2381–2390 (2013). Brümmer, V., Schneider, S., Strüder, H. K. & Askew, C. D. Primary motor cortex activity is elevated with incremental exercise intensity. Neuroscience 181 , 150–162 (2011). Petersen, T. H., Willerslev-Olsen, M., Conway, B. A. & Nielsen, J. B. The motor cortex drives the muscles during walking in human subjects. J Physiol 590 , 2443–2452 (2012). Hromadkova, L. et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes molecular polarization and differentiation of immature neuroblastoma cells into definitive neurons. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research 1867 , 118737 (2020). Cao, L. et al. Structural and functional brain signatures of endurance runners. Brain Struct Funct 226 , 93–103 (2021). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 29 Apr, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Accepted 21 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 16 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 10 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 29 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5824393","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":443442790,"identity":"4ed62c06-5c98-4892-b430-c0b49a8e1f42","order_by":0,"name":"Mengqi Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mengqi","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":443442791,"identity":"3e362e16-5636-4878-9757-18dd99c4cdb4","order_by":1,"name":"Wenyan Zhao","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCTiL+RgDY4MEmiB+LWxpJGvhMQNqQRfEAuRnNz98zFNxJ7F/ds+3x5U7LPL4GZgP3uZhsMvDpYVxzjFjY54zzxJn3Dm73fDsGYliyQa2ZGsehuRiXFqYJRLMpHPbDic23MjdJtnYJpG44QCPmTQPw4HEBhxa2CTSv0nn/jucOP9GzjOwlv0H+L/h1cIjkQO0peFw4oYbOWwQWxh42PBqkZDIKTb+c+yw8cYbaWaSjUC/SBxmM7acY5CMU4v8jPSND2fUHJaddyMZ6LAddXn87c0Pb7ypsMOpBQYcYQoSGJhBlAEB9UBgD2MkEFY7CkbBKBgFIw0AACXvWEYvfWZ+AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wenyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":443442792,"identity":"c02f5278-7f2a-4c56-acf7-4fbb9b6744d5","order_by":2,"name":"Xiaocong Yan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiaocong","middleName":"","lastName":"Yan","suffix":""},{"id":443442793,"identity":"562aad81-3b11-453a-90d3-4bbd92399d8e","order_by":3,"name":"Zhenghao Xue","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhenghao","middleName":"","lastName":"Xue","suffix":""},{"id":443442794,"identity":"f374a730-f4f6-4a31-94d6-ac90f5cf7fbe","order_by":4,"name":"Ying Qin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Harbin Institute of Physical Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ying","middleName":"","lastName":"Qin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-14 06:08:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99573-w","type":"published","date":"2025-04-29T15:57:44+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80790630,"identity":"29d18e1c-922b-44bc-9bae-9025c7594eb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24354847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/18101d2f3e3c2d5094c8da3d.png"},{"id":80790635,"identity":"236e712f-c93f-4449-b014-abedf52c3e44","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:23","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8334793,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/11edecdfe35626b532acd13e.png"},{"id":80790627,"identity":"7f687bdf-c659-4e0f-9028-2f5668a71f5a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:21","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19555050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/c664a9882dee7ef6c1f6302d.png"},{"id":80790629,"identity":"82201363-d568-44a9-b705-692297e30d2d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:22","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7741613,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/904d882911b92f3ceeed10e1.png"},{"id":80790637,"identity":"5d83c087-7986-4b39-aaf1-46ee88f0ef05","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:23","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1145596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/1de33313e7b8f6d87eced408.png"},{"id":80790624,"identity":"7335b8a2-1f53-4987-8809-24b8239ae301","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:21","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":409022,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/5e03efaabb794f1ce86c449d.png"},{"id":80790623,"identity":"ac92417a-40a4-4d19-9b64-68054cbcf931","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:21","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1692190,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/2d9ed3b0a48c3789a063b5de.png"},{"id":80790644,"identity":"08f7addf-eb90-4e67-ab7b-8468154d68cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-17 06:39:23","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13403576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig.8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5824393/v1/e74f09d76c750e8f19c58213.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Investigation of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Male Sprinters and Endurance Runners Brains Based on fNIRS","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical activity provides significant benefits in improving physical fitness and fostering cognitive wellness. Prolonged engagement in physical activity can markedly improve cognitive performance and decelerate the brain\u0026apos;s ageing process\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;Moreover, engagement in physical activity helps mitigate sadness and anxiety while enhancing an individual\u0026apos;s emotional regulation and adaptability to stress. Exercise specificity profoundly influences physiological and psychological systems; low-intensity sustained aerobic exercise and high-intensity intermittent anaerobic exercise induce adaptive modifications in the cardiovascular system\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (cardiac output and stroke volume), the musculoskeletal system\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e(muscle fiber hypertrophy, mitochondrial density, and motor unit recruitment), and the peripheral nervous system via distinct metabolic pathways. Advancements in neuroimaging have directed researchers\u0026apos; attention to the impact of various movement patterns on the central nervous system, notably as seen by the intensity of resting-state functional connectivity. Functional connectivity strength denotes the synchronized activities or relationships among various brain regions utilized to comprehend the brain\u0026apos;s functions across diverse states or tasks by quantifying the temporal correlation of neural signals between distinct brain areas\u003csup\u003e5,6\u003c/sup\u003e. Increased functional connection strength enhances the efficiency of information flow, integration, and collaboration among brain regions. Resting State Functional Connectivity (RSFC) is a metric specifically formulated to assess the interconnection of various brain regions or tissues during the resting state. The resting state does not represent complete \u0026apos;rest\u0026apos;; instead, it reflects \u0026apos;internal brain activity\u0026apos; or \u0026apos;spontaneous brain activity.\u0026apos; The brain\u0026apos;s energy consumption at rest is nearly equivalent to that during task performance\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e, indicating that the intensity of functional connection can characterize resting-state brain activity. Prior research has concentrated on the impact of individual exercise sessions on the strength of functional connectivity within the cerebral cortex\u003csup\u003e9\u0026ndash;11\u003c/sup\u003e. At the same time, fewer investigations have explored the effects of prolonged aerobic and anaerobic training on resting-state functional connectivity in the brain, particularly among athletes. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a noninvasive, real-time technique for monitoring cerebral activity that is safe, portable, quiet, and relatively cost-effective. It is less cumbersome than other neurofunctional imaging modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET). The fNIRS technique for scanning cortical activity during the brain\u0026apos;s resting state accurately captures the cumulative impacts of prolonged experience, as it is unaffected by external variables\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e. Prolonged systematic training results in distinct patterns of neuronal activation throughout several pertinent brain regions within the cerebral cortex network, potentially correlating with the motor talents or skills necessary for diverse movement patterns. This study identified the primary motor cortex (M1) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) as regions of interest (ROIs), which primarily govern motor control and cognitive functions, respectively, exhibiting significant adaptability in both structure and function based on training experience\u003csup\u003e12,13\u003c/sup\u003e. Anaerobic activity, such as sprinting, necessitates rapid decision-making and significant cognitive regulation, and the robustness of functional connections in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a center for advanced cognition, may be enhanced with high-repetition explosive training\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e. Aerobic activity, such as endurance running, facilitates synaptic remodeling and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the primary motor cortex (M1) by elevating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e. Given the distinct impact of various exercise modalities on cerebral function, we hypothesized that resting-state prefrontal cortex functional connectivity strength would be significantly greater in chronically anaerobically trained athletes compared to aerobically trained athletes, whereas M1 functional connectivity strength would be superior in aerobically trained athletes. This study aims to compare the functional connectivity characteristics of various brain regions in the resting state between athletes engaged in long-term aerobic and anaerobic training utilizing the FNIRS technique. The objective is to offer novel research insights into how prolonged aerobic and anaerobic training fosters neural plasticity in the brain through a contemporary neuroimaging approach and to clarify the impact of distinct exercise modalities on the functional connectivity of brain networks, thereby enhancing the understanding of the neurological mechanisms underlying exercise training in the promotion of brain health. We will clarify the impact of various exercise modalities on the functional connectivity of brain networks and enhance the understanding of the neural mechanisms behind exercise training for brain health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study encompasses measurements of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, HbR, and HbT. Hemodynamic changes in cerebral activity can be deduced by analyzing the differential absorption of light by oxyhemoglobin (HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and deoxyhemoglobin (HbR), which absorb different wavelengths. HbT denotes the total of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and HbR, reflecting fluctuations in both HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and HbR and providing comprehensive insights on blood supply and utilization in cerebral regions. This study discovered four intra-ROI connectivity patterns: PFC-L-PFC-L, PFC-R-PFC-R, M1-R-M1-R, and M1-L-M1-L. The six inter-ROI connectivity patterns included PFC-L-PFC-R, PFC-L-M1-R, PFC-L-M1-L, PFC-R-M1-R, PFC-R-M1-R, PFC-R-M1-L, and M1-R-M1-L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of functional connection strength in the brain among HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-based groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 illustrates the average strength of whole brain HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e resting state functional connectivity between aerobic and anaerobic groups. The mean functional connectivity strength in the anaerobic group was (0.53\u0026plusmn;0.16), while in the aerobic group it was (0.52\u0026plusmn;0.17). The average strength of whole-brain functional connectivity in the anaerobic group exceeded that of the aerobic group. Comparative analyses of functional connectivity strength within the four regions of interest (ROIs) and among the six ROI pairs in the two athlete groups demonstrated highly significant differences in correlation coefficients for PFC-L (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.003, Hedges\u0026apos; g=1.48, 95% CI[0.74, 2.22]), PFC-R (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.003, Hedges\u0026apos; g=1.49, 95% CI[0.75, 2.23]), M1-R (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.003, Hedges\u0026apos; g=-1.34, 95% CI[-2.07, -0.61]), PFC-L-PFC-R (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.004, Hedges\u0026apos; g=1.50, 95% CI[0.76, 2.24]), and M1-R-M1-L (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.001, Hedges\u0026apos; g=-1.77, 95% CI[-2.26, -0.98]). The functional connectivity strength between PFC-L regions was greater in the anaerobic group (r=0.884\u0026plusmn;0.186) compared to the aerobic group (r=0.608\u0026plusmn;0.198), and the connectivity between PFC-R regions was also higher in the anaerobic group (r=0.928\u0026plusmn;0.226) than in the aerobic group (r=0.590\u0026plusmn;0.227). The functional connectivity between the PFC-L and PFC-R areas was greater in the anaerobic group (r=0.854\u0026plusmn;0.180) compared to the aerobic group (r=0.576\u0026plusmn;0.196). The functional connection strength between the M1-R areas was greater in the aerobic group (r=0. The functional connectivity in the aerobic group (r=0.802\u0026plusmn;0.160) was superior to that in the anaerobic group (r=0.519\u0026plusmn;0.154) within the M1-R-M1-L areas, indicating a greater amount of connectivity between them. The results are shown in Figure 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eComparison of brain functional connectivity strength between HbR-based groups\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 illustrates the average strength of whole-brain HbR resting-state functional connectivity between the aerobic and anaerobic groups. The mean strength of whole-brain functional connectivity in the anaerobic group was 0.18\u0026plusmn;0.13, while in the aerobic group, it was 0.17\u0026plusmn;0.12, indicating that the anaerobic group\u0026apos;s functional connectivity strength was superior to that of the aerobic group. Comparative analyses of the mean degree of functional connectivity within and among the regions of interest (ROIs) indicated that the disparity between the two groups based on hemoglobin redox state (HbR) was not statistically significant (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt;0.05). The results are shown in Figure 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of brain functional connectivity strength between HbT-based groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 5 illustrates the average strength of whole brain HbT resting state functional connectivity between aerobic and anaerobic groups. The anaerobic group exhibited an average whole-brain functional connectivity of (0.63\u0026plusmn;0.19). In contrast, the aerobic group demonstrated a higher average of (0.65\u0026plusmn;0.21), indicating superior functional connectivity strength in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Comparative analyses of the strength of functional connectivity within the four regions of interest (ROIs) and among the six ROI pairs in the two athlete groups revealed significant differences in correlation coefficients for the PFC-R (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.03, Hedges\u0026apos; g=1.05, 95% CI[0.35, 1.75]), M1-R (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.02, Hedges\u0026apos; g=-1.27, 95% CI[-1.99, -0.55]), and M1-R-M1-L (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.01, Hedges\u0026apos; g=-1.40, 95% CI[-2.14, -0.66]) regions. The functional connectivity strength was greater in the aerobic group (r=1.100\u0026plusmn;0.294) compared to the anaerobic group (r=0.720\u0026plusmn;0.305) in the M1-R region, and it was also higher in the aerobic group (r=0.992\u0026plusmn;0.305) than in the anaerobic group between the M1-R and M1-L regions. The functional connection strength in the aerobic group (r=0.992\u0026plusmn;0.305) surpassed that of the anaerobic group (r=0.641\u0026plusmn;0.148). The results are shown in Figure 6.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe prefrontal cortex is essential for coordinating and executing motions, as it is involved in goal planning, decision making, motivation, and cognitive control\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The resting state is defined as the intrinsic activity of neurons in the brain during periods devoid of specialized cognitive tasks, illustrating the essential characteristics of neural function. The level of functional connection during the resting state offers a crucial viewpoint for evaluating the impact of aerobic and anaerobic exercise on cerebral function. The findings indicated that the strength of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e functional connection among the PFC-L, PFC-R, and PFC-L-PFC-R areas was greater in the anaerobic group compared to the aerobic group, and the connectivity strength between PFC-R surpassed that of PFC-L. The intensity of HbT functional connectivity between PFC-R areas surpassed that of the aerobic group. There is a paucity of prior research on aerobic and anaerobic activity at rest; nonetheless, this aligns with earlier findings during exercise\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e; Kojima S et al. discovered that prefrontal functional connection strength was markedly greater in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Kojima S et al. observed a notable elevation in prefrontal cortex HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e following the aerobic threshold (AT) during incremental loading exercise, with the oxygenation rate in the right prefrontal lobe preceding that of the left prefrontal lobe. Brief intervals of anaerobic exercise lead to increased prefrontal oxygenated hemoglobin levels\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thereby reducing deoxyhemoglobin, a phenomenon that may intensify with extended anaerobic training.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch changes may arise from external settings or learning demands that modify brain structure or function, a phenomenon referred to as neuroplasticity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Research indicates that prolonged training substantially influences neuronal alterations, cerebral architecture, and neural network interconnectivity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Sprinting is a quintessential anaerobic workout primarily fuelled by the phosphagen system, characterized by brief duration, high intensity, and rapid energy expenditure. Anaerobic exercise elicits significant alterations in neuronal function and brain structure\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Prior research indicates that anaerobic exercise generates lactic acid, which prompts the release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), resulting in heightened capillary density in the brain, and this augmentation in capillary density may modify the interactions between neurons and blood vessels\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Lactate additionally facilitates neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and the proper functioning of the hippocampus is a crucial prerequisite for the prefrontal lobe to execute cognitive activities successfully\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, hence allowing individuals to process information efficiently. Besides neurovascular adaptations, anaerobic exercise may induce morphological alterations in the brain, resulting in an increase in grey matter volume in the basal ganglia of athletes who have participated in extended anaerobic exercise\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which is closely associated with the regulation of motor skills. The basal ganglia predominantly receive signals from the prefrontal brain, which may represent the initial motor intention\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The elevated strength of functional connection in the prefrontal lobe within the anaerobic group may be attributed to neural adaptation, structural alterations in the brain, and additional factors. Modern sprinting tactics depend on the synchronization of the neuromuscular system to attain rapid movement, and proficient execution of these techniques enhances the athlete's focus, cognitive capacity, and overall performance throughout both the acceleration and sprint stages of the race\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The quality of strength is fundamental for athletes to execute technical motions; for sprinters, explosive power and speed endurance are significantly enhanced through resistance training. Research indicates that resistance training improves working memory and executive function\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, potentially linked to increased levels of cognition-related hormones such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), irisin, and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Resistance training induces increased hormone levels that enhance neuroplasticity and cognitive function\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The modified brain function in the anaerobic group may be ascribed to the characteristics of extended engagement in sport-specific skill training and energy sources that improve prefrontal function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary motor cortex is the key area of the cerebral cortex responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements. The findings indicated that the strength of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e functional connectivity between the M1-R and M1-R-M1-L regions was significantly greater in the aerobic group than in the anaerobic group, and the strength of HbT functional connectivity within the M1-R region was likewise superior in the aerobic group compared to the anaerobic group. Prior research indicated that comparisons of the strength of resting-state functional connectivity of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the motor cortex, conducted before and after moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, demonstrated significant differences solely within the high fitness level group among college students of varying fitness levels \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This study compared the resting-state functional connectivity strength of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e in the motor cortex with that of the high-fitness level group. This indicates that fitness level may diminish the impact of aerobic exercise on functional brain connections, implying that low-intensity aerobic exercise could be more advantageous for individuals with elevated fitness levels. The theory of transitory frontal lobe hypoplasia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e indicates that extended physical activity results in a redistribution of the brain's finite metabolic resources and that exercise stimulates neural activation associated with motor patterns, sensory input processing, and autonomic regulation, consequently diminishing cortical activity in regions not pertinent to exercise\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Extended aerobic exercise generates structural and functional alterations in the brain, with the motor cortex significantly influencing aerobic activity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR36\" citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, potentially augmenting the strength of M1 connections. Endurance running is a conventional aerobic activity defined by aerobic oxidative energy production and sustained availability of energy substrates. The disparity in M1 between the aerobic and anaerobic groups may stem from many physiological factors. Aerobic exercise elevates BDNF levels at the cellular level, which is essential for neuronal remodeling, regulation of synaptic plasticity, and neurotransmitter release\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Endurance runners exhibit augmented grey matter volume and cortical surface area in the left precentral gyrus, along with improved functional connectivity between the right postcentral gyrus and precentral gyrus \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These regions are essential for conveying motor impulses to the body's muscles and are intricately linked to motor control. Research demonstrated that neoangiogenesis and capillary diameter increased in the rat motor cortex following a 5-week aerobic exercise regimen \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Aerobic exercise influences the function and organization of the primary motor cortex via many mechanisms that improve motor control and execution. This study clarifies the relationship between aerobic exercise and the primary motor cortex.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has certain drawbacks. The limited sample size may restrict the generalisability of the findings; nonetheless, post hoc efficacy studies validated the statistical power required to identify bigger effect sizes. Secondly, while we accounted for acute factors (e.g., alcohol intake, late nights, etc.) during the 72-hour interval, enduring lifestyle disparities (e.g., food, living conditions, etc.) between aerobic and anaerobic athletes may remain and influence the study's outcomes. Notwithstanding these constraints, our results offer innovative perspectives on exercise-induced neurovascular changes and underscore the utility of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in athlete populations. Subsequent research should corroborate these findings by analyzing diverse viewpoints and bigger sample sizes across gender, age, and sport.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the level of functional connection in various brain regions between sprinters and endurance runners during the resting state. \u0026nbsp;Sprinters had greater functional connectivity strength in the prefrontal lobe, whereas endurance runners demonstrated enhanced functional connectivity strength in the motor cortex. \u0026nbsp;The study\u0026apos;s findings possess significant practical implications; specifically, the ratio of aerobic to anaerobic training was modified based on varying exercise requirements to facilitate the synergistic improvement of cognitive and motor performance. \u0026nbsp;The study\u0026apos;s results have implications for clinical rehabilitation, indicating that aerobic exercise facilitates the recovery of motor area function. In contrast, anaerobic exercise enhances prefrontal connectivity, thereby improving executive function and emotional regulation in patients with cognitive or emotional disorders.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA total of 25 subjects were recruited from Harbin Sports Institute for this study and were divided into 2 groups. Thirteen sprinters with many years of anaerobic training (100, 200, 400 meters, 110 meter hurdles) were assigned to the anaerobic group. At the same time, twelve endurance runners who have been trained aerobically for many years (5,000 and 10,000 meter run, 10km race walk) were assigned to the aerobic group. There was no significant difference between the two groups of subjects in terms of age, height, and years of training (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), as shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Inclusion Criteria: 1. Normal intelligence, no history of mental illness or brain injury; 2. Right-handedness was confirmed using the Edinburgh Habitual Hand Scale; 3. No late night, alcohol consumption, or strenuous exercise in the 3 days prior to the test; 4. Athletes in both anaerobic and aerobic groups were at the level of national level 2 athletes or above. Exclusion Criteria: 1. broken skin or disease on the head; 2. inability to concentrate on the experiment. The design and conduct of this study were approved by the Ethics Committee of Harbin Institute of Physical Education (2024019) and strictly followed the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. To ensure the ethical nature of the study and to protect the rights and interests of the subjects, subjects signed a written informed consent form before the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasic information of subjects\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge(years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eheight(cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003etraining years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnaerobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21. 15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAerobic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0. 12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental Instruments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis investigation utilized a NirSmart-3000A device (Danyang Huichuang Medical Equipment Co., Ltd., China) to measure constantly and document fluctuations in the concentrations of cerebral oxyhemoglobin (HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), deoxyhemoglobin (HbR) and total hemoglobin (HbT) throughout the job. The system comprises a near-infrared light-emitting diode (LED) and an avalanche photodiode (APD) as the detector, operating at wavelengths of 730 nm and 850 nm, respectively, with a sampling rate of 11 Hz.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eExperimental Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior to the experiment, the subjects engaged in no warm-up or preparatory activities; they remained seated in the test room, resting quietly for 3 minutes. Subsequently, they donned a head cap, closed their eyes, and maintained wakefulness while refraining from habitual thought processes, limb movement, and head bobbing, during which resting state data was collected for 8 minutes. A specimen of the examination is illustrated in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProbe Arrangement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe configuration of the probes is seen in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The position of the nasal root at the junction of the occipital ramus and the anterior points of the right and left ears was identified as the Cz placement site in accordance with the International 10\u0026ndash;20 method. This experiment utilized 17 transmitting probes and 15 receiving probes to establish 39 active channels, with an average inter-probe distance of 3 cm (ranging from 2.7 to 3.3 cm). The selection of regions of interest (ROIs) in this investigation was based on the Brodmann partitioning system, which delineates brain areas. The chosen ROIs included the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and primary motor cortex (M1), with the associated channels for each ROI presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInterest area and corresponding channel arrangement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eROIs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCerebral hemisphere\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003echannel arrangement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprefrontal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eright\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCH1,CH2,CH3,CH7,CH8,CH9,CH10,CH11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eleft\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCH4,CH5,CH6,CH12,CH13,CH14,CH15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary motor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecortex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eright\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCH16,CH17,CH18,CH19,CH20,CH21,CH22, CH23,CH24,CH25,CH26,CH27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eleft\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCH28,CH29,CH30,CH31,CH32,CH33,CH34, CH35,CH36,CH37,CH38,CH39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProbe Arrangement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe data was processed and analyzed through the NirSpark toolkit. The specific steps are as follows: 1. Quality testing: the raw data are processed by signal quality testing tools;2. Data clipping: eliminating time series that are not relevant to the experimental data;3. Motion correction: The motion artifact signal is modeled using spline interpolation and then removed from the test signal;4. Filtering: High-pass filtering (0.01Hz) and low-pass filtering (0.2Hz) are set using band-pass filtering for noise reduction and baseline drift correction;5. Signal conversion: The measured optical density signal is transformed into a signal of blood oxygen concentration change by the Beer-Lambert law.6. Functional connectivity strength calculation: The Pearson correlation coefficient between two channels was calculated, and the resting-state functional connectivity strength of 39 channels was calculated by Fisher r-to z conversion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were conducted utilizing GraphPad Prism 10.0 software. The normality of functional connectivity strength data was assessed via the Shapiro-Wilk test and validated for homogeneity of variance using the Levene test, presented as (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD). The independent samples t-test (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) was employed to evaluate differences in functional connectivity strength between groups. Numerous hypothesis tests among areas of interest (ROIs) were adjusted utilizing the false discovery rate (FDR) approach, and all statistics from this experiment underwent FDR correction. To evaluate the practical significance of intergroup differences, effect sizes were calculated as Hedges\u0026apos; g with 95% confidence intervals, and sample sizes were examined through post hoc efficacy analyses using G*Power 3.1, demonstrating a statistical power of 89% for identifying large effect sizes (g\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eL.M.Q experimental manipulation, literature search, data analysis, and paper writing; Y.X.C experimental manipulation, paper proposal; Z.W.Y subject supervision, preliminary review, and revision of the paper; X.Z.H experimental design, paper revision; Q.Y paper proposal and revision;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTarumi, T. \u0026amp; Zhang, R. Cerebral hennodynannics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise. \u003cem\u003eFront. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e, 6 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHoffman, J. R., Ostfeld, I., Kaplan, Z., Zohar, J. \u0026amp; Cohen, H. Exercise Enhances the Behavioral Responses to Acute Stress in an Animal Model of PTSD. \u003cem\u003eMed. Sci. Sports Exerc.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e47\u003c/strong\u003e, 2043\u0026ndash;2052 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, J. SPORTS IMPROVE THE INDEXES CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS. \u003cem\u003eRev Bras Med Esporte\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e28\u003c/strong\u003e, 114\u0026ndash;116 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcleod, J. C., Currier, B. S., Lowisz, C. V. \u0026amp; Phillips, S. M. The influence of resistance exercise training prescription variables on skeletal muscle mass, strength, and physical function in healthy adults: An umbrella review. \u003cem\u003eJ Sport Health Sci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 47\u0026ndash;60 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJalalvandi, M., Riyahi Alam, N., Sharini, H., Hashemi, H. \u0026amp; Nadimi, M. Brain cortical activation during imagining of the wrist movement using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). \u003cem\u003eJ. Biomed. Phys. Eng.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e, 583\u0026ndash;594 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJalalvandi, M., Sharini, H., Naderi, Y. \u0026amp; Alam, N. R. Assessment of brain cortical activation in passive movement during wrist task using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). \u003cem\u003eFront. Biomed. Technol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, 99\u0026ndash;105 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFriston, K. J. Functional and Effective Connectivity: A Review. \u003cem\u003eBrain Connectivity\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e, 13\u0026ndash;36 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRiedl, V. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Local activity determines functional connectivity in the resting human brain: a simultaneous FDG-PET/fMRI study. \u003cem\u003eJ Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e, 6260\u0026ndash;6266 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGomes da Silva, S. \u0026amp; Arida, R. M. Physical activity and brain development. \u003cem\u003eExpert Rev Neurother\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, 1041\u0026ndash;1051 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBodensohn, L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Inverted U-shape-like functional connectivity alterations in cognitive resting-state networks depending on exercise intensity: An fMRI study. \u003cem\u003eBrain and Cognition\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e177\u003c/strong\u003e, 106156 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eB\u0026uuml;chel, D., Sandbakk, \u0026Oslash;. \u0026amp; Baumeister, J. Exploring intensity-dependent modulations in EEG resting-state network efficiency induced by exercise. \u003cem\u003eEur J Appl Physiol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e121\u003c/strong\u003e, 2423\u0026ndash;2435 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBen-Zeev, T., Shoenfeld, Y. \u0026amp; Hoffman, J. R. The Effect of Exercise on Neurogenesis in the Brain. \u003cem\u003eIsr. Med. Assoc. J.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e24\u003c/strong\u003e, 533\u0026ndash;538 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrafton, S. T. \u0026amp; Volz, L. J. From ideas to action: The prefrontal-premotor connections that shape motor behavior. \u003cem\u003eHandb Clin Neurol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e163\u003c/strong\u003e, 237\u0026ndash;255 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKujach, S. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e A transferable high-intensity intermittent exercise improves executive performance in association with dorsolateral prefrontal activation in young adults. \u003cem\u003eNeuroimage\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e169\u003c/strong\u003e, 117\u0026ndash;125 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThacker, J. S. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e A single session of aerobic exercise mediates plasticity-related phosphorylation in both the rat motor cortex and hippocampus. \u003cem\u003eNeuroscience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e412\u003c/strong\u003e, 160\u0026ndash;174 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKojima, S. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Temporal changes in cortical oxygenation in the motor-related areas and bilateral prefrontal cortex based on exercise intensity and respiratory metabolism during incremental exercise in male subjects: A near-Infrared spectroscopy study. \u003cem\u003eFront. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark, S.-Y., Reinl, M. \u0026amp; Schott, N. Effects of acute exercise at different intensities on fine motor-cognitive dual-task performance while walking: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e54\u003c/strong\u003e, 8225\u0026ndash;8248 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManci, E., G\u0026uuml;nay, E., G\u0026uuml;d\u0026uuml;c\u0026uuml;, C., \u0026Ouml;zg\u0026ouml;ren, M. \u0026amp; Bediz, C. S. Brain hemodynamic changes during sprint interval cycling exercise and recovery periods. \u003cem\u003eScience \u0026amp; Sports\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e38\u003c/strong\u003e, 75\u0026ndash;83 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, J. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Exploring brain functional plasticity in world-class gymnasts: a network analysis. \u003cem\u003eBrain Struct Funct\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e221\u003c/strong\u003e, 3503\u0026ndash;3519 (2016).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eH\u0026ouml;tting, K. \u0026amp; R\u0026ouml;der, B. Beneficial Effects of Physical Exercise on Neuroplasticity and Cognition. \u003cem\u003eNeurosci Biobehav Rev\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e37\u003c/strong\u003e, 2243\u0026ndash;2257 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReycraft, J. T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Exercise Intensity and Recovery on Circulating Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor. \u003cem\u003eMed Sci Sports Exerc\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e52\u003c/strong\u003e, 1210\u0026ndash;1217 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, K. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Exercise Intensity and Brain Plasticity: What\u0026rsquo;s the Difference of Brain Structural and Functional Plasticity Characteristics Between Elite Aerobic and Anaerobic Athletes? \u003cem\u003eFront. Hum. Neurosci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e16\u003c/strong\u003e, (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, D. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Synaptic-like transmission between neural axons and arteriolar smooth muscle cells drives cerebral neurovascular coupling. \u003cem\u003eNat Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e, 232\u0026ndash;248 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLev-Vachnish, Y. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e L-Lactate Promotes Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. \u003cem\u003eFront Neurosci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 403 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShin, J. D., Tang, W. \u0026amp; Jadhav, S. P. Dynamics of Awake Hippocampal-Prefrontal Replay for Spatial Learning and Memory-Guided Decision Making. \u003cem\u003eNeuron\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e104\u003c/strong\u003e, 1110-1125.e7 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBergman, H. \u003cem\u003eThe Hidden Life of the Basal Ganglia: At the Base of Brain and Mind\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHumphreys, G. \u0026amp; Riddoch, M. \u003cem\u003eAttention in Action: Advances from Cognitive Neuroscience\u003c/em\u003e. (Psychology Press, 2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoon, D. H. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Effect of elastic band-based high-speed power training on cognitive function, physical performance and muscle strength in older women with mild cognitive impairment. \u003cem\u003eGeriatr Gerontol Int\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e, 765\u0026ndash;772 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStrassnig, M. T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e High velocity circuit resistance training improves cognition, psychiatric symptoms and neuromuscular performance in overweight outpatients with severe mental illness. \u003cem\u003ePsychiatry Res\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e229\u003c/strong\u003e, 295\u0026ndash;301 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLourenco, M. V. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Exercise-linked FNDC5/irisin rescues synaptic plasticity and memory defects in Alzheimer\u0026rsquo;s models. \u003cem\u003eNat Med\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e25\u003c/strong\u003e, 165\u0026ndash;175 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, W. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Effects of acute aerobic exercise on resting state functional connectivity of motor cortex in college students. \u003cem\u003eSci Rep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e, 14837 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDietrich, A. Transient hypofrontality as a mechanism for the psychological effects of exercise. \u003cem\u003ePsychiatry Res\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e145\u003c/strong\u003e, 79\u0026ndash;83 (2006).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJalalvandi, M., Sharini, H., Shafaghi, L. \u0026amp; Alam, N. R. Deciphering brain activation during wrist movements: comparative fMRI and fNIRS analysis of active, passive, and imagery states. \u003cem\u003eExp. Brain Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e243\u003c/strong\u003e, 36 (2024).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM, Y. P. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Identification of the cognitive interference effect related to Stroop stimulation: using dynamic causal modeling of effective connectivity in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). \u003cem\u003eJ. Biomed. Phys. Eng.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e, 467\u0026ndash;478 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin, P.-Y., Chen, J.-J. J. \u0026amp; Lin, S.-I. The cortical control of cycling exercise in stroke patients: an fNIRS study. \u003cem\u003eHum Brain Mapp\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e, 2381\u0026ndash;2390 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBr\u0026uuml;mmer, V., Schneider, S., Str\u0026uuml;der, H. K. \u0026amp; Askew, C. D. Primary motor cortex activity is elevated with incremental exercise intensity. \u003cem\u003eNeuroscience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e181\u003c/strong\u003e, 150\u0026ndash;162 (2011).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePetersen, T. H., Willerslev-Olsen, M., Conway, B. A. \u0026amp; Nielsen, J. B. The motor cortex drives the muscles during walking in human subjects. \u003cem\u003eJ Physiol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e590\u003c/strong\u003e, 2443\u0026ndash;2452 (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHromadkova, L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes molecular polarization and differentiation of immature neuroblastoma cells into definitive neurons. \u003cem\u003eBiochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e1867\u003c/strong\u003e, 118737 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCao, L. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Structural and functional brain signatures of endurance runners. \u003cem\u003eBrain Struct Funct\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e226\u003c/strong\u003e, 93\u0026ndash;103 (2021).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":false,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Aerobic exercise, Anaerobic exercise, Resting-state functional connectivity, Functional near-infrared spectroscopy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eObjective\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate the impact of extended aerobic and anaerobic exercise on cerebral activity by analyzing the functional connectivity strength attributes of the cerebral cortex in endurance runners (aerobic) and sprint athletes (anaerobic) during the resting state with fNIRS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMethod\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirteen sprinters and twelve endurance runners were assessed using a functional near-infrared spectroscopic imaging system to quantify resting-state functional connection strengths for HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, HbR, and HbT across the brain, namely in the prefrontal and primary motor cortex.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. In the examination of functional connectivity of HbO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, the overall functional connection strength of the anaerobic group exceeded that of the aerobic group. In the regions of interest, the functional connection strength in the left and right prefrontal cortex of the anaerobic group surpassed that of the aerobic group. However, the functional connectivity strength in the right primary motor cortex of the aerobic group was greater than that of the anaerobic group. In comparisons between regions of interest, the functional connection strength between the left and right prefrontal cortex was greater in the anaerobic group. In contrast, the aerobic group had a more pronounced functional connectivity strength between the left and right primary motor cortex. 2. The functional connectivity study of HbR indicated that the mean whole-brain functional connection strength in the anaerobic group surpassed that of the aerobic group; however, no significant differences were seen between the two groups in intra- and inter-ROI comparisons. 3. The functional connectivity study of HbT indicated that the average brain-wide functional connection strength in the aerobic group surpassed that of the anaerobic group. In the regions of interest, the anaerobic group had greater functional connectivity strength in the right prefrontal cortex. In contrast, the aerobic group demonstrated more pronounced functional connectivity strength in the right primary motor cortex. The aerobic group exhibited greater functional connection strength between M1-R and M1-L throughout the regions of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConclusion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aerobic group had enhanced functional brain connectivity in the primary motor cortex, whereas the anaerobic group demonstrated superior functional brain connectivity in the prefrontal lobe. Various exercise modalities will have distinct influences on neuroplasticity across different brain regions, establishing a novel theoretical framework for exercise training and clinical rehabilitation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Investigation of Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Male Sprinters and Endurance Runners Brains Based on fNIRS","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-17 06:39:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5824393/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Accepted","date":"2025-04-21T11:43:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-19T17:28:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-17T00:13:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"71949251310778591077072998322674670982","date":"2025-04-16T23:52:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"255703505325576845746369357523962523859","date":"2025-04-15T18:16:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-15T18:03:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-10T07:28:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-03-29T07:37:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1ecf650d-743b-43ae-ae49-33667321fc25","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":47213407,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"},{"id":47213408,"name":"Biological sciences/Physiology"},{"id":47213409,"name":"Health sciences/Neurology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-05T16:02:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5824393","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99573-w","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-04-29 15:57:44","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 29th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-17 06:39:15","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-99573-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99573-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5824393","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5824393","identity":"rs-5824393","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}