Cost-effective Production of Antistatic Composite Filaments Using Expanded Graphite for Additive Manufacturing

Cost-effective Production of Antistatic Composite Filaments Using Expanded Graphite for Additive Manufacturing | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Cost-effective Production of Antistatic Composite Filaments Using Expanded Graphite for Additive Manufacturing Divan Coetzee, Juan Pablo Perez Aguilera, Jakub Wiener This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7643323/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study presents the simple fabrication of antistatic composite filaments using expanded graphite (EG) as a conductive filler. EG was integrated into common thermoplastic polymers—PLA, PETG, FLEX 93A, ABS, ASA, and PP— using a single screw bench-top extruder with a simple particle loading technique to produce filaments with EG loadings up to 7.5%. Key processing parameters were optimised to minimise bubble formation and maintain a consistent filament diameter. Electrical resistivity measurements demonstrated that the addition of EG significantly reduced resistivity in all polymers, transitioning them from insulators to antistatic materials with volume resistivities ranging from 2.1 × 10¹¹ to 2.1 × 10⁸ Ω·cm, depending on matrix and loading. Morphological analysis revealed that EG was dispersed throughout the filaments; however, particle agglomeration occurred. Tensile tests showed material-dependent effects, with elastomeric FLEX 93A benefiting most from EG reinforcement, while PLA, ABS, and ASA displayed varying changes in strength and modulus. XRD was used to determine the relationship between EG loading and crystallinity for particle loading characterisation. These results validate the efficacy of expanded graphite for imparting reliable antistatic properties to additive manufacturing filaments without markedly compromising mechanical performance, enabling their use in sensitive electronics and safety-critical environments. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction The rapid advancement of additive manufacturing technologies has transformed modern manufacturing paradigms, enabling the production of complex geometries and customised components across diverse industries. However, traditional polymeric materials used in 3D printing often suffer from inherent limitations, particularly their insulating nature, which can lead to problematic electrostatic charge accumulation. This electrostatic buildup poses significant challenges in applications where static electricity can damage sensitive electronic components, create safety hazards in explosive environments, or interfere with precision manufacturing processes. The development of antistatic composite filaments represents a crucial innovation addressing these challenges by incorporating conductive fillers such as expanded graphite to provide controlled static dissipation while maintaining the processability and mechanical properties essential for additive manufacturing (Yun et al., 2022 ). Expanded graphite emerges as a particularly promising conductive filler for creating antistatic composite materials due to its unique structural properties and exceptional electrical conductivity characteristics, which have been found to be as low as 10 2 Ω.cm in composites at loadings as low as 5%. The material's effectiveness stems from its distinctive layered structure, which enables the formation of continuous conductive networks within polymer matrices even at relatively low loading percentages. When properly incorporated into thermoplastic polymers, expanded graphite can enhance electrical conductivity by several orders of magnitude, transforming insulating polymers into materials with surface resistivities in the antistatic range of 10 5 to 10 12 Ω. This conductivity range allows for controlled static dissipation without creating fully conductive materials that might pose electrical safety risks (Coetzee et al., 2024 ; Nista et al., 2023 ; Yun et al., 2022 ). The production of expanded graphite involves a complex intercalation and expansion process that fundamentally changes the structure of natural graphite flakes. The manufacturing process usually starts with high-quality natural flake graphite, which undergoes intercalation treatment where chemical agents such as sulfuric or nitric acids are inserted between the carbon layers using hydrogen peroxide. During this intercalation process, the chemical agents penetrate between the graphite layers, forming what are known as graphite intercalation compounds (GICs) or expandable graphite salts. These are then thermally expanded at temperatures ranging from 700°C to 900°C, resulting in an interlayer expansion of up to 150 times to produce expanded graphite as shown in Fig. 1 (Coetzee et al., 2023 , 2024 ; Yun et al., 2022 ). Literature review The polymeric matrices used in this study cover a broad range of thermoplastic materials commonly employed in additive manufacturing, each with unique processing features and performance qualities. Polylactic acid (PLA) is an ideal starting material for antistatic filament development because of its excellent printability, low processing temperatures (190–220°C), and biodegradable properties. Research by Melillo et al. demonstrated successful modification of commercial PLA filaments through the addition of 1, 3, and 5 wt.% expandable graphite, showing that all composite filaments remained printable while achieving a V-2 rating in UL-94 flammability tests (Melillo et al., 2021 ). The addition of expanded graphite into PLA matrices has been shown to improve thermal stability and provide nucleating effects that enhance crystallisation behaviour (Mondragón-Herrera et al., 2024 ). Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) offers superior mechanical properties compared to PLA, including higher impact resistance, better temperature stability, and improved chemical resistance. Studies have shown that ABS maintains excellent dimensional stability and durability for functional parts when processed at temperatures between 230–260°C. The incorporation of conductive fillers into ABS matrices has been demonstrated to enhance electrical conductivity while maintaining the material's inherent toughness and processability characteristics (Çevik & Kam, 2020 ; Horst et al., 2020 ; Mondragón-Herrera et al., 2024 ). Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) represents an evolved version of ABS with enhanced UV resistance and weatherability, making it particularly suitable for outdoor applications where long-term environmental exposure is expected. ASA maintains similar processing characteristics to ABS while offering superior colour stability and reduced tendency to yellow under UV exposure (Mondragón-Herrera et al., 2024 ). Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) combines the ease of printing associated with PLA with enhanced mechanical properties and chemical resistance. PETG offers excellent clarity, good impact resistance, and chemical compatibility, making it suitable for applications requiring both antistatic properties and optical transparency. Research has demonstrated that PETG-based composites maintain good interlayer adhesion while providing balanced mechanical and thermal properties suitable for demanding applications (Horst et al., 2020 ; Mondragón-Herrera et al., 2024 ). Polypropylene (PP) presents unique challenges and opportunities in antistatic composite development due to its inherently low surface energy and tendency to accumulate static charges. PP is notoriously difficult to print due to poor bed adhesion and high shrinkage. Its widespread use in industrial applications makes the development of antistatic PP filaments highly valuable (Paszkiewicz et al., 2024 ; Winter et al., 2022 ). This study indicates that adding expanded graphite can both resolve static buildup problems and potentially enhance the printability of polypropylene-based filaments. Polyurethane (PU) (Often referred to as FLEX in this study) offers exceptional flexibility and impact resistance, making it valuable for applications requiring elastic properties combined with antistatic characteristics. Research by Koohbor et al. demonstrated the successful fabrication of electrically conductive 3D printable TPU/MWCNT filaments for strain sensing applications, showing that the incorporation of conductive fillers into polyurethane matrices can provide controlled conductivity while maintaining the material's inherent flexibility (Koohbor et al., 2024 ). The applications for antistatic composite materials cover many industries where electrostatic discharge poses significant risks or operational difficulties. In the electronics manufacturing industry, antistatic materials are vital for safeguarding sensitive components during handling, storage, and processing. Research shows that electronic components can be damaged by electrostatic discharges as low as 20 volts, making controlled static dissipation essential for ensuring product reliability and lowering failure rates. Studies by Yun et al. demonstrated that nanocomposites with adjustable electrical properties in the range of 10⁴-10¹¹ Ω/sq are particularly sought after for antistatic and electromagnetic interference purposes, such as electronic device-fixing jigs (Yun et al., 2022 ). By leveraging the unique properties of expanded graphite and the versatility of modern thermoplastic polymers, these composite filaments offer solutions to critical challenges in static-sensitive applications while maintaining the design freedom and manufacturing flexibility inherent to additive manufacturing processes (Abo-Basha et al., 2024 ; Nath & Nilufar, 2020 ). Methods and methodology Materials All polymer pellets were purchased as Smartfill (Solidify 3D s.r.o, Czech Republic) and coated with sulfuric acid intercalated thermally expanded graphite (Sorbetin s.r.o., Czech Republic). This was fed into a desktop Filament Extruder MK2 (Artme, Germany). Sample Preparation Polymer pellets were dried in an oven at 65°C for 30 minutes. Particle loading was carried out using a hand milling process, where the polymer pellets were shaken in a container with the uEG particles until the particles coated the pellets. This occurred due to van der Waals forces resulting in attraction at the interface between the graphene-like structures of the milled expanded graphite and the polymer chains on the pellet surface, as shown in Fig. 2 (Cui et al., 2020 ). The coated pellets were then fed into the extruder (Fig. 3 ) at conditions indicated in Table 1 to produce the composite filaments. Table 1 shows the sample processing conditions and highlights where samples were deemed unusable, leading to adjustments in the conditions. The extrusion temperature was determined based on thermal analysis of the polymer pellets. The drying time refers to pre-drying the polymer pellets, which was necessary to prevent bubble formation during extrusion caused by moisture. A sample was considered usable when it was smooth, free from bubbles, and had a consistent diameter. Meeting these conditions ensured the filament could pass through a 3D printer's feeder. Table 1 Extruder parameters for each sample Sample number Polymer EG Content (%) Drying Time (min) Extruder Speed (rpm) Extruder Temp (°C) Fan Speed Setting Nozzle Size (mm) Comment 1 PLA 0 0 7 180 27 1.7 Usable 2 PLA 1 0 7 180 27 1.7 Usable 3 PLA 1 0 7 180 27 1.7 Bubbles. Not usable 4 PLA 3 30 7 180 27 1.7 Bubbles Not usable 5 PLA 3 30 7 180 27 1.7 Usable 6 PLA 5 5 7 180 27 1.7 Little bubbles. Not Usable 7 PLA 5 30 7 180 27 1.7 Usable 8 PLA 1 30 7 180 27 1.7 Usable 9 PLA 1 30 12 180 27 1.7 Usable 10 PETG 0 30 12 230 40 1.7 Usable 11 PETG 1 30 12 230 30 1.7 Usable 12 PETG 3 30 12 230 30 1.7 Bubbles. Not Usable 13 PETG 3 30 12 200 10 1.7 Usable 14 PETG 5 30 12 200 4 1.7 Usable 15 FLEX (PU) 0 30 12 195 43 1.7 Usable 16 FLEX (PU) 1 30 12 195 43 1.7 Usable 17 FLEX (PU) 3 30 12 195 43 1.7 Usable 18 FLEX (PU) 5 30 12 195 43 1.7 Usable 19 ABS 0 30 12 210 30 1.5 Usable 20 ABS 1 30 12 210 30 1.5 Usable 21 ABS 3 30 12 210 30 1.5 Usable 22 ABS 5 30 12 210 30 1.5 Usable 23 ASA 0 30 12 230 27 1.7 Bubbles Not usable 24 ASA 0 30 12 210 27 1.7 Bubbles Not usable 25 ASA 0 30 12 210 13 1.7 Usable 26 ASA 1 30 12 210 27 1.7 Usable 27 ASA 3 30 12 210 27 1.7 Usable 28 ASA 5 30 12 210 27 1.7 Usable 29 ASA 7.5 30 12 210 27 1.7 Usable 30 PP 0 30 12 170 27 1.7 Usable 31 PP 1 30 12 170 27 1.7 Usable 32 PP 3 30 12 170 27 1.7 Usable 33 PP 5 30 12 170 27 1.7 Usable Testing methods Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used for thermal analysis of the polymer pellets to confirm the suitable extrusion temperatures. Samples were characterised using optical microscopy using an Olympus DSX1000 in 3D image acquisition mode. The average filament diameter was measured using a digital gauge. Electrical resistivity was measured using a Hewlett-Packard 4339B. Tensile tests were conducted on a Tiratest 2300. XRD was utilised to characterise the samples using a Philips PANanalytical PRO MPD with a Copper source and a PIXcel 1D detector. Results and discussion Determining material extrusion parameters An investigation into extruder parameters for producing the composite samples is shown in Table 1 . The initial samples were made using a PLA polymer matrix, where it was determined that the pellets should be dried to prevent bubble formation caused by moisture. This was only necessary for the samples containing EG; however, the first sample did not exhibit any bubbles, likely because it was produced using dry pellets as purchased directly. The optimal drying conditions were experimentally determined to be 65°C for 30 minutes. The take-up was set to automatic, and it was observed that increasing the extruder speed to 12 rpm had no impact on the sample quality but improved output. PETG and ASA showed bubble formation, which was not attributed to moisture. It was found that at 230°C, these polymers approach their chain degradation limit, and combined with the mechanical shear of the extruder, volatile gases can be produced, forming bubbles. The rapid cooling from the fan further traps these gases at the core of the filaments. Therefore, lowering the extrusion temperature reduces the likelihood of gas formation due to chain degradation, while decreasing the cooling fan speed promotes a more gradual cooling gradient (Frunzaverde et al., 2022 ; Liu et al., 2018 ; Valvez et al., 2022 ). Due to the ease of customisation of 3D printer nozzles, the primary objective was to produce filament with a consistent diameter. The printability of the filaments was later confirmed by printing a shape using the produced filament. Filament diameter measurements Based on the filament diameter data (Table 3 ), distinct trends emerge that can be explained through established polymer extrusion and rheology principles. For most polymers (ABS, ASA, PP, and FLEX 93 A), increasing uEG content generally led to a reduction in filament diameter, which aligns with established findings that rigid particulate fillers such as uEG typically increase melt viscosity, restrict polymer chain mobility, and reduce die swell by constraining the elastic recovery of the melt after exiting the die. The addition of graphitic fillers creates interfacial interactions between nanoparticle fillers and the polymer matrix, making molecular movement more difficult as polymer molecular chains become tightly intertwined. Ultrasonication improves the dispersion and exfoliation of graphite layers, strengthening filler–matrix interactions and further limiting chain relaxation, thereby producing smaller filaments at constant take-up speeds (Kaczor et al., 2021a ; K. Wang, 2010 ; Zhao et al., 2018 ; Zhu et al., 2021 ) Table 3 Filament diameters Flament diameter (mm) uEG Content (%) 0 1 3 5 7.5 PLA 1.67 1.66 1.74 1.74 Stdev 0.04 0.13 0.03 0.05 PETG 1.46 1.62 1.85 1.84 Stdev 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.10 FLEX 93 A 1.41 1.70 1.68 1.55 Stdev 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.10 ABS 2.21 1.87 1.83 1.84 Stdev 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.03 ASA 2.32 2.18 2.16 2.13 2.12 Stdev 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 PP 2.46 2.46 2.39 2.46 Stdev 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.07 In contrast, PETG showed a significant increase in filament diameter with higher uEG loadings. This difference can be attributed to PETG's unique rheological response, where filler addition can reduce melt elasticity and promote chain relaxation, leading to greater die swell and expansion after extrusion. Rheological tests have indicated that increasing the number of processing cycles decreases PETG's elastic behaviour due to thermomechanical effects, and adding fillers can further alter its viscoelastic balance. The combination of PETG's shear-thinning properties and its tendency for higher post-die expansion when elasticity is lowered can outweigh the viscosity-related constriction seen in other polymers, resulting in increased filament diameter. Studies on PETG composites show that filler addition decreases overall viscosity and slightly raises the melt flow rate, which influences extrusion behaviour (Martin et al., 2024 ; Mohammad et al., 2022 ; Petousis et al., 2024 ). PLA displayed a mixed trend, with diameter increasing at moderate loadings (1–3%) before stabilising, which is consistent with reports that at low–moderate filler contents, swelling may dominate due to insufficient elastic constraint from the filler network, but at higher loadings, viscosity effects become more significant. The crystallinity of the PLA matrix, which increases significantly with graphite filler addition, has a direct impact on melt flow properties and can influence filament diameter through altered flow resistance. These behaviours highlight that the influence of uEG on filament geometry is strongly polymer-dependent, governed by the interplay of filler-induced viscosity changes, melt elasticity, and die swell dynamics (Gomes et al., 2022 ; Kaczor et al., 2021b ; K. Wang, 2010 ). Optical microscope analysis Virgin PLA filaments appeared translucent when extruded, as shown in Fig. 4 . Bubble formation from moisture in the samples prior to proper drying was also noticeable. For clarity, the sample with the highest filler content was chosen. It was evident that particle agglomeration took place; however, particles were spread throughout the material's structure to form conductive pathways. Virgin PETG filaments appeared translucent when extruded, as shown in Fig. 5 . Bubble formation was observed due to polymer chain degradation and rapid cooling in sample 10. The sample with the highest filler content was selected. It was clear that particle agglomeration occurred, but to a lesser extent than in the case of PLA filaments. Polyurethane-based FLEX fibres were translucent in colour, as shown in Fig. 6 . Particle agglomeration occurred to a similar extent as with PLA. Virgin ABS filaments were opaque white in colour, which turned grey with increased particle loading, showing filler dispersion but also some particle agglomeration as seen in Fig. 7 . Figure 9: Optical images of (left) virgin ASA filament with bubble (sample 23), (middle) 5% ASA (sample 28), (right) 7.5% ASA (sample 29) Virgin ASA filaments appeared solid white in colour, turning grey as filler loading increased. Particle agglomeration was evident, but to a slightly lesser extent than in other fibres, as shown in Fig. 9. Virgin PP was opaque in colour, which turned grey with increased filler loading, similar to other fibres. There was less particle agglomeration present, as in the case with ASA as shown in Fig. 10 . Electrical conductivity measurements Sample resistivity was measured to determine the conductivity attributed to the uEG. Results are presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Electrical resistivity of filaments Volume Resistivity (Ω.cm) uEG Content (%) 0 1 3 5 7.5 PLA 4.5E + 10 2.8E + 09 1.1E + 09 2.6E + 08 Stdev 3.3E + 07 5.2E + 06 2.6E + 05 7.8E + 04 PETG 2.6E + 10 4.1E + 09 1.7E + 09 1.2E + 09 Stdev 2.4E + 07 4.0E + 05 6.5E + 04 8.5E + 05 FLEX 93 A 8.1E + 08 3.5E + 08 2.3E + 08 2.1E + 08 Stdev 2.3E + 05 6.1E + 04 4.2E + 04 6.7E + 05 ABS 4.3E + 10 2.8E + 09 1.4E + 09 2.1E + 08 Stdev 1.7E + 08 4.4E + 05 1.6E + 05 4.6E + 04 ASA 1.4E + 10 2.2E + 09 1.0E + 09 4.8E + 08 3.1E + 08 Stdev 1.7E + 07 1.8E + 05 2.0E + 05 2.1E + 05 5.7E + 04 PP 2.1E + 11 4.8E + 09 2.7E + 09 6.7E + 08 Stdev 6.4E + 08 2.3E + 06 6.7E + 05 1.4E + 05 RH 52% ; Temp 24.5°C ; 1 Volt ; 10 mA In most cases, the addition of EG to the polymers reduced the resistivity by up to 10 3 Ω · cm. FLEX 93 A was an outlier in the data because the reduction in electrical resistivity with respect to the amount of EG added was not as statistically significant as for the other samples. Since EG is the conductive component in the matrix, this was attributed to the lower amounts present in the extruded material than stated. The best performing samples compared to the virgin polymer were PP, where the resistivity was reduced by a factor of 10 3 Ω · cm. PLA, ABS, and ASA showed a similar trend; however, the reduction in resistivity was less significant, at 10 2 Ohm · cm. For ASA at a loading of 7.5% EG, the resistivity of the sample was not significantly lower compared to the sample with 5% loading. The sample with the lowest reduction in resistivity was PETG, which exhibited the highest resistivity of 1.17 x 10 9 Ω · cm at 5% EG loading. Based on the results, all samples changed from being insulators to antistatic, except for the FLEX 93 A samples, which were antistatic at 0% EG loading. Tensile measurements Tensile measurements are presented in Table 4 . Values for the breaking strength, elongation at break, and Young's modulus were normalised to the pure unfilled polymers to determine the mechanical effects attributed to the uEG. Table 4 Tensile measurement data Polymer EG (%) Avg Fmax (N) SD (N) Avg Smax (mm) SD (mm) Avg Young’s Modulus (MPa) SD (MPa) Norm. Fmax Norm. Smax Norm. Young’s Modulus PLA 0 115.0 9.5 6.08 0.65 414 47 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 108.7 7.1 5.82 0.29 408 28 0.95 0.96 0.99 3 114.6 6.2 6.30 0.81 351 33 1.00 1.04 0.85 5 115.7 13.3 7.32 0.94 306 59 1.01 1.20 0.74 PETG 0 68.8 2.0 5.24 0.22 425 32 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 70.9 4.7 5.36 0.57 324 37 1.03 1.02 0.76 3 111.6 2.0 6.56 0.30 281 27 1.62 1.25 0.66 5 112.5 1.9 6.55 0.49 302 39 1.64 1.25 0.71 FLEX 93A 0 81.4 11.6 341.65 17.69 35 7.1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 109.1 4.2 352.27 9.61 50 6.8 1.34 1.03 1.44 3 111.2 3.8 359.46 7.03 52 3.9 1.37 1.05 1.50 5 91.0 6.8 340.70 13.91 47 6.9 1.12 1.00 1.35 ABS 0 140.8 11.9 6.83 0.80 275 50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 98.1 2.3 5.74 0.58 314 33 0.70 0.84 1.14 3 93.4 1.9 6.09 0.75 297 38 0.66 0.89 1.08 5 89.9 3.5 5.96 0.37 287 25 0.64 0.87 1.04 ASA 0 162.4 2.3 6.87 0.43 279 24 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 144.9 3.8 6.92 0.42 278 19 0.89 1.01 1.00 3 142.6 3.0 7.10 0.42 273 24 0.88 1.03 0.98 5 138.7 3.6 7.17 0.38 268 23 0.85 1.04 0.96 7.5 134.4 5.0 7.04 0.36 262 24 0.83 1.03 0.94 PP 0 83.8 5.3 12.55 0.86 150 20 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 81.9 3.9 13.60 0.65 107 19 0.98 1.08 0.71 3 82.3 3.0 12.23 1.15 180 23 0.98 0.98 1.20 5 80.4 4.8 11.32 1.40 158 27 0.96 0.90 1.05 The tensile test results show that the addition of expanded graphite (EG) to different polymer matrices produces material-dependent effects driven by dispersion quality, interfacial bonding, and filler network formation. In PLA, tensile strength remains essentially unchanged across loadings while Young’s modulus decreases and elongation increases, indicating that EG likely disrupts crystallinity without providing effective reinforcement due to limited interfacial adhesion. PETG shows an unusual combination of strength gain and modulus loss, consistent with literature reports where well-dispersed EG induces mechanisms such as layered slip or energy dissipation via shear banding, improving toughness despite stiffness reduction (L. Wang et al., 2012 ). ABS and ASA both experience noticeable strength losses but stable or slightly increased moduli, suggesting that in these less compatible systems EG acts as a rigid particulate that increases stiffness locally while creating stress concentrators that lower ultimate tensile strength (Mohammad et al., 2022 ). In contrast, the elastomer-based FLEX 93A exhibits significant gains in both strength and modulus, characteristic of successful EG reinforcement through stress transfer and possible filler network formation within the flexible matrix without loss of extensibility (Sever et al., 2013 ). Polypropylene shows only modest, non-monotonic changes in all metrics, reflecting the interplay between crystallinity disruption and limited filler–matrix adhesion in a nonpolar semicrystalline system (Mohammad et al., 2022 ; Vande Ryse et al., 2024 ). Overall, these results align with composite theory and recent findings in EG–polymer literature, demonstrating that expanded graphite can act either as an effective reinforcing phase or a defect site depending on polymer chemistry, morphology, and dispersion, with optimal results achieved when strong filler–matrix interfacial interactions and homogeneous dispersion promote load transfer and percolated filler networks. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements XRD was performed on the filaments to evaluate their structural properties specifically due to the addition of EG. The ratio of the EG peak in the samples should relate to the EG content and this was used to evaluate the sample’s particle content with respect to each other. The XRD graphs of each polymer type is presented in Fig. 2 . Peak analysis is presented in Table 5, where the peak area, Full Width at Half Maximum and Peak intensity were calculated. Polymer uEG (%) Peak Area FWHM Intensity PLA 1 176 0.247 655 3 571 0.318 1 561 5 560 0.316 1 566 PETG 1 132 0.285 392 3 655 0.336 1 681 5 893 0.315 2 304 FLEX 93 A 1 537 0.294 1 504 3 425 0.364 1 148 5 366 0.301 1 091 ABS 1 354 0.328 946 3 877 0.325 2 366 5 809 0.345 2 044 ASA 1 344 0.306 928 3 613 0.310 1 641 5 1 490 0.315 4 080 7.5 1 433 0.327 3 620 PP 1 521 0.386 1 346 3 522 0.382 1 357 5 1 356 0.361 3 337 For PLA, the peak area increases by approximately + 218%, and peak intensity rises by + 139% from 1% to 5% uEG loading, while FWHM broadens slightly by + 28%, corresponding with the increase in uEG content. PETG shows the most dramatic increases, with peak area spiking by + 577%, intensity by + 488%, and FWHM increasing by + 11% at 3% before slightly decreasing at 5%, indicating improved crystalline order at higher loading and corresponding almost linearly with the increase in uEG loading with respect to the true content. In FLEX 93 A, peak area decreases by − 32%, and intensity drops by − 27%, with FWHM fluctuating but overall increasing, suggesting poorer graphite dispersion in this elastomeric matrix. This can also relate to less uEG present in the samples. For ABS, peak area grows by + 128% and intensity by + 116% at 3%, with only minor FWHM changes (+–1%), implying increased uEG presence but stable uEG crystallite size. ASA exhibits strong increases in peak area (+ 333%) and intensity (+ 340%) at 5% loading, with FWHM remaining nearly constant. PP shows significant increases in peak area (+ 160%) and intensity (+ 148%), accompanied by a decrease in FWHM by − 6%. The FWHM change is more prominent with increased uEG concentrations due to the more disordered structure being amplified at higher loading. Conclusion Expanded graphite fillers were demonstrated to be highly effective for creating antistatic materials suitable for engineering applications, especially those sensitive to static discharge. The addition of EG to thermoplastic matrices PLA, PETG, FLEX 93A, ABS, ASA, and PP resulted in significant reductions in electrical resistivity, shifting the filaments from insulating to antistatic regimes, with measured resistivities dropping from values as high as 2.1×10 11 Ω·cm to as low as 2.6×10 8 Ω·cm at 5% EG content, depending on the polymer. Among the tested polymers, PP and ABS showed the most pronounced improvements in conductivity, while FLEX 93A exhibited antistatic properties even at 0% EG loading with little effect attributed to EG, indicating matrix-dependent pathways for charge dissipation. Morphological and XRD analyses confirmed that EG disperses within the matrix and forms conductive networks. This was confirmed with XRD peak intensities and areas strongly correlating to filler content, supporting the link between filler dispersion and functional performance. The effects on mechanical properties varied: PLA and PETG maintained or improved tensile strength at higher EG loadings, whereas ABS and ASA experienced slight reductions in strength but marginal gains in modulus. FLEX 93A displayed substantial improvements in both strength and modulus through successful stress transfer mechanisms, while PP showed minimal and non-monotonic changes in mechanical behaviour, revealing the critical role of interfacial compatibility and dispersion. Improvements can be achieved using twin screw extruder systems; however, they are more expensive due to their complexity, and filler agglomeration can still occur (Berzin et al., 2002 ; Bumm et al., 2014 ). This study demonstrated a simple, cost-effective method for producing antistatic composite materials with preserved or customised mechanical properties. It showed that expanded graphite can be dispersed within various polymer filaments used in 3D printing, employing a pre-particle mixing technique, making it suitable for use with a single screw extruder. Declarations Author Contribution Conceptualisation: [D.C.]; Methodology: [D.C; J.P.P.A]; Formal analysis and investigation: [D.C.; J.P.P.A]; Writing - original draft preparation: [D.C.]; Writing - review and editing: [D.C.]; Funding acquisition: [D.C.; J.W]; Resources: [D.C.; J.P.P.A]; Supervision: [D.C; J.W]. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgement This work is supported by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport under the project registration number SGS-2023-6384. Data Availability Data is provided within the manuscript References Abo-Basha S, Sh., Nassar KM, Mohamed RA (2024) Antistatic textiles: current status and future outlook. 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04:05:51","extension":"html","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":160588,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/32aba05d2cdf88c9c775f69d.html"},{"id":94241839,"identity":"79061f31-07c3-4f58-917e-44d5d14f3bf8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":252335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScanning Electron Microscopy image of expanded graphite particles (Coetzee et al., 2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/1cef8d66f2971e71d01ae42c.png"},{"id":94242333,"identity":"6ab85dfe-120b-4e46-aafa-aa94159442f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:13:50","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":174414,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(left) PLA pellets, (middle) PLA coated with uEG, (right) ultrasonicated expanded graphite (uEG)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/ea986ea1ba1ed58522b3798b.png"},{"id":94241847,"identity":"49645066-dd19-459f-951b-148635639c5a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180012,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImage of the single screw extruder used to produce the samples\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/65f06a59f8ee5ee6d5bc117a.png"},{"id":94241833,"identity":"283d78ef-e369-4020-be66-a091351795d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":250828,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) cross-section of virgin PLA filament (sample 1), (middle) 3% PLA filament, with bubbles (sample 4), (right) 5% PLA filament (sample 7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/6121e96384c0820630000477.png"},{"id":94241854,"identity":"e2a2d163-803a-4c13-9b4c-58280448376b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:51","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":269988,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin PETG filament (sample 10), (middle) 3% PETG, with bubbles (sample 12), (right) 5% PETG (sample 14)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/73e953923f6284477d412489.png"},{"id":94242332,"identity":"b78c2a68-66f7-42ad-9fa3-11d7495d6f95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:13:50","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":161154,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin FLEX filament (sample 15), (right) 5 % FLEX (sample 18)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/be9908bb74ab03e256e636dd.png"},{"id":94241837,"identity":"9d43cd99-63a4-4a42-a4b2-5d00973be633","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":156750,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin ABS filament (sample 19), (right) 5 % ABS (sample 22)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/65aa771f55f6ffdab7a293d1.png"},{"id":94241830,"identity":"fc300f2e-b6cd-444e-aa0a-ab1767ed4bc4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5713,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin ABS filament (sample 19), (right) 5 % ABS (sample 22)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/acaef9c11ef1a9c1ee9fce22.png"},{"id":94241856,"identity":"c78bb579-25df-4f42-9d86-2e197288ea52","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:51","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":248161,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin ASA filament with bubble (sample 23), (middle) 5 % ASA (sample 28), (right) 7.5% ASA (sample 29)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/3b590845a216f39a4bab529f.png"},{"id":94241848,"identity":"c01dd169-3819-44ac-9ebf-9b3920df733a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":161039,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOptical images of (left) virgin PP filament (sample 30), (right) 5% PP (sample 33)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/fe4327fd9d875f1b2421a557.png"},{"id":94241845,"identity":"423b21dc-0a30-49dd-a81d-62b36fcca8e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-24 04:05:50","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":138200,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUnnumbered image in the Results and discussion section.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Unnumberfig.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/4bf5d80670ba0afd670f9bc4.png"},{"id":97137649,"identity":"a0ba45b0-f87c-44fb-9506-a68141612775","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:58:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3625159,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7643323/v1/35415673-c9df-41e7-b43c-fa7f30457b56.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Cost-effective Production of Antistatic Composite Filaments Using Expanded Graphite for Additive Manufacturing","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe rapid advancement of additive manufacturing technologies has transformed modern manufacturing paradigms, enabling the production of complex geometries and customised components across diverse industries. However, traditional polymeric materials used in 3D printing often suffer from inherent limitations, particularly their insulating nature, which can lead to problematic electrostatic charge accumulation. This electrostatic buildup poses significant challenges in applications where static electricity can damage sensitive electronic components, create safety hazards in explosive environments, or interfere with precision manufacturing processes. The development of antistatic composite filaments represents a crucial innovation addressing these challenges by incorporating conductive fillers such as expanded graphite to provide controlled static dissipation while maintaining the processability and mechanical properties essential for additive manufacturing (Yun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpanded graphite emerges as a particularly promising conductive filler for creating antistatic composite materials due to its unique structural properties and exceptional electrical conductivity characteristics, which have been found to be as low as 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e Ω.cm in composites at loadings as low as 5%. The material's effectiveness stems from its distinctive layered structure, which enables the formation of continuous conductive networks within polymer matrices even at relatively low loading percentages. When properly incorporated into thermoplastic polymers, expanded graphite can enhance electrical conductivity by several orders of magnitude, transforming insulating polymers into materials with surface resistivities in the antistatic range of 10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e to 10\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e Ω. This conductivity range allows for controlled static dissipation without creating fully conductive materials that might pose electrical safety risks (Coetzee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Nista et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe production of expanded graphite involves a complex intercalation and expansion process that fundamentally changes the structure of natural graphite flakes. The manufacturing process usually starts with high-quality natural flake graphite, which undergoes intercalation treatment where chemical agents such as sulfuric or nitric acids are inserted between the carbon layers using hydrogen peroxide. During this intercalation process, the chemical agents penetrate between the graphite layers, forming what are known as graphite intercalation compounds (GICs) or expandable graphite salts. These are then thermally expanded at temperatures ranging from 700\u0026deg;C to 900\u0026deg;C, resulting in an interlayer expansion of up to 150 times to produce expanded graphite as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (Coetzee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Yun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe polymeric matrices used in this study cover a broad range of thermoplastic materials commonly employed in additive manufacturing, each with unique processing features and performance qualities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolylactic acid (PLA) is an ideal starting material for antistatic filament development because of its excellent printability, low processing temperatures (190–220°C), and biodegradable properties. Research by Melillo et al. demonstrated successful modification of commercial PLA filaments through the addition of 1, 3, and 5 wt.% expandable graphite, showing that all composite filaments remained printable while achieving a V-2 rating in UL-94 flammability tests (Melillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The addition of expanded graphite into PLA matrices has been shown to improve thermal stability and provide nucleating effects that enhance crystallisation behaviour (Mondragón-Herrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) offers superior mechanical properties compared to PLA, including higher impact resistance, better temperature stability, and improved chemical resistance. Studies have shown that ABS maintains excellent dimensional stability and durability for functional parts when processed at temperatures between 230–260°C. The incorporation of conductive fillers into ABS matrices has been demonstrated to enhance electrical conductivity while maintaining the material's inherent toughness and processability characteristics (Çevik \u0026amp; Kam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Horst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mondragón-Herrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) represents an evolved version of ABS with enhanced UV resistance and weatherability, making it particularly suitable for outdoor applications where long-term environmental exposure is expected. ASA maintains similar processing characteristics to ABS while offering superior colour stability and reduced tendency to yellow under UV exposure (Mondragón-Herrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) combines the ease of printing associated with PLA with enhanced mechanical properties and chemical resistance. PETG offers excellent clarity, good impact resistance, and chemical compatibility, making it suitable for applications requiring both antistatic properties and optical transparency. Research has demonstrated that PETG-based composites maintain good interlayer adhesion while providing balanced mechanical and thermal properties suitable for demanding applications (Horst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mondragón-Herrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Polypropylene (PP) presents unique challenges and opportunities in antistatic composite development due to its inherently low surface energy and tendency to accumulate static charges. PP is notoriously difficult to print due to poor bed adhesion and high shrinkage. Its widespread use in industrial applications makes the development of antistatic PP filaments highly valuable (Paszkiewicz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Winter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This study indicates that adding expanded graphite can both resolve static buildup problems and potentially enhance the printability of polypropylene-based filaments. Polyurethane (PU) (Often referred to as FLEX in this study) offers exceptional flexibility and impact resistance, making it valuable for applications requiring elastic properties combined with antistatic characteristics. Research by Koohbor et al. demonstrated the successful fabrication of electrically conductive 3D printable TPU/MWCNT filaments for strain sensing applications, showing that the incorporation of conductive fillers into polyurethane matrices can provide controlled conductivity while maintaining the material's inherent flexibility (Koohbor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe applications for antistatic composite materials cover many industries where electrostatic discharge poses significant risks or operational difficulties. In the electronics manufacturing industry, antistatic materials are vital for safeguarding sensitive components during handling, storage, and processing. Research shows that electronic components can be damaged by electrostatic discharges as low as 20 volts, making controlled static dissipation essential for ensuring product reliability and lowering failure rates. Studies by Yun et al. demonstrated that nanocomposites with adjustable electrical properties in the range of 10⁴-10¹¹ Ω/sq are particularly sought after for antistatic and electromagnetic interference purposes, such as electronic device-fixing jigs (Yun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). By leveraging the unique properties of expanded graphite and the versatility of modern thermoplastic polymers, these composite filaments offer solutions to critical challenges in static-sensitive applications while maintaining the design freedom and manufacturing flexibility inherent to additive manufacturing processes (Abo-Basha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Nath \u0026amp; Nilufar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"Methods and methodology","content":"\u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll polymer pellets were purchased as Smartfill (Solidify 3D s.r.o, Czech Republic) and coated with sulfuric acid intercalated thermally expanded graphite (Sorbetin s.r.o., Czech Republic). This was fed into a desktop Filament Extruder MK2 (Artme, Germany).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eSample Preparation\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymer pellets were dried in an oven at 65°C for 30 minutes. Particle loading was carried out using a hand milling process, where the polymer pellets were shaken in a container with the uEG particles until the particles coated the pellets. This occurred due to van der Waals forces resulting in attraction at the interface between the graphene-like structures of the milled expanded graphite and the polymer chains on the pellet surface, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (Cui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe coated pellets were then fed into the extruder (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) at conditions indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e to produce the composite filaments. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the sample processing conditions and highlights where samples were deemed unusable, leading to adjustments in the conditions. The extrusion temperature was determined based on thermal analysis of the polymer pellets. The drying time refers to pre-drying the polymer pellets, which was necessary to prevent bubble formation during extrusion caused by moisture. A sample was considered usable when it was smooth, free from bubbles, and had a consistent diameter. Meeting these conditions ensured the filament could pass through a 3D printer's feeder.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtruder parameters for each sample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEG Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrying Time (min)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtruder Speed (rpm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtruder Temp (°C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFan Speed Setting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNozzle Size (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBubbles. Not usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBubbles Not usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLittle bubbles. Not Usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBubbles. Not Usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX (PU)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX (PU)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX (PU)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX (PU)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBubbles Not usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBubbles Not usable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ch3\u003eTesting methods\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used for thermal analysis of the polymer pellets to confirm the suitable extrusion temperatures. Samples were characterised using optical microscopy using an Olympus DSX1000 in 3D image acquisition mode. The average filament diameter was measured using a digital gauge. Electrical resistivity was measured using a Hewlett-Packard 4339B. Tensile tests were conducted on a Tiratest 2300. XRD was utilised to characterise the samples using a Philips PANanalytical PRO MPD with a Copper source and a PIXcel 1D detector.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDetermining material extrusion parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn investigation into extruder parameters for producing the composite samples is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The initial samples were made using a PLA polymer matrix, where it was determined that the pellets should be dried to prevent bubble formation caused by moisture. This was only necessary for the samples containing EG; however, the first sample did not exhibit any bubbles, likely because it was produced using dry pellets as purchased directly. The optimal drying conditions were experimentally determined to be 65\u0026deg;C for 30 minutes. The take-up was set to automatic, and it was observed that increasing the extruder speed to 12 rpm had no impact on the sample quality but improved output. PETG and ASA showed bubble formation, which was not attributed to moisture. It was found that at 230\u0026deg;C, these polymers approach their chain degradation limit, and combined with the mechanical shear of the extruder, volatile gases can be produced, forming bubbles. The rapid cooling from the fan further traps these gases at the core of the filaments. Therefore, lowering the extrusion temperature reduces the likelihood of gas formation due to chain degradation, while decreasing the cooling fan speed promotes a more gradual cooling gradient (Frunzaverde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Valvez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the ease of customisation of 3D printer nozzles, the primary objective was to produce filament with a consistent diameter. The printability of the filaments was later confirmed by printing a shape using the produced filament.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFilament diameter measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the filament diameter data (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), distinct trends emerge that can be explained through established polymer extrusion and rheology principles. For most polymers (ABS, ASA, PP, and FLEX 93 A), increasing uEG content generally led to a reduction in filament diameter, which aligns with established findings that rigid particulate fillers such as uEG typically increase melt viscosity, restrict polymer chain mobility, and reduce die swell by constraining the elastic recovery of the melt after exiting the die. The addition of graphitic fillers creates interfacial interactions between nanoparticle fillers and the polymer matrix, making molecular movement more difficult as polymer molecular chains become tightly intertwined. Ultrasonication improves the dispersion and exfoliation of graphite layers, strengthening filler\u0026ndash;matrix interactions and further limiting chain relaxation, thereby producing smaller filaments at constant take-up speeds (Kaczor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021a\u003c/span\u003e; K. Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFilament diameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlament diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003euEG Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX 93 A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, PETG showed a significant increase in filament diameter with higher uEG loadings. This difference can be attributed to PETG's unique rheological response, where filler addition can reduce melt elasticity and promote chain relaxation, leading to greater die swell and expansion after extrusion. Rheological tests have indicated that increasing the number of processing cycles decreases PETG's elastic behaviour due to thermomechanical effects, and adding fillers can further alter its viscoelastic balance. The combination of PETG's shear-thinning properties and its tendency for higher post-die expansion when elasticity is lowered can outweigh the viscosity-related constriction seen in other polymers, resulting in increased filament diameter. Studies on PETG composites show that filler addition decreases overall viscosity and slightly raises the melt flow rate, which influences extrusion behaviour (Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mohammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Petousis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA displayed a mixed trend, with diameter increasing at moderate loadings (1\u0026ndash;3%) before stabilising, which is consistent with reports that at low\u0026ndash;moderate filler contents, swelling may dominate due to insufficient elastic constraint from the filler network, but at higher loadings, viscosity effects become more significant. The crystallinity of the PLA matrix, which increases significantly with graphite filler addition, has a direct impact on melt flow properties and can influence filament diameter through altered flow resistance. These behaviours highlight that the influence of uEG on filament geometry is strongly polymer-dependent, governed by the interplay of filler-induced viscosity changes, melt elasticity, and die swell dynamics (Gomes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kaczor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021b\u003c/span\u003e; K. Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eOptical microscope analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin PLA filaments appeared translucent when extruded, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Bubble formation from moisture in the samples prior to proper drying was also noticeable. For clarity, the sample with the highest filler content was chosen. It was evident that particle agglomeration took place; however, particles were spread throughout the material's structure to form conductive pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin PETG filaments appeared translucent when extruded, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Bubble formation was observed due to polymer chain degradation and rapid cooling in sample 10. The sample with the highest filler content was selected. It was clear that particle agglomeration occurred, but to a lesser extent than in the case of PLA filaments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolyurethane-based FLEX fibres were translucent in colour, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. Particle agglomeration occurred to a similar extent as with PLA.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin ABS filaments were opaque white in colour, which turned grey with increased particle loading, showing filler dispersion but also some particle agglomeration as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFigure 9: Optical images of (left) virgin ASA filament with bubble (sample 23), (middle) 5% ASA (sample 28), (right) 7.5% ASA (sample 29)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin ASA filaments appeared solid white in colour, turning grey as filler loading increased. Particle agglomeration was evident, but to a slightly lesser extent than in other fibres, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;9.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVirgin PP was opaque in colour, which turned grey with increased filler loading, similar to other fibres. There was less particle agglomeration present, as in the case with ASA as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eElectrical conductivity measurements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample resistivity was measured to determine the conductivity attributed to the uEG. Results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectrical resistivity of filaments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolume Resistivity (Ω.cm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003euEG Content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.5E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.3E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX 93 A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.5E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.6E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRH 52% ; Temp 24.5\u0026deg;C ; 1 Volt ; 10 mA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn most cases, the addition of EG to the polymers reduced the resistivity by up to 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Ω \u0026middot; cm. FLEX 93 A was an outlier in the data because the reduction in electrical resistivity with respect to the amount of EG added was not as statistically significant as for the other samples. Since EG is the conductive component in the matrix, this was attributed to the lower amounts present in the extruded material than stated. The best performing samples compared to the virgin polymer were PP, where the resistivity was reduced by a factor of 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Ω \u0026middot; cm. PLA, ABS, and ASA showed a similar trend; however, the reduction in resistivity was less significant, at 10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e Ohm \u0026middot; cm. For ASA at a loading of 7.5% EG, the resistivity of the sample was not significantly lower compared to the sample with 5% loading. The sample with the lowest reduction in resistivity was PETG, which exhibited the highest resistivity of 1.17 x 10\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e Ω \u0026middot; cm at 5% EG loading. Based on the results, all samples changed from being insulators to antistatic, except for the FLEX 93 A samples, which were antistatic at 0% EG loading.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTensile measurements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTensile measurements are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Values for the breaking strength, elongation at break, and Young's modulus were normalised to the pure unfilled polymers to determine the mechanical effects attributed to the uEG.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTensile measurement data\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEG (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg Fmax (N)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD (N)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg Smax (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvg Young\u0026rsquo;s Modulus (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorm. Fmax\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorm. Smax\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorm. Young\u0026rsquo;s Modulus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e414\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e408\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e351\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e306\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e425\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e324\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e281\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd 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colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e268\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e134.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e262\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe tensile test results show that the addition of expanded graphite (EG) to different polymer matrices produces material-dependent effects driven by dispersion quality, interfacial bonding, and filler network formation. In PLA, tensile strength remains essentially unchanged across loadings while Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus decreases and elongation increases, indicating that EG likely disrupts crystallinity without providing effective reinforcement due to limited interfacial adhesion. PETG shows an unusual combination of strength gain and modulus loss, consistent with literature reports where well-dispersed EG induces mechanisms such as layered slip or energy dissipation via shear banding, improving toughness despite stiffness reduction (L. Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). ABS and ASA both experience noticeable strength losses but stable or slightly increased moduli, suggesting that in these less compatible systems EG acts as a rigid particulate that increases stiffness locally while creating stress concentrators that lower ultimate tensile strength (Mohammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, the elastomer-based FLEX 93A exhibits significant gains in both strength and modulus, characteristic of successful EG reinforcement through stress transfer and possible filler network formation within the flexible matrix without loss of extensibility (Sever et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Polypropylene shows only modest, non-monotonic changes in all metrics, reflecting the interplay between crystallinity disruption and limited filler\u0026ndash;matrix adhesion in a nonpolar semicrystalline system (Mohammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Vande Ryse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, these results align with composite theory and recent findings in EG\u0026ndash;polymer literature, demonstrating that expanded graphite can act either as an effective reinforcing phase or a defect site depending on polymer chemistry, morphology, and dispersion, with optimal results achieved when strong filler\u0026ndash;matrix interfacial interactions and homogeneous dispersion promote load transfer and percolated filler networks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eXRD was performed on the filaments to evaluate their structural properties specifically due to the addition of EG. The ratio of the EG peak in the samples should relate to the EG content and this was used to evaluate the sample\u0026rsquo;s particle content with respect to each other. The XRD graphs of each polymer type is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak analysis is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;5, where the peak area, Full Width at Half Maximum and Peak intensity were calculated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003euEG (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeak Area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFWHM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntensity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.247\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e655\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e571\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.318\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e560\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.316\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 566\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePETG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.285\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e655\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.336\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 681\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e893\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.315\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 304\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFLEX 93 A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e537\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 504\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e425\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.364\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e366\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.301\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 091\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.328\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e946\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e877\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.325\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 366\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e809\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.345\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 044\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eASA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e344\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.306\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e928\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e613\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.310\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 641\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 490\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.315\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 080\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 433\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 620\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e521\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.386\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 346\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e522\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.382\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 357\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 356\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.361\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 337\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor PLA, the peak area increases by approximately\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;218%, and peak intensity rises by +\u0026thinsp;139% from 1% to 5% uEG loading, while FWHM broadens slightly by +\u0026thinsp;28%, corresponding with the increase in uEG content. PETG shows the most dramatic increases, with peak area spiking by +\u0026thinsp;577%, intensity by +\u0026thinsp;488%, and FWHM increasing by +\u0026thinsp;11% at 3% before slightly decreasing at 5%, indicating improved crystalline order at higher loading and corresponding almost linearly with the increase in uEG loading with respect to the true content. In FLEX 93 A, peak area decreases by \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;32%, and intensity drops by \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;27%, with FWHM fluctuating but overall increasing, suggesting poorer graphite dispersion in this elastomeric matrix. This can also relate to less uEG present in the samples. For ABS, peak area grows by +\u0026thinsp;128% and intensity by +\u0026thinsp;116% at 3%, with only minor FWHM changes (+\u0026ndash;1%), implying increased uEG presence but stable uEG crystallite size. ASA exhibits strong increases in peak area (+\u0026thinsp;333%) and intensity (+\u0026thinsp;340%) at 5% loading, with FWHM remaining nearly constant. PP shows significant increases in peak area (+\u0026thinsp;160%) and intensity (+\u0026thinsp;148%), accompanied by a decrease in FWHM by \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6%. The FWHM change is more prominent with increased uEG concentrations due to the more disordered structure being amplified at higher loading.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eExpanded graphite fillers were demonstrated to be highly effective for creating antistatic materials suitable for engineering applications, especially those sensitive to static discharge. The addition of EG to thermoplastic matrices PLA, PETG, FLEX 93A, ABS, ASA, and PP resulted in significant reductions in electrical resistivity, shifting the filaments from insulating to antistatic regimes, with measured resistivities dropping from values as high as 2.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e Ω\u0026middot;cm to as low as 2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e Ω\u0026middot;cm at 5% EG content, depending on the polymer. Among the tested polymers, PP and ABS showed the most pronounced improvements in conductivity, while FLEX 93A exhibited antistatic properties even at 0% EG loading with little effect attributed to EG, indicating matrix-dependent pathways for charge dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMorphological and XRD analyses confirmed that EG disperses within the matrix and forms conductive networks. This was confirmed with XRD peak intensities and areas strongly correlating to filler content, supporting the link between filler dispersion and functional performance. The effects on mechanical properties varied: PLA and PETG maintained or improved tensile strength at higher EG loadings, whereas ABS and ASA experienced slight reductions in strength but marginal gains in modulus. FLEX 93A displayed substantial improvements in both strength and modulus through successful stress transfer mechanisms, while PP showed minimal and non-monotonic changes in mechanical behaviour, revealing the critical role of interfacial compatibility and dispersion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImprovements can be achieved using twin screw extruder systems; however, they are more expensive due to their complexity, and filler agglomeration can still occur (Berzin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Bumm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This study demonstrated a simple, cost-effective method for producing antistatic composite materials with preserved or customised mechanical properties. It showed that expanded graphite can be dispersed within various polymer filaments used in 3D printing, employing a pre-particle mixing technique, making it suitable for use with a single screw extruder.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualisation: [D.C.]; Methodology: [D.C; J.P.P.A]; Formal analysis and investigation: [D.C.; J.P.P.A]; Writing - original draft preparation: [D.C.]; Writing - review and editing: [D.C.]; Funding acquisition: [D.C.; J.W]; Resources: [D.C.; J.P.P.A]; Supervision: [D.C; J.W]. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work is supported by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport under the project registration number SGS-2023-6384.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbo-Basha S, Sh., Nassar KM, Mohamed RA (2024) Antistatic textiles: current status and future outlook. 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Int J Lightweight Mater Manuf 4(3):370\u0026ndash;382. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJLMM.2021.04.003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/J.IJLMM.2021.04.003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7643323/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7643323/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents the simple fabrication of antistatic composite filaments using expanded graphite (EG) as a conductive filler. EG was integrated into common thermoplastic polymers\u0026mdash;PLA, PETG, FLEX 93A, ABS, ASA, and PP\u0026mdash; using a single screw bench-top extruder with a simple particle loading technique to produce filaments with EG loadings up to 7.5%. Key processing parameters were optimised to minimise bubble formation and maintain a consistent filament diameter. Electrical resistivity measurements demonstrated that the addition of EG significantly reduced resistivity in all polymers, transitioning them from insulators to antistatic materials with volume resistivities ranging from 2.1 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup1;\u0026sup1; to 2.1 \u0026times; 10⁸ Ω\u0026middot;cm, depending on matrix and loading. Morphological analysis revealed that EG was dispersed throughout the filaments; however, particle agglomeration occurred. Tensile tests showed material-dependent effects, with elastomeric FLEX 93A benefiting most from EG reinforcement, while PLA, ABS, and ASA displayed varying changes in strength and modulus. XRD was used to determine the relationship between EG loading and crystallinity for particle loading characterisation. These results validate the efficacy of expanded graphite for imparting reliable antistatic properties to additive manufacturing filaments without markedly compromising mechanical performance, enabling their use in sensitive electronics and safety-critical environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Cost-effective Production of Antistatic Composite Filaments Using Expanded Graphite for Additive Manufacturing","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-24 04:05:44","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7643323/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4eb0fe71-f05a-4baa-883f-99d133be33d6","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-28T10:24:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-24 04:05:44","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7643323","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7643323","identity":"rs-7643323","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}