Production of Lubricant Grease From Waste Palm Fruit Bunch and Plantain Peel

Production of Lubricant Grease From Waste Palm Fruit Bunch and Plantain Peel | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Production of Lubricant Grease From Waste Palm Fruit Bunch and Plantain Peel Abdullah Akram Abdulazim This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The indiscriminate disposal of agricultural waste is a major contributor to environmental pollution in today’s world. This study aims to mitigate this issue by synthesizing a bio-lubricant grease from agricultural wastes, specifically plantain peels and palm kernel bunches. The methodology involved the preparation of bio-alkaline solutions through the carbonization of these agricultural wastes. The carbonized materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The bio-alkaline solutions were employed in a saponification reaction with palm kernel oil, and the resulting soap was blended with shea butter oil and coconut oil to produce the bio-lubricant grease. SEM analysis revealed a rough, heterogeneous surface for carbonized plantain peels and a porous texture for carbonized palm kernel bunches. FTIR spectra identified characteristic absorption bands at 3145.9 cm⁻¹ and 3127 cm⁻¹ for plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, respectively. XRD data indicated a crystalline nature for carbonized plantain peels and an amorphous structure with embedded crystals for carbonized palm kernel bunches. The physicochemical properties of the synthesized bio-lubricant grease, such as oxidation stability at 80ºC (25–35 mins), thermal stability (up to 194°C), dropping point (143.8 ºC), viscosity of up to 6030.3 mPa/S for one of the samples were comparable to conventional grease. These results demonstrate the feasibility of converting agricultural waste into high-value bio-lubricants, offering a sustainable solution to waste management and environmental pollution. wastes agricultural waste bio-lubricant grease bio-alkaline solution Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Article Highlights Sustainable Grease Production: Agricultural wastes, like plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, were successfully used to synthesize bio-lubricant grease. Mixed Performance: Produced greases showed promising thermal stability and dropping points but had lower oxidation stability. Environmental Impact: This method reduces agricultural waste, creating eco-friendly alternatives to conventional greases. Introduction Agricultural wastes have become a growing problem in recent years, as they cause significant environmental problems and pollution, however, they may also be used for several beneficial purposes, as feed stock for energy production and as raw materials in industries or chemical recovery, production of biodiesel and lubricants, and chemical or dye adsorption (Ujm et al. , 2020). Agricultural materials have promising potential providing global energy and other renewable biochemicals due to abundancy and having no adverse effects on environment, biomass has an advantage over conventional fuels due to its extensive availability in nature and the renewable nature, it also supports economic development and creates eco-friendly environment in sustainable way producing of energy and biochemicals for use (Kumar et al. , 2023). Bio-alkali is the alkali derived from the ashes of burnt bio materials. Agricultural materials contain a good percentage of mineral salts, these include Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron, Sodium, and Potassium etc. When these materials are burnt in air, Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins and Vitamins will all burn away and the resulting ashes contain oxides of these minerals (Ikezu et al., 2020 ). For some material goods production, vegetable oils and agricultural materials are a more environmentally friendly alternative to mineral oils in the production of grease. First, vegetable oils are raw materials for a sustainable economy, unlike mineral oils obtained from crude oil, which is becoming increasingly difficult to find, commanding higher and higher prices. Secondly, vegetable oils and the products obtained from them are more easily biodegradable than mineral oils and have minimal toxicity, while keeping the good characteristics of mineral lubricant oils, so they cause less contamination in an accidental pollution compared to mineral oils or synthetic oils (Săpunaru et al. , 2024). Grease emerged approximately 1400 BCE in ancient Egypt. Originally, the ancient Egyptians used to lubricate wooden axles with a paste made of calcium oxide and vegetable oil/animal fat. This paste is essentially a colloidal dispersion made of thickening agent to create a three-dimensional network structure capable of intercepting the base oil and forming a quasi-solid paste. The use of lubricants can be traced back to ancient Egypt, the Egyptians used animal fat to lubricate the wheels of their chariots. Animal fat has been used as a good lubricant until the use of mineral base oils were popularized. Even though vegetable oils and animal fat are biodegradable and less toxic they cannot be used as a commercial source of grease due to economic and ethical reasons (Shetty et al., 2020 ; Wei et al., 2023 ). Lithium-based grease has been studied extensively with various base oils, including paraffinic oil, naphthenic oil, poly-α-olefin (PAO), and polyol ester (PE). Research by Zhang et al. ( 2021 ) demonstrated that soap-oil separation did not occur after two months of storage, with mineral oils being easier to thicken than synthetic oils like PAO and PE. Furthermore, the dropping point of grease varied significantly, ranging from 191°C for polyol ester oil to 212°C for PAO-based grease. While these studies provide valuable insights into the effect of base oil types, they are predominantly limited to conventional and synthetic oils, neglecting agricultural waste-derived materials. Ren et al. (2020) studied the effect of different dibasic acids in lithium grease formulations, showing that sebacic acid had the highest dropping point (342°C), while adipic acid resulted in the lowest. Despite the comprehensive study on acid effects, it focuses exclusively on conventional chemical inputs, with no exploration of bio-based or waste-derived alternatives. Wang et al. ( 2022 ) compared the tribological and rheological properties of lithium complex grease and polyurea grease. They reported that polyurea grease exhibited a rod-shaped thickener fibre, making it harder to clean, whereas lithium grease displayed a reticulated fibre structure. Additionally, lithium grease had a lower apparent viscosity at room temperature compared to polyurea grease. However, this research remains centred on synthetic thickeners, also ignoring the potential of agricultural waste as a sustainable thickener source. Sodium-based greases were studied using transformer oil as the base oil (Japar et al., 2020). These formulations showed a low dropping point, which showed improvement with an increase in thickener. Abdulbari and Zuhan ( 2018 ) synthesized bio-grease using spent bleaching earth and waste cooking oil, achieving a dropping point above 350°C. Despite these findings, agricultural waste remains underutilized as a base oil or thickener in grease formulations. Razak and Ahmad ( 2021 ) formulated a calcium bio-based grease using palm esters and compared its properties to that of commercial greases. They found that the bio-based grease showed a lower coefficient of friction initially, stabilizing after 15 minutes, although its load-bearing capacity was lower (160–250 kg) compared to the commercial greases (315–400 kg). This study highlights the promise of bio-based greases but is limited to specific agricultural sources (palm esters) without extending to other types of agricultural waste. While these studies provide extensive data on the formulation and properties of conventional and bio-based greases, a significant research gap exists in leveraging agricultural waste, such as plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, as raw materials for grease production. Most literature focuses on synthetic oils, esters, or industrial by-products, with limited exploration of agricultural residues as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative. This gap highlights the need for research into agricultural waste-derived materials to develop high-performance greases, thereby addressing both environmental pollution and the demand for sustainable lubricants. Musa paradisiaca (plantain) is a widely cultivated and consumed herbaceous plant belonging to the family Musacaceae. Its peels are by-products of the plantain processing industry, which are often discarded as waste. These peels are typically dumped in landfills, rivers, or unregulated grounds, causing significant environmental pollution, particularly in regions where plantain consumption is high (Ajijolakewu et al., 2021 ). The mineral composition of plantain peels makes them ideal for bio-lubricant production. Notably, sodium is the most abundant mineral (76.88 ± 0.89 mg/100g), followed by magnesium (45.21 ± 4.36 mg/100g) and potassium (26.14 ± 2.68 mg/100g), with iron being the least abundant (7.89 ± 0.79 mg/100g) (Tsado et al., 2021 ). These mineral properties, particularly the high sodium content, are necessary in forming bio-alkaline solutions that is required for saponification reactions in grease synthesis. Moreover, the abundance of plantain peels as waste and their low cost makes them an accessible and sustainable raw material. Palm kernel bunches, specifically empty fruit bunches, are fibrous lignocellulosic materials generated as by-products during palm oil production. These materials are abundantly available, as the oil palm industry generates substantial quantities of biomass. However, they are considered unwanted waste due to the high costs associated with storage, transportation, distribution, and treatment (Asoka et al., 2021). The structural composition of palm kernel bunches makes them a valuable source of carbon and minerals for bio-lubricant synthesis. As lignocellulosic materials, they are rich in cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which can be carbonized to produce bio-alkaline solutions. Their widespread availability and low economic value provide a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to conventional raw materials for lubricant production. Materials And Methods Materials Coconut oil, Shea butter oil, and palm kernel oil were obtained as store-bought oils. Plantain peels and palm kernel bunch were sourced as agricultural waste. Ethanol, sodium hydroxide, and phenolphthalein indicator were of analytical grade. Preparation of Alkali Solution from Plantain Peel Ash Plantain peels were sun dried for seven days until they were dry enough to be snapped by hand. The dried plantain peels were brown to black in colour. The dry weight of the plantain peel was 2.5kg. The dried peels were burnt inside a furnace for six hours at 600°C (Ofori & Awudza., 2017). the ash samples were naturally powdery and grey-black in colour, but it was sieved with 0.105 mm sieve to remove large particles. The ash was stored in an air tight plastic container. 500g of plantain peel ash was measured using a weighing balance and was soaked into a 20-liter bucket into which 1.25L of distilled water was added. The slurry was kept for 24 hours at room temperature before draining of extract (Ifeakor., 2020). After draining, the extract was kept in a plastic container. Preparation of Alkali Solution from Palm Kernel Bunch Palm kernel bunch were sundried for seven days until they were dry enough to be snapped by hand. The dry weight of the palm fruit bunch was 2.2kg. The dried palm fruit bunch was brown in colour and was burned on a clean metal sheet. Ash samples were naturally powdery, but it was sieved with 0.105 mm sieve to remove large particles. The ashes were allowed to cool down. 500g of palm fruit bunch ash was measured using a weighing balance and was soaked into a 20-liter bucket into which 1.25L of distilled water was added. The slurry was kept for 24 hours at room temperature before draining of extract, and was poured into a plastic container (Ifeakor., 2020). Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide Solution 1g of sodium hydroxide was measured using a weighing balance and was dissolved using small amounts of distilled water in a beaker. The solution was added into a 250ml volumetric flask and distilled water gently added until it reached the 250ml mark. Synthesis of Bio-Lubricant Grease Preparation 100 ml of palm kernel oil was added in a beaker and was heated to 100ºC for a few minutes on a hot plate to get rid of any remaining moisture, 50 ml of the alkali extract was added and the mixture was stirred by hand with a stirring rod (this specific volume of alkali extract was selected because too much of it would lead to a hard soap which is not ideal for grease synthesis and too little of the alkali extract would not allow the soap to trace properly leading to a grease with very low viscosity and bad consistency), the mixture began to foam and stirring continued in order to prevent the foam from spilling off, the temperature was reduced to 60ºC and stirring continued for 1 hour by hand until the mixture stopped foaming, this signified that the saponification reaction was almost complete, the mixture took on a greyish-black appearance, it was left to sit at room temperature for 5 minutes, 50 ml of base oil (coconut oil, shea butter oil or a mixture of the two, coconut oil and shea butter oils were selected based on availability and the fatty acid component present in shea butter that gave a thick consistency at room temperature) was measured and was added to the soap mixture, the mixture was stirred until homogenous, and allowed to cool into a paste like texture. It was placed into a plastic container and sealed. Determination of pH 50 ml of the alkali solution was poured into a 250ml beaker, a hand-held pH meter was used to measure the pH after being calibrated with distilled water. Results and Discussion Characterization Instrumental Characterization Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) The FTIR results of carbonized plantain peel (CPP) showed the presence of hydroxy groups (O-H) at band 3145.9 cm − 1 which suggested the detection of metal hydroxides or absorbed water, most of the other functional group appear not to be present in the sample as most organic compounds are volatile and will evaporate off when exposed to high temperatures. The FTIR results of carbonized palm kernel bunch (CPK) showed the presence of hydroxy groups (O-H) at band 3127 cm − 1 which suggested the detection of metal hydroxides or absorbed water, the other functional groups in Table 1 appear not to be present because organic compounds are volatile and tend to evaporate and escape and at temperatures. Table 1 FTIR wavenumber values of functional groups sample O-H bond (cm − 1 ) C-H bond (cm − 1 ) C-O bond (cm − 1 ) C-N bond (cm − 1 ) CPP 3145.9 ND ND ND CPK 3127.2 ND ND ND *ND: Not discovered X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) The data from the XRD results suggested that the sample CPP was crystalline in nature because of the narrow peaks observed on the graph. The presence of crystal phases such as Sylvite (KCl), Graphite (C), and Cristobalite (SiO₂) indicates crystallinity. The data also showed distinct and sharp peaks in the XRD pattern, which is characteristic of a crystalline material. Crystalline materials have a well-ordered atomic structure, which results in a unique diffraction pattern. The data from the XRD results suggests that the sample CPK was amorphous in nature embedded with small amounts of crystal as a matrix. The presence of crystal phases such as Sylvite (KCl), Graphite (C), and Cristobalite (SiO₂) indicates crystallinity but the broad peak suggests an amorphous nature. These details suggest that the sample was mostly amorphous with small amounts of crystals within. Table 2 XRD data with mineral content Sample name 2θ, ° FWHM, ° Size, Å Height, cps Mineral CPP 25.52(3), 28.319(9), 29.60(13), 40.43(4), 50.183(19) 0.29(8), 0.109(13), 0.61(11), 0.26(4), 0.14(6) 298(83), 786(93), 141(25), 337(51), 676(315) 144(24), 894(94), 158(26), 502(66), 202(34) Sylvite(KCl), graphite(C), Cristobalite (SiO 2 ) CPK 21.37(3) 13.47(6) 6.27(3) 355(47) Sylvite (KCl), graphite(C), Cristobalite(SiO 2 ) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) The sample CPP in the 100x magnification SEM image showed a mixture of large and small particles with varying surface textures and shapes, the particles were unevenly distributed across the sample, suggesting the evidence of a heterogenous material composition. This heterogeneity affects the dissolution process during bio-alkali solution preparation. Larger, particles may dissolve slower, leading to non-uniform release of minerals (e.g., sodium and potassium), which are critical for producing a consistent and effective alkali solution. At a higher magnification of 250x, A large number of irregularly shaped particles surrounded by smaller fragments were present. The presence of both smoother and porous textures indicates varying surface reactivity. The porous regions provide increased surface area for interaction with water during dissolution, enhancing the extraction of alkali ions. The SEM images of CPK (both 100x and 250x) revealed highly porous and rough textures. This high porosity increases the surface area available for interaction with water, promoting extraction of alkali components. The small pores within larger fragments allow water to penetrate deeper into the material, ensuring thorough leaching of alkali ions. The layered structure observed in the larger particles suggests a composite material with potential intercalated minerals. During carbonization, these layers may trap certain alkali ions, which are gradually released during dissolution. Physicochemical Properties of Grease Table 3 Grease samples Sample Components A Coconut oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution B Shea butter oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution C Shea butter oil, Plantain peel ash solution D Coconut oil, Plantain peel ash solution E 50% Coconut oil + 50% Shea butter oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution F 50% Shea butter oil + 50% Coconut oil, Plantain peel ash solution Oxidation Stability Oxidation reduces the service life of bio-grease (Amiruddin et al, 2023 ). Hence, an oxidation stability test was done to investigate the chemical reaction of the combination of the lubricating oil and oxygen. Using the ASTM D2272 test, A commercial lithium grease yielded an oxidation stability of 27 minutes reported by Nassef et al. ( 2024 ). Samples C, D, and E all fell below the standard of the commercial lithium grease, (see Table 4 ) while Samples A, B, and F had higher oxidation stability than the commercial lithium grease (See Table 4 ). The oxidative stability of the grease samples is attributed to the use of vegetable oil as the base oil, as it is easier to oxidize compared to mineral oil. The vegetable oil oxidation stability can be improved by using oils with high oleic value or blending it with oils that have higher amounts of fatty acids. Among the samples tested, Samples A and F had the highest oxidation stability Sample A and sample F had the highest oxidation stability. The oxidation stability of the produced grease (C, D, E) was well below standard. The use of vegetable oil as the base oil is easier to oxidize compared to mineral oil. However, additives can be used to increase the oxidation stability. Dropping Point The dropping point test was used to determine the bio-grease's cohesiveness and thickening nature. Using the ASTM D2265 test, the dropping point of a commercial lithium grease was tested and found to be 160 º C as reported by Nassef et al. ( 2024 ). The bio-grease samples were tested and fell short of the commercial grease. From Table 4 below, the results of samples A, B, C, D, E and F obtained in this study are higher than the dropping point temperature of 114–124 º C reported by Sukimo et al. (2010). The low dropping point can be attributed to the hardness of the soap used as a thickener. The dropping point can be increased by the addition of specific additives like borate esters or zinc compounds during the production process. Sample A had the highest dropping point temperature among the prepared samples, indicating that it has a better consistency. Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a fluid. The viscosity of the grease samples prepared was significantly lower than the viscosity of the grease reported by Bhat and Charoo ( 2022 ). The viscosity of the grease can be improved by adding viscosity index improvers or viscosity modifiers. Among the grease samples, Sample A had the highest viscosity, indicating its thick and viscous nature. Thermal stability Thermal stability of grease is the ability of it to resist irreversible chemical change when exposed to high temperatures. The thermal stability of the greases produced were stable at temperatures greater than 120 º C except sample E; therefore, Sample E is not stable and will decompose easily. This instability can be as a result of having a low oxidation stability as well as having a low viscosity compared to the other samples. All the produced grease samples except sample E are stable under high temperatures. The results of grease samples (B, C, and F) have comparable thermal stability with the result (≥ 150 º C) published by Abdulbari and Zuhan ( 2018 ). Table 4 Physicochemical Properties of Grease Sample Viscosity (mPa/S) Density (g/ml) Thermal Stability ( º C) Dropping Point ( º C) Oxidation Stability @80 º C (min) A 6030.3 1.030 144.4 143.8 35 B 5948.9 0.899 158.3 125.5 30 C 1535.8 0.927 182.5 129.4 25 D 912.9 1.01 143.5 141.0 25 E 712.1 0.903 63.12 112.0 25 F 2090.9 0.949 194.2 132.5 35 Conclusion In this study, the production of grease from palm fruit bunch and plantain peel using vegetable oils was evaluated, yielding promising results with significant implications for sustainability and waste management. In conclusion, the performance tests conducted on the produced bio-greases showed mixed results. Sample A consistently exhibited the highest oxidation stability, dropping point, and viscosity, indicating superior resistance to oxidation, better consistency, and a thick, cohesive nature. However, the overall oxidation stability of some of the grease samples (A = 35min, B = 30min, F = 35min) was slightly above that of a commercial lubricant grease (commercial grease = 27min), but due to the use of vegetable oil, which is more prone to oxidation than mineral oil, additives to increase oxidation stability will need to be added. While the dropping point of most of the grease samples fell within acceptable ranges and was comparable to the values reported in past studies, the viscosity was below the value of recorded bio-greases in literature, likely due to the characteristics of the soap thickener used. Thermal stability was satisfactory for most samples and comparable to reported thermal stability of bio-greases, except for Sample E, which lacked stability at high temperatures. This study shows the potential of agricultural waste materials to be converted into value-added products, promoting environmental sustainability. The approach addresses the issue of indiscriminate waste dumping while showcasing a feasible method to transform ‘waste to wealth.’ However, further research is necessary to maximize its potential. Future studies should focus on scaling up the production process to assess its feasibility and efficiency on an industrial level. Testing the produced greases under real-world conditions, such as high loads and extreme temperatures, is essential to validate their applicability. A detailed cost-benefit analysis comparing bio-greases with conventional alternatives will be critical to understanding the economic viability of this approach. Environmental compatibility studies, including biodegradability and eco-toxicity assessments, will further establish the sustainability credentials of bio-greases. Expanding the scope to include other agricultural or industrial wastes could unlock new possibilities for waste utilization. Economically, this approach can create new revenue source and reduce production costs by utilizing low-value waste materials. Environmentally, it minimizes pollution, reduces dependency on petroleum-derived products, and aligns with global sustainability goals. By adopting this method, industries can contribute to a circular economy model where waste is transformed into high-value products, paving the way for a greener and more sustainable future. Declarations ETHICS STATEMENT FOR THE USE OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL SUBJECTS Not applicable. FUNDING This manuscript was not funded. CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION I give full consent for the publication of this paper. COMPETING INTEREST The author declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. AUTHORS’S CONTRIBUTION Abdullah Akram: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing - original draft Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Conceptualization, Resources. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT (DAS) The author declares that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. Should any raw data files be needed in another format they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Source data are provided with this paper. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Not applicable. References Abdulbari HA, Zuhan N (2018) Grease Formulation from Palm Oil Industry Wastes. Waste and Biomass Valorization . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0237-6 Ajijolakewu, K. A., Ayoola, A. S., Agbabiaka, T. O., Zakariyah, F. R., Ahmed, N. R., Oyedele, O. J., & Sani, A. (2021). A review of the ethnomedicinal, antimicrobial, and phytochemical properties of Musa paradisiaca (plantain). Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 45 (1), 86. Amiruddin, H., Bin Abdollah, M. 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Proximate, minerals, and amino acid compositions of banana and plantain peels. BIOMED Natural and Applied Science, 01 (01), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.53858/bnas01013242 Ujm, Ikezu & Sn, Ugariogu & Ikpa, Chinyere & Ibe, Francis & Vc, Iwu & Ugariogu, Sylvester.(2020). Open Access Journal of Waste Management & Xenobiotics Wang, Y., Gao, X., Lin, J., & Zhang, P. (2022). Rheological and frictional properties of lithium complex grease with graphene additives. Lubricants, 10 (4), 57. Wei, X., Li, W., Fan, X., & Zhu, M. (2023). MoS2-functionalized attapulgite hybrid toward high-performance thickener of lubricating grease. Tribology International, 179 , 108135. Zhang, E., Li, W., Zhao, G., Wang, Z., & Wang, X. (2021). A study on microstructure, friction and rheology of four lithium greases formulated with four different base oils. Tribology Letters, 69 (3), 98. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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11:08:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79088132,"identity":"9f8e0493-be32-4e01-b40e-4cf70a451604","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-24 09:35:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34539,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlow diagram of the procedure for the synthesis of bio-lubricant grease\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5475345/v1/f63a540b3e6c8583b904d85f.jpg"},{"id":79090060,"identity":"4e50aa24-2c2a-4357-92e7-39410267351b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-24 09:51:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 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09:02:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1726489,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5475345/v1/0789ebb2-935b-429e-a4b6-6766634cb430.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eProduction of Lubricant Grease From Waste Palm Fruit Bunch and Plantain Peel\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Article Highlights","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSustainable Grease Production: Agricultural wastes, like plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, were successfully used to synthesize bio-lubricant grease.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMixed Performance: Produced greases showed promising thermal stability and dropping points but had lower oxidation stability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEnvironmental Impact: This method reduces agricultural waste, creating eco-friendly alternatives to conventional greases.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgricultural wastes have become a growing problem in recent years, as they cause significant environmental problems and pollution, however, they may also be used for several beneficial purposes, as feed stock for energy production and as raw materials in industries or chemical recovery, production of biodiesel and lubricants, and chemical or dye adsorption (Ujm \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2020). Agricultural materials have promising potential providing global energy and other renewable biochemicals due to abundancy and having no adverse effects on environment, biomass has an advantage over conventional fuels due to its extensive availability in nature and the renewable nature, it also supports economic development and creates eco-friendly environment in sustainable way producing of energy and biochemicals for use (Kumar \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBio-alkali is the alkali derived from the ashes of burnt bio materials. Agricultural materials contain a good percentage of mineral salts, these include Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron, Sodium, and Potassium etc. When these materials are burnt in air, Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins and Vitamins will all burn away and the resulting ashes contain oxides of these minerals (Ikezu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor some material goods production, vegetable oils and agricultural materials are a more environmentally friendly alternative to mineral oils in the production of grease. First, vegetable oils are raw materials for a sustainable economy, unlike mineral oils obtained from crude oil, which is becoming increasingly difficult to find, commanding higher and higher prices. Secondly, vegetable oils and the products obtained from them are more easily biodegradable than mineral oils and have minimal toxicity, while keeping the good characteristics of mineral lubricant oils, so they cause less contamination in an accidental pollution compared to mineral oils or synthetic oils (Săpunaru \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrease emerged approximately 1400 BCE in ancient Egypt. Originally, the ancient Egyptians used to lubricate wooden axles with a paste made of calcium oxide and vegetable oil/animal fat. This paste is essentially a colloidal dispersion made of thickening agent to create a three-dimensional network structure capable of intercepting the base oil and forming a quasi-solid paste. The use of lubricants can be traced back to ancient Egypt, the Egyptians used animal fat to lubricate the wheels of their chariots. Animal fat has been used as a good lubricant until the use of mineral base oils were popularized. Even though vegetable oils and animal fat are biodegradable and less toxic they cannot be used as a commercial source of grease due to economic and ethical reasons (Shetty et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLithium-based grease has been studied extensively with various base oils, including paraffinic oil, naphthenic oil, poly-α-olefin (PAO), and polyol ester (PE). Research by Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that soap-oil separation did not occur after two months of storage, with mineral oils being easier to thicken than synthetic oils like PAO and PE. Furthermore, the dropping point of grease varied significantly, ranging from 191\u0026deg;C for polyol ester oil to 212\u0026deg;C for PAO-based grease. While these studies provide valuable insights into the effect of base oil types, they are predominantly limited to conventional and synthetic oils, neglecting agricultural waste-derived materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRen et al. (2020) studied the effect of different dibasic acids in lithium grease formulations, showing that sebacic acid had the highest dropping point (342\u0026deg;C), while adipic acid resulted in the lowest. Despite the comprehensive study on acid effects, it focuses exclusively on conventional chemical inputs, with no exploration of bio-based or waste-derived alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) compared the tribological and rheological properties of lithium complex grease and polyurea grease. They reported that polyurea grease exhibited a rod-shaped thickener fibre, making it harder to clean, whereas lithium grease displayed a reticulated fibre structure. Additionally, lithium grease had a lower apparent viscosity at room temperature compared to polyurea grease. However, this research remains centred on synthetic thickeners, also ignoring the potential of agricultural waste as a sustainable thickener source.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium-based greases were studied using transformer oil as the base oil (Japar et al., 2020). These formulations showed a low dropping point, which showed improvement with an increase in thickener. Abdulbari and Zuhan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) synthesized bio-grease using spent bleaching earth and waste cooking oil, achieving a dropping point above 350\u0026deg;C. Despite these findings, agricultural waste remains underutilized as a base oil or thickener in grease formulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRazak and Ahmad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) formulated a calcium bio-based grease using palm esters and compared its properties to that of commercial greases. They found that the bio-based grease showed a lower coefficient of friction initially, stabilizing after 15 minutes, although its load-bearing capacity was lower (160\u0026ndash;250 kg) compared to the commercial greases (315\u0026ndash;400 kg). This study highlights the promise of bio-based greases but is limited to specific agricultural sources (palm esters) without extending to other types of agricultural waste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile these studies provide extensive data on the formulation and properties of conventional and bio-based greases, a significant research gap exists in leveraging agricultural waste, such as plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, as raw materials for grease production. Most literature focuses on synthetic oils, esters, or industrial by-products, with limited exploration of agricultural residues as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative. This gap highlights the need for research into agricultural waste-derived materials to develop high-performance greases, thereby addressing both environmental pollution and the demand for sustainable lubricants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMusa paradisiaca\u003c/em\u003e (plantain) is a widely cultivated and consumed herbaceous plant belonging to the family Musacaceae. Its peels are by-products of the plantain processing industry, which are often discarded as waste. These peels are typically dumped in landfills, rivers, or unregulated grounds, causing significant environmental pollution, particularly in regions where plantain consumption is high (Ajijolakewu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineral composition of plantain peels makes them ideal for bio-lubricant production. Notably, sodium is the most abundant mineral (76.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.89 mg/100g), followed by magnesium (45.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.36 mg/100g) and potassium (26.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.68 mg/100g), with iron being the least abundant (7.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.79 mg/100g) (Tsado et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These mineral properties, particularly the high sodium content, are necessary in forming bio-alkaline solutions that is required for saponification reactions in grease synthesis. Moreover, the abundance of plantain peels as waste and their low cost makes them an accessible and sustainable raw material. Palm kernel bunches, specifically empty fruit bunches, are fibrous lignocellulosic materials generated as by-products during palm oil production. These materials are abundantly available, as the oil palm industry generates substantial quantities of biomass. However, they are considered unwanted waste due to the high costs associated with storage, transportation, distribution, and treatment (Asoka et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe structural composition of palm kernel bunches makes them a valuable source of carbon and minerals for bio-lubricant synthesis. As lignocellulosic materials, they are rich in cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which can be carbonized to produce bio-alkaline solutions. Their widespread availability and low economic value provide a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to conventional raw materials for lubricant production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoconut oil, Shea butter oil, and palm kernel oil were obtained as store-bought oils. Plantain peels and palm kernel bunch were sourced as agricultural waste. Ethanol, sodium hydroxide, and phenolphthalein indicator were of analytical grade.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of Alkali Solution from Plantain Peel Ash\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlantain peels were sun dried for seven days until they were dry enough to be snapped by hand. The dried plantain peels were brown to black in colour. The dry weight of the plantain peel was 2.5kg. The dried peels were burnt inside a furnace for six hours at 600\u0026deg;C (Ofori \u0026amp; Awudza., 2017). the ash samples were naturally powdery and grey-black in colour, but it was sieved with 0.105 mm sieve to remove large particles. The ash was stored in an air tight plastic container.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e500g of plantain peel ash was measured using a weighing balance and was soaked into a 20-liter bucket into which 1.25L of distilled water was added. The slurry was kept for 24 hours at room temperature before draining of extract (Ifeakor., 2020). After draining, the extract was kept in a plastic container.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of Alkali Solution from Palm Kernel Bunch\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePalm kernel bunch were sundried for seven days until they were dry enough to be snapped by hand. The dry weight of the palm fruit bunch was 2.2kg. The dried palm fruit bunch was brown in colour and was burned on a clean metal sheet. Ash samples were naturally powdery, but it was sieved with 0.105 mm sieve to remove large particles. The ashes were allowed to cool down.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e500g of palm fruit bunch ash was measured using a weighing balance and was soaked into a 20-liter bucket into which 1.25L of distilled water was added. The slurry was kept for 24 hours at room temperature before draining of extract, and was poured into a plastic container (Ifeakor., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of Sodium Hydroxide Solution\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1g of sodium hydroxide was measured using a weighing balance and was dissolved using small amounts of distilled water in a beaker. The solution was added into a 250ml volumetric flask and distilled water gently added until it reached the 250ml mark.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSynthesis of Bio-Lubricant Grease Preparation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100 ml of palm kernel oil was added in a beaker and was heated to 100\u0026ordm;C for a few minutes on a hot plate to get rid of any remaining moisture, 50 ml of the alkali extract was added and the mixture was stirred by hand with a stirring rod (this specific volume of alkali extract was selected because too much of it would lead to a hard soap which is not ideal for grease synthesis and too little of the alkali extract would not allow the soap to trace properly leading to a grease with very low viscosity and bad consistency), the mixture began to foam and stirring continued in order to prevent the foam from spilling off, the temperature was reduced to 60\u0026ordm;C and stirring continued for 1 hour by hand until the mixture stopped foaming, this signified that the saponification reaction was almost complete, the mixture took on a greyish-black appearance, it was left to sit at room temperature for 5 minutes, 50 ml of base oil (coconut oil, shea butter oil or a mixture of the two, coconut oil and shea butter oils were selected based on availability and the fatty acid component present in shea butter that gave a thick consistency at room temperature) was measured and was added to the soap mixture, the mixture was stirred until homogenous, and allowed to cool into a paste like texture. It was placed into a plastic container and sealed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of pH\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 ml of the alkali solution was poured into a 250ml beaker, a hand-held pH meter was used to measure the pH after being calibrated with distilled water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCharacterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInstrumental Characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FTIR results of carbonized plantain peel (CPP) showed the presence of hydroxy groups (O-H) at band 3145.9 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e which suggested the detection of metal hydroxides or absorbed water, most of the other functional group appear not to be present in the sample as most organic compounds are volatile and will evaporate off when exposed to high temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe FTIR results of carbonized palm kernel bunch (CPK) showed the presence of hydroxy groups (O-H) at band 3127 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e which suggested the detection of metal hydroxides or absorbed water, the other functional groups in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e appear not to be present because organic compounds are volatile and tend to evaporate and escape and at temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR wavenumber values of functional groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO-H bond (cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC-H bond (cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC-O bond (cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC-N bond (cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCPP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3145.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3127.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e*ND: Not discovered\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eX-Ray Diffraction (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data from the XRD results suggested that the sample CPP was crystalline in nature because of the narrow peaks observed on the graph. The presence of crystal phases such as Sylvite (KCl), Graphite (C), and Cristobalite (SiO₂) indicates crystallinity. The data also showed distinct and sharp peaks in the XRD pattern, which is characteristic of a crystalline material. Crystalline materials have a well-ordered atomic structure, which results in a unique diffraction pattern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data from the XRD results suggests that the sample CPK was amorphous in nature embedded with small amounts of crystal as a matrix. The presence of crystal phases such as Sylvite (KCl), Graphite (C), and Cristobalite (SiO₂) indicates crystallinity but the broad peak suggests an amorphous nature. These details suggest that the sample was mostly amorphous with small amounts of crystals within.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXRD data with mineral content\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2θ, \u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM, \u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize, \u0026Aring;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeight, cps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCPP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.52(3), 28.319(9),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.60(13),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.43(4),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.183(19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29(8),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109(13),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61(11),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26(4),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14(6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e298(83),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e786(93),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e141(25),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e337(51),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e676(315)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144(24),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e894(94),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e158(26),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e502(66),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e202(34)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSylvite(KCl), graphite(C),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCristobalite (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCPK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.37(3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.47(6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.27(3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e355(47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSylvite (KCl), graphite(C),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCristobalite(SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eScanning Electron Microscope (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample CPP in the 100x magnification SEM image showed a mixture of large and small particles with varying surface textures and shapes, the particles were unevenly distributed across the sample, suggesting the evidence of a heterogenous material composition. This heterogeneity affects the dissolution process during bio-alkali solution preparation. Larger, particles may dissolve slower, leading to non-uniform release of minerals (e.g., sodium and potassium), which are critical for producing a consistent and effective alkali solution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt a higher magnification of 250x, A large number of irregularly shaped particles surrounded by smaller fragments were present. The presence of both smoother and porous textures indicates varying surface reactivity. The porous regions provide increased surface area for interaction with water during dissolution, enhancing the extraction of alkali ions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM images of CPK (both 100x and 250x) revealed highly porous and rough textures. This high porosity increases the surface area available for interaction with water, promoting extraction of alkali components. The small pores within larger fragments allow water to penetrate deeper into the material, ensuring thorough leaching of alkali ions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe layered structure observed in the larger particles suggests a composite material with potential intercalated minerals. During carbonization, these layers may trap certain alkali ions, which are gradually released during dissolution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePhysicochemical Properties of Grease\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrease samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoconut oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea butter oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea butter oil, Plantain peel ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoconut oil, Plantain peel ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% Coconut oil\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% Shea butter oil, Palm kernel bunch ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% Shea butter oil\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;50% Coconut oil, Plantain peel ash solution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOxidation Stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxidation reduces the service life of bio-grease (Amiruddin et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, an oxidation stability test was done to investigate the chemical reaction of the combination of the lubricating oil and oxygen. Using the ASTM D2272 test, A commercial lithium grease yielded an oxidation stability of 27 minutes reported by Nassef et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples C, D, and E all fell below the standard of the commercial lithium grease, (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) while Samples A, B, and F had higher oxidation stability than the commercial lithium grease (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The oxidative stability of the grease samples is attributed to the use of vegetable oil as the base oil, as it is easier to oxidize compared to mineral oil. The vegetable oil oxidation stability can be improved by using oils with high oleic value or blending it with oils that have higher amounts of fatty acids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the samples tested, Samples A and F had the highest oxidation stability Sample A and sample F had the highest oxidation stability. The oxidation stability of the produced grease (C, D, E) was well below standard. The use of vegetable oil as the base oil is easier to oxidize compared to mineral oil. However, additives can be used to increase the oxidation stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDropping Point\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dropping point test was used to determine the bio-grease's cohesiveness and thickening nature. Using the ASTM D2265 test, the dropping point of a commercial lithium grease was tested and found to be 160\u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC as reported by Nassef et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The bio-grease samples were tested and fell short of the commercial grease. From Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e below, the results of samples A, B, C, D, E and F obtained in this study are higher than the dropping point temperature of 114\u0026ndash;124 \u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC reported by Sukimo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2010). The low dropping point can be attributed to the hardness of the soap used as a thickener. The dropping point can be increased by the addition of specific additives like borate esters or zinc compounds during the production process. Sample A had the highest dropping point temperature among the prepared samples, indicating that it has a better consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eViscosity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eViscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a fluid. The viscosity of the grease samples prepared was significantly lower than the viscosity of the grease reported by Bhat and Charoo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The viscosity of the grease can be improved by adding viscosity index improvers or viscosity modifiers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the grease samples, Sample A had the highest viscosity, indicating its thick and viscous nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThermal stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal stability of grease is the ability of it to resist irreversible chemical change when exposed to high temperatures. The thermal stability of the greases produced were stable at temperatures greater than 120 \u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC except sample E; therefore, Sample E is not stable and will decompose easily. This instability can be as a result of having a low oxidation stability as well as having a low viscosity compared to the other samples. All the produced grease samples except sample E are stable under high temperatures. The results of grease samples (B, C, and F) have comparable thermal stability with the result (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;150 \u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC) published by Abdulbari and Zuhan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical Properties of Grease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViscosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mPa/S)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStability\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDropping Point\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxidation Stability\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e@80 \u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003eC (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6030.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5948.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.899\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e158.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1535.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e912.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2090.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.949\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the production of grease from palm fruit bunch and plantain peel using vegetable oils was evaluated, yielding promising results with significant implications for sustainability and waste management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the performance tests conducted on the produced bio-greases showed mixed results. Sample A consistently exhibited the highest oxidation stability, dropping point, and viscosity, indicating superior resistance to oxidation, better consistency, and a thick, cohesive nature. However, the overall oxidation stability of some of the grease samples (A\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35min, B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30min, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35min) was slightly above that of a commercial lubricant grease (commercial grease\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27min), but due to the use of vegetable oil, which is more prone to oxidation than mineral oil, additives to increase oxidation stability will need to be added. While the dropping point of most of the grease samples fell within acceptable ranges and was comparable to the values reported in past studies, the viscosity was below the value of recorded bio-greases in literature, likely due to the characteristics of the soap thickener used. Thermal stability was satisfactory for most samples and comparable to reported thermal stability of bio-greases, except for Sample E, which lacked stability at high temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study shows the potential of agricultural waste materials to be converted into value-added products, promoting environmental sustainability. The approach addresses the issue of indiscriminate waste dumping while showcasing a feasible method to transform \u0026lsquo;waste to wealth.\u0026rsquo; However, further research is necessary to maximize its potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should focus on scaling up the production process to assess its feasibility and efficiency on an industrial level. Testing the produced greases under real-world conditions, such as high loads and extreme temperatures, is essential to validate their applicability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA detailed cost-benefit analysis comparing bio-greases with conventional alternatives will be critical to understanding the economic viability of this approach. Environmental compatibility studies, including biodegradability and eco-toxicity assessments, will further establish the sustainability credentials of bio-greases. Expanding the scope to include other agricultural or industrial wastes could unlock new possibilities for waste utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomically, this approach can create new revenue source and reduce production costs by utilizing low-value waste materials. Environmentally, it minimizes pollution, reduces dependency on petroleum-derived products, and aligns with global sustainability goals. By adopting this method, industries can contribute to a circular economy model where waste is transformed into high-value products, paving the way for a greener and more sustainable future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eETHICS STATEMENT FOR THE USE OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL SUBJECTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFUNDING\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript was not funded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONSENT FOR PUBLICATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI give full consent for the publication of this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCOMPETING INTEREST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHORS’S CONTRIBUTION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbdullah Akram: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing - original draft Supervision, Writing - review \u0026amp; editing, Conceptualization, Resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT (DAS)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. Should any raw data files be needed in another format they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Source data are provided with this paper.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdulbari HA, Zuhan N (2018) Grease Formulation from Palm Oil Industry Wastes. \u003cem\u003eWaste and Biomass Valorization\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0237-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12649-018-0237-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAjijolakewu, K. A., Ayoola, A. S., Agbabiaka, T. O., Zakariyah, F. R., Ahmed, N. R., Oyedele, O. J., \u0026amp; Sani, A. (2021). 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Tribology Letters, \u003cem\u003e69\u003c/em\u003e(3), 98.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"wastes, agricultural waste, bio-lubricant grease, bio-alkaline solution","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe indiscriminate disposal of agricultural waste is a major contributor to environmental pollution in today\u0026rsquo;s world. This study aims to mitigate this issue by synthesizing a bio-lubricant grease from agricultural wastes, specifically plantain peels and palm kernel bunches. The methodology involved the preparation of bio-alkaline solutions through the carbonization of these agricultural wastes. The carbonized materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The bio-alkaline solutions were employed in a saponification reaction with palm kernel oil, and the resulting soap was blended with shea butter oil and coconut oil to produce the bio-lubricant grease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM analysis revealed a rough, heterogeneous surface for carbonized plantain peels and a porous texture for carbonized palm kernel bunches. FTIR spectra identified characteristic absorption bands at 3145.9 cm⁻\u0026sup1; and 3127 cm⁻\u0026sup1; for plantain peels and palm kernel bunches, respectively. XRD data indicated a crystalline nature for carbonized plantain peels and an amorphous structure with embedded crystals for carbonized palm kernel bunches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe physicochemical properties of the synthesized bio-lubricant grease, such as oxidation stability at 80\u0026ordm;C (25\u0026ndash;35 mins), thermal stability (up to 194\u0026deg;C), dropping point (143.8 \u0026ordm;C), viscosity of up to 6030.3 mPa/S for one of the samples were comparable to conventional grease. These results demonstrate the feasibility of converting agricultural waste into high-value bio-lubricants, offering a sustainable solution to waste management and environmental pollution.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Production of Lubricant Grease From Waste Palm Fruit Bunch and Plantain Peel","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-24 09:35:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5475345/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2be2b118-646a-4cae-8ef0-c4f1d1c2fcff","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-04-09T08:54:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-24 09:35:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5475345","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5475345","identity":"rs-5475345","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}