Impacts of dietary energy level and terracotta drinker on the performance of heat-stressed broiler chickens

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A total of 200-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks (39.6 ± 3.4 g) were divided into four distinct treatment groups in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of drinker type (plastic or terracotta) and diet energy density (3300-3300-3250 kcal/kg or 3300-3250-3100 kcal/kg for starter-grower-finisher, respectively). Each group consisted of five replicate pens. The water intake, feed intake and feed conversion ratio exhibited a significant decrease (p < 0.01) in the terracotta group as compared to the plastic group. A significant increase in body weight was observed in the terracotta drinker group in comparison to the plastic drinker group (p < 0.01). However, this increase was more pronounced in individuals with lower energy levels. The mortality rate, the rectal temperature and the respiration rate of broilers receiving water from the terracotta drinker and fed on a low-energy diet were significantly lower (p < 0.01). In the case of broilers that received water from the terracotta drinker, higher values were observed for both villus length and the villus height/crypt depth ratio (p < 0.05). It can be concluded that the terracotta drinker can be more efficient in reducing the behavioral response to heat stress and can improve liveability and growth performance. However, the optimal outcomes were observed in conjunction with a low diet energy density. behaviour broiler-chicken dietary energy level growth terracotta drinker Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Nutritional manipulation is among the most practical and cost-effective approaches to mitigating the negative impacts of heat stress. As Onagbesan et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrate, modifying the bird's diet has the potential to enhance its physiological resilience, oxidative balance, and immune response. As demonstrated by Abdel Moneim et al . (2021), the nutritional manipulation of livestock feed includes the addition of natural antioxidants, minerals, electrolytes, phytobiotics, probiotics, fat, and protein. Furthermore, the restriction of feed intake, the form of feed, and the provision of cold water have also been demonstrated to have a significant impact on the nutritional status of livestock. Prates ( 2025 ) emphasized the potential of antioxidant supplementation (vitamin E, vitamin C, selenium, polyphenols, etc.), osmolytes (betaine, taurine, etc.), probiotics, prebiotics, and optimized energy-to-protein ratios as promising tools to enhance thermotolerance and meat quality. Phytochemicals and cold-water consumption have also demonstrated potential for enhancing resilience to climate stress (Cyrille d'Alex et al ., 2024; D'Alex et al ., 2024, 2025). Despite its potential, authors indicated that nutritional management is most effective when combined with other heat stress mitigation strategies, such as proper ventilation, cooling systems, and management practices (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). Furthermore, given the species-specific responses and the variability of production systems, it appears imperative to integrate dietary approaches with stage-specific management to enhance the efficacy of nutritional manipulation. Prates ( 2025 ) posited that future research should concentrate on specific aspects, including the validation of synergistic nutritional strategies that safeguard performance and meat quality in monogastric production systems. In accordance with the recommendations, the present study evaluated the synergistic effect of fresh water and diet energy density on the behavior and zootechnical performance of broiler chickens exposed to a high temperature-humidity index. In the context of heat stress, chickens have been observed to increase their water intake by a factor of two to four. It has been demonstrated that the provision of adequate water space, the maintenance of well-functioning waterers and the supply of sufficient fresh and cool drinking water (at a temperature of around 20°C, which is ideal) can contribute to the alleviation of heat stress in poultry by promoting hydration and facilitating the regulation of body temperature (Kim et al., 2025 ). It has been demonstrated that the provision of cold drinking water to hens subjected to heat stress has been shown to result in the maintenance of high levels of feed intake and egg production (Abioja et al., 2011 ; Park et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, Eltahan et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrated that cold-water exposure led to elevated heat dissipation and augmented cellular and humoral immunity in heat-exposed laying hens. In the study conducted by Cyrille d'Alex et al . (2024), it was demonstrated that the provision of fresh drinking water to broiler breeders can result in a reduction in their behavioral response to heat stress and an enhancement in their growth performance. It has been demonstrated that cool water exerts its effects by preventing dehydration and lowering body temperature. In contrast, a higher diet energy level appears to mitigate heat stress in poultry through alternative mechanisms. It has been demonstrated that periods of elevated ambient temperature can result in a decline in the rate of consumption of feed, nutrients and metabolizable energy. It is recommended to increase dietary metabolizable energy above the recommended level and to add fat up to 5% of the diet to alleviate the side effects of heat stress on the performance of broiler chicks (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). In conditions of elevated ambient temperatures, the recommendation is for higher energy density diets, frequently characterized by augmented fat content, to ensure adequate calorie intake with a reduced amount of feed. This strategy has been shown to minimize the heat produced during digestion, thereby helping to maintain both body weight and performance (Onagbesan et al., 2023 ). Materials and Methods Study area The present study was conducted at the application and research farm of the National Advanced School of Engineering of Maroua, situated in the Far North Region of Cameroon (see Fig. 1 ). The geographical location of the farm is specified by the following coordinates: 10°35'02.74"N, 14°18'05.3"E, and the altitude of the site is 384 meters above sea level. During the experimental period (1st April – 19 May 2024), the mean ambient temperature registered at the study area was 33.37°C, 41.44°C, and 37.12°C at 7am, 1pm, and 7pm, respectively. Meanwhile, the relative humidity ranged between 11% and 23%. Experimental animals and their management A total of 200 one-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks were procured from a commercial hatchery (Agrocam, Yaoundé, Cameroon) for the experiment. The study was conducted in accordance with the animal welfare requirements approved by the Cameroonian Bioethics Committee (Reg. No. FWA-IRB00001945/2024) and the HIN-care and use of laboratory animals’ manual (8th edition). Upon arrival, the chicks were weighed (39.4 ± 3.21 g) and randomly distributed into 20 cages (10 chicks/cage). The birds were accommodated within floor cages, with a layer of wood shavings (5 cm deep) serving as bedding material, and a density of 8 birds/m² was maintained. The lighting schedule was continuous for the initial 24-hour period, followed by a 4-hour period of darkness and 20 hours of light until the conclusion of the experiment. Throughout the experiment, the broiler chickens were housed in an open-sided poultry housing system where the environmental elements were not controlled during the hot season. The animals were provided with food and water ad libitum in adapted facilities. Standard health and vaccination programs against Newcastle and Gumboro diseases were carried out. The chicks were observed and examined daily for any syndromes throughout the experiment. Experimental design The experimental design employed a randomized complete block design, incorporating two factors: drinkers and diet energy density at two levels. The levels of drinkers were categorized as either plastic or terracotta, while the diet energy density levels ranged from 3300 to 3300 to 3250 kcal and 3300 to 3250 to 3100 kcal/kg. The chicks were randomly distributed into 20 pens (with four groups of 10 chicks in each pen, and five replications). The following treatments were allocated to each group: Group 1 was provided with water in a plastic drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3300 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3250 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 2 was provided with water in a plastic drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3250 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3100 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 3 was provided with water in a terracotta drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3300 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3250 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 4 was provided with water in a terracotta drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3250 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3100 kcal/kg for the finisher. Experimental diets The rations were formulated from various ingredients purchased at harvest time in the town of Maroua. The chemical composition of the rations was estimated according to the methodology described by Helrich and AOAC (1990) at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences' (The University of Dschang) laboratory of nutrition and animal feed. As demonstrated in Table 1 , two isoproteinic diets were formulated for each developmental stage. Table 1 Ingredients and nutrient composition of experimental diet Ingredients (%) Starter1 Starter2 Grower1 Grower2 Finisher1 Finisher2 Maize Corn bran Peanut meal Soybean meal Fish meal *Premix 5% Bone meal Salt Palm oil Total 55.5 7 10 12 8 5 1 0.5 1 100 57.5 2 14 13 5 5 1 0.5 2 100 63.5 6.5 5 16.25 2.5 5 1 0.25 0 100 62.5 7 5 15.25 3 5 1 0.25 1 100 62 14.75 0 13 4 5 1 0.25 0 100 64.75 12 2 12 3 5 1 0.25 0 100 Nutrients M E (Kcal/kg) Crude Protein (%) Phosphore (%) Calcium (%) Lysine (%) Methionine (%) 3307.5 18.15 0.8 2 1 0.4 3353.8 18.06 0.8 2 1 0.4 3320.65 15.24 0.9 2.3 0.9 0.4 3250.17 15.74 0.9 2.3 0.9 0.4 3258.75 16.01 1 2.6 0.8 0.5 3100.75 16.20 1 2.6 0.8 0.5 ME: Metabolizable energy; *Premix 5%: ME: 2078 kcal/kg; Crude Protein: 40%; Calcium: 8%; Phosphorus: 2.05%; Lysine: 3.3%; Methionine: 2.4% Data collection The respiratory rate, rectal temperature, water intake, feed intake and live body weight were recorded on a weekly basis. The mortality rate was determined at 49 days of age. In the experiment, two birds per pen were selected at random. This process was repeated until a total of ten birds per treatment had been included. The birds were then fasted for 12 hours, weighed, and slaughtered. The portion of the intestine was then collected for the purpose of histological analysis. The animal manipulation carried out in this study was in accordance with the recommendations of institutional guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals. The handling of the chicks was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards stipulated in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments. Heat index (HI) The ambient temperature and relative humidity were measured daily at 7 AM, 1 PM and 7 PM using a Taylor brand temperature and humidity sensor (FCC ID: WEC-1502) positioned at the chickens’ back level in the center of the room. The heat index was calculated using the formula described by National Research Council (1971), cited by Kendal and Webster (2009). The heat Index (HI) was calculated as follows: HI = (1.8Tmax + 32) – [(0.55–0.0055 Hmin) × (1.8 Tmax – 26)] In this equation, T denotes the maximum ambient temperature (°C), and H represents the minimum relative humidity (%). Table 2 described the heat stress classes as “bird comfort”, according to the recommendation of Wasti et al. ( 2020 ). Table 2 Heat stress classification for poultry (adapted from Wasti et al., 2020 ). HI value (°F) Description ≤ 72 73 to 76 77 to 80 81 to 87 ≥ 88 Absolute comfort (no heat stress) Light discomfort (mild heat stress) Moderate discomfort (moderate heat stress) Severe discomfort (severe heat stress) Life threatening (extreme heat stress) Refreshing capacity of the terracotta drinkers Prior to the commencement of the experiment, the terracotta water trough was subjected to a capacity assessment, which determined its efficacy in the replenishment of water. Water was collected from the tap and introduced into one terracotta tank for the night over a period of five consecutive days, at ambient temperature. In the morning, at 7:00, the water was collected from the tank and introduced into one plastic drinker and two terracotta drinkers (3L and 5L), which had been purchased from a canary producer in Maroua. Prior to the introduction of water into the drinkers (at 7am) and at 2-hour intervals (9am, 11am, 1pm, 3pm, 5pm and 7pm), the temperature of the water was measured. Respiratory rate Each day, between 12 AM and 1 PM, the respiratory rate of each bird was estimated as described by Perez et al . (2006). Respiration Rate = 10 × 60/t 10 Where: t 10 represents the time required to count 10 successive panting breaths. Rectal temperature Rectal temperature (RT) was measured once a week at 13:00 hours. The individual measurement of RT was carried out by introducing the probe into the cloaca of the bird up to the terminal colon, as recommended by Perez et al . (2006). For the measurement, the subjects were always in the center of the batch, which facilitated the capture of the birds by simply extending the arms, thus avoiding any rough handling that might cause additional stress. Growth parameters Feed and water intake: The quantity of water and food consumed by the birds was measured at the conclusion of each week. The birds were provided with a known amount of water and food, and the remainder was measured for each replicate. Total water consumption (L) = Total water given to birds (L) – water left-over (L) Total feed intake (g) = Total feed given to birds (g) – feed left-over (g) After measuring the feed intake and live body weight with a scale of 5 kg and 1 g precision, the body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio were calculated in accordance with the following formulas: Body weight gain = Live body weight of week (n + 1) − Live body weight of week (n) Feed conversion ratio = Weekly Feed intake (g)/Weekly Body weight gain (g) Mortality records were maintained throughout the experimental period and were expressed as a ratio of the number of dead birds to the total number of birds contained in each pen at the beginning of the study expressed as a percentage. This was calculated on a replicate basis. Histomorphometric measurements The intestinal tissue of five animals per treatment group was subjected to histological examination. The animals were randomly selected for this purpose. Following the slaughter of the animals, samples for the purpose of histopathology were removed from the mid-gut (jejunum) region and placed into neutral buffered formalin for fixation. 5-micron thick hematoxylin-eosin-stained sections were prepared following paraffin embedding and histological processing (Lison, 1960 ). The histological sections were evaluated using standard light microscopy. Quantitative histomorphometric measurements of intestinal villus lengths and crypt were performed using ImageJ 1.32j 0.0.0.0. software. The measurements were obtained from photomicrographs captured at 40× magnification. The length of both the villi and crypt regions for a total of 10 selected individual and apparently complete, full-sized intestinal villi not exhibiting bending or mechanical damage, were measured for each sample (see Fig. 2 ). It is important to note that all measurements were made by a single individual. Subsequently, crypt to villus ratios were calculated using the length data. Data analyses Data collected were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD) and analyzed in a complete 2 × 2 factorial design (type of drinker and diet energy level). Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using Graphpad Prism 8.4.3 with the model including the main effects of the factors with their interaction. Statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05. Comparisons of multiple means were made using Tukey multiple tests. Results Heat index As demonstrated in Fig. 3 , the ambient heat index in the room during the experiment exceeded 78°F. The lowest values of the heat index were recorded at 07:00 (78–81°F) and the highest values were obtained around 13:00 (86–88°F). Refreshing capacity of terracotta drinkers The daily variations in the terracotta and plastic drinkers, as well as the temperature of the water previously stored for 12 hours in a terracotta tank, are presented in Fig. 4. The water temperature in the terracotta drinkers (3 and 5L) remained consistent from 7am to 7pm, measuring between 23 and 25°C. However, in the plastic drinker, an increase was observed from 24°C to a maximum of 37°C at 1 a.m. Rectal temperature The weekly variations in the rectal temperature of the heat-stressed broilers are presented in Fig. 5 . Irrespective of the age and the day measurement time, broilers receiving water into the terracotta drinkers exhibited lower values of the rectal temperature. However, the lowest values were recorded in the broiler chickens that received the diet energy program with the lowest caloric content. Irrespective of the dietary energy program, broilers receiving water from the plastic drinker exhibited no difference in rectal temperature. Respiration rate As demonstrated in Fig. 6 , the week-on-week fluctuations in the respiration rate of heat-stressed broilers are depicted according to the diet energy program and water access method employed. These fluctuations are further categorized into two distinct drinker types. Throughout the experiment period, the respiration rate recorded at 7 a.m. exhibited no significant differences between the treatments. Even though, at 1 pm and 7 pm, the broilers receiving water into the terracotta drinkers exhibited a reduced respiration rate, the lowest values were recorded in those receiving the lowest diet energy program. Growth parameters As demonstrated in Table 3 , the growth parameters of heat-stressed broilers receiving different dietary energy program and water from two different drinkers are shown. The statistical analyses demonstrated that the type of drinker had a significant effect on growth parameters (p < 0.01), except for the feed conversion ratio. The findings revealed a significant increase in daily water intake, daily feed intake, and body weight gain (p < 0.01) in the terracotta group as compared to the plastic group. Concurrently, the mortality rate was observed to decrease significantly (p < 0.01) in the terracotta group. The daily water intake and daily feed intake were found to be significantly (p < 0.01) influenced by the interaction between the type of drinkers and the diet energy program. Apart from the mortality rate, the diet energy program exerted no influence on the growth parameters of heat-stressed broilers. Table 3 Growth parameters Parameters Plastic drinker Terracotta drinker P value DE1 DE2 DE1 DE2 Drinkers Energy level Interaction DWI (mL) DFI (g) DBWG (g) FCR MR (%) 295.0 ± 14.84 ab 58.41 ± 2.68 ab 24.5 ± 3.49 a 2.08 ± 0.52 30 ± 7.07 a 323.6 ± 19.71 a 61.49 ± 1.65 a 27.25 ± 5 ab 2.11 ± 0.6 26 ± 5.47 a 290.4 ± 20.65 b 56.33 ± 2.62 b 30.96 ± 3.98 ab 1.67 ± 0.32 20 ± 7.07 ab 273.7 ± 11.33 b 49.46 ± 3.11 c 32.98 ± 1.56 b 1.56 ± 0.4 10 ± 7.07 b 0.0026 < 0.0001 0.0021 0.0122 0.0005 0.4503 0.1187 0.1718 0.8330 0.033 0.0091 0.0005 0.8302 0.7119 0.332 DE: Diet energy; MR: Mortality rate; DWI: Daily water intake; DFI: Daily feed intake; DBWG: Daily body weight gain; FCR: Feed conversion ratio. Histological characteristic of the small intestine As illustrated in Table 4 , the histomorphometric parameters of a segment of the jejunum of heat-stressed broilers receiving distinct dietary energy program and water from two different drinkers are presented. The investigation revealed that, except for wall thickness, all histomorphometric parameters exhibited a significant response to the type of drinker and/or the dietary energy program. The broilers that were exposed to elevated temperatures and provided with access to a terracotta drinker exhibited increased values (p < 0.01) of villi length and the villi length to crypt depth ratio. Despite the absence of a statistically significant effect of the subject's drinking habits or dietary energy program on crypt depth, the interaction between these factors was found to have a significant impact (p < 0.01). Table 4 Histomorphometric parameters of the intestine Parameters Plastic drinker Terracotta drinker P value DE1 DE2 DE1 DE2 Drinkers Energy level Interaction WT (µm) VL (µm) CD (µm) VL/CD 687.12 ± 117.54 372.6 ± 69.56 a 103.6 ± 22.69 a 3.82 ± 1.34 a 668.81 ± 197.72 328.5 ± 23.84 b 80.77 ± 16.28 b 4.22 ± 0.83 a 710.19 ± 151.9 392 ± 69.11 a 96.31 ± 14.76 a 4.14 ± 0.86 a 612.04 ± 60.17 402.8 ± 65.12 a 80.49 ± 15.93 b 5.19 ± 1.38 b 0.098 < 0.0001 0.2967 0.0029 0.088 0.1460 0.2598 0.0010 0.8911 0.017 < 0.0001 0.1323 DE: Diet energy; WT: Wall thickness; VL: Villi length; VW: Villi width; VH/VW: Villi length to crypt depth ratio; CD: Crypt depth Discussion Cooling capacity of terracotta drinking troughs During the present study, the water temperature in plastic drinking troughs was observed to rise from 24.17°C to 37.57°C between 7 a.m. and 1 p.m., before falling slightly from 37.57°C to 33.41°C between 1 p.m. and 7 p.m. This increase in water temperature is hypothesized to be the result of the rise in ambient temperature during the day. Conversely, the water temperature in the terracotta troughs exhibited a consistent average of 24.17 ± 0.18°C. This stability in the water temperature in the terracotta drinking troughs is hypothesized to be attributable to the effect of storing water in a 100L terracotta reservoir the day before. The 3L and 5L terracotta drinking troughs exhibited the property of maintaining the water temperature throughout the day, a phenomenon attributable to their inherent cooling properties. The terracotta trough, with its slight porosity, permits the passage of a minimal quantity of water through its walls to the exterior, thereby maintaining the container's moisture content. During the phase change from liquid to gas, the water absorbs energy in the form of heat from the ambient air, thereby reducing the temperature of the air. This cooling method requires only water as a coolant. This natural evaporation process has been shown to maintain a significantly lower temperature in the water within the trough in comparison to the ambient temperature (Makule et al., 2022 ). Effect of energy density and type of waterer on the physiological response of broiler chickens exposed to heat stress The Thermal Heat Index (THI) is a widely utilized metric for the description of the heat load experienced by animals and has been identified as a reliable indicator of stressful thermal conditions (Sisman & Kocaman, 2023 ). In the context of poultry, the Thermax Heat Index (THI) method is employed to delineate four distinct levels of heat stress risk. As posited by Wasti et al. ( 2020 ), the range of 73 < THI < 80 is designated as 'moderate risk'; 81 < THI 87 is designated as 'very severe risk'. During the trial period, the THI values ranged from 79.56 ± 0.48 to 87.00 ± 0.49 between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., indicating that the experiment was conducted under conditions of severe heat stress risk (Onagbesan et al., 2023 ). In poultry, this stress manifests itself in increased internal temperature and hyperventilation, among other things (Oluwagbenga and Fraley, 2023 ). In hot climates, birds have evolved the capacity to regulate their internal temperature through increased respiration, a process known as hyperventilation. In conditions of heat stress, the process of hyperventilation facilitates the rapid dissipation of heat from the body. As air passes through the respiratory tract, it gradually becomes saturated with water vapour until it reaches saturation vapor pressure. It has been demonstrated that an increase in respiratory rate results in a sharp increase in the total amount of heat eliminated (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). The findings of the present study demonstrate that the respiratory rate of chickens provided with water from the clay trough was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in comparison to those imbibing from the plastic trough. This result suggests that the total amount of heat to be eliminated by birds drinking from the clay trough is lower than that to be eliminated by birds receiving water from the plastic trough. The cool water in the clay trough may be a contributing factor to the observed decrease in respiratory rate. It has been posited by various authors that the reduction in respiratory rate observed in chickens is a consequence of the lowering of their body temperature by cool water (Collin et al., 2024 ; Cyrille D'Alex et al ., 2024). The findings of this study demonstrated that the rectal temperature of chickens drinking from terracotta waterers was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of chickens drinking from plastic waterers. This phenomenon is hypothesized to be attributable to the impact of cool water, which resulted in a reduction of body temperature in avian subjects imbibing from terracotta vessels. The ingestion of cool water has been demonstrated to facilitate heat dissipation through the processes of water evaporation and cooling of the respiratory tract and mouth. Furthermore, it facilitates thermoregulation through direct conduction. In addition, the provision of cool water ensures the maintenance of adequate hydration in chickens, a vital aspect of their physiological function, particularly in regard to thermoregulation (Ward et al., 2020 ). In the context of the present experiment, the ingestion of water maintained at a temperature of 24°C during the diurnal period resulted in a reduction of body temperature in broiler chickens, ranging from 0.5 to 2°C, contingent upon the intensity of the ambient heat. These results are consistent with those reported by Xin et al. ( 2002 ), who found that in conditions of heat stress, birds that consumed cool water were able to reduce their body temperature by up to 1.5 degrees. Irrespective of the type of waterer, subjects receiving the least energy-dense diet exhibited lower body temperatures than birds on the most energy-dense diet. However, this difference was only significant (p < 0.01) in subjects drinking from the terracotta drinker. This finding, as indicated by the analysis of variance (P = 0.014), suggests that the energy density of the feed program exerts a significant influence on the body temperature of broiler chickens. In circumstances involving heat stress, it is advised to provide a more energy-dense diet, enabling chickens to satisfy their energy requirements with a reduced amount of feed (Abdel-Moneim et al., 2021 ). However, if the energy density is excessively high, it has been demonstrated that this can generate additional metabolic heat, which can lead to an increase in the chickens' internal temperature (Ward et al., 2020 ). Consequently, the denser feed program appears to have contributed to increased feed thermogenesis in chickens. However, this effect was mitigated by the presence of fresh water in subjects who consumed water from terracotta drinkers. Effect of energy density and type of waterer on the growth performance of broiler chickens exposed to heat stress During the trial period, average daily water consumption was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in birds drinking from the clay trough compared to those drinking from the plastic trough while receiving the most energy-dense feed program. It is notable that birds are devoid of sweat glands, thus their main means of reducing heat loss in elevated temperatures is through the process of water vaporization within their respiratory tract. This increase in evaporative losses during periods of elevated temperature is associated with an increase in respiratory rate. The occurrence of evaporative losses is contingent upon optimal water consumption. The ingestion of cool water has been demonstrated to reduce internal temperature, thereby decreasing the amount of heat that must be eliminated through the process of evaporation (Bruno et al., 2011 ). These results are consistent with those of several authors, who have shown that birds in high ambient temperatures consume more water compared to those given fresh water (Abioja et al., 2011 ). Conversely, Cyrille D'Alex et al . (2024) posited an alternative viewpoint, demonstrating that water consumption among chickens provided with water in terracotta drinkers was significantly higher than among birds drinking from plastic drinkers. This controversy may be explained by the fact that, during their study, the water served each morning had not been refreshed the day before in a terracotta reservoir, as was the case in this study. In a manner analogous to the reduced water consumption observed, chickens that imbibed from terracotta drinkers exhibited a diminished rate of feed consumption (p < 0.05) in comparison to those on the least energy-dense diet and utilizing plastic drinkers. This outcome can be partially attributed to a favourable interaction between the least energy-dense diet and fresh water on the birds' physiological mechanisms. It is hypothesized that the provision of fresh water may have facilitated thermoregulation, thereby enhancing the utilization of energy ingested by chickens provided with water from terracotta drinkers. Indeed, at elevated temperatures, avian species are required to expend energy in order to maintain normal body temperature and metabolic activity. This has the effect of diverting energy away from growth and production, which in turn leads to a loss of performance (Oluwagbenga and Fraley, 2023 ). It is evident that a reduction in internal temperature is achieved through the application of cool water, which consequently leads to a decrease in the energy requirements of the chicken. However, in birds imbibing from the clay trough, elevated levels of feed intake in those receiving the most energy-dense diet suggest that this diet increases internal extra-heat production (Souza et al., 2016 ). The findings of the present study demonstrated that subjects subjected to the designated feeding program exhibited significantly elevated rectal temperatures. In the subjects under consideration, it appears that a higher feed intake is necessary to ensure thermoregulation and other maintenance and production functions. The findings of this study stand in opposition to those of Cyrille D'Alex et al . (2024), who demonstrated that the food consumption of chickens drinking from terracotta drinkers was lower than that of chickens drinking from plastic drinkers. During the experiment, the subjects were exposed to water at an initial temperature of 28.1°C, which is approximately 8°C above the typical thermal comfort range for chickens (Kim et al., 2025 ). It is noteworthy that the subjects displayed behaviours indicative of heat stress prior to this temperature exposure. The observed discrepancy of 4°C between the present study and the aforementioned study (24°C) could potentially elucidate the observed controversy between the two studies. The assessment of average daily gain demonstrated significantly higher values (p < 0.05) in chickens allocated water from terracotta drinkers and the least energy-dense feed program, in comparison to those obtained in birds allocated water from plastic drinkers. This discrepancy may be attributable, at least in part, to the capacity of cool water from terracotta drinkers to reduce the body temperature of the animals. It is evident that a reduction in internal temperature is conducive to the optimization of the conditions necessary for metabolism and the assimilation of nutrients provided by feed. In addition, the performance of animals during periods of high temperature has been found to be directly correlated with the coolness of the water provided (Park et al., 2015 ). The findings of this study are consistent with those of several authors who have reported increased weight gain in chickens consuming cool water (Cyrille D'Alex et al ., 2024). However, in contrast to the aforementioned studies, which observed weight gain as a consequence of increased feed intake, the present study demonstrates that this phenomenon occurs in response to reduced feed intake. This finding suggests that the feed conversion ratio may be enhanced. Animals that received water in terracotta troughs exhibited a significantly lower consumption index (p < 0.05) in comparison to animals that received water in plastic troughs. This finding indicates that the presence of fresh water has a positive impact on the utilization of feed, which is achieved through enhanced digestibility and/or nutrient absorption. Maintaining a stable body temperature and ensuring adequate hydration are pivotal for facilitating optimal conditions for the processes of digestion, absorption, and nutrient assimilation (Kaya and Dereli, 2023). Moreover, earlier research has demonstrated that stress instigates morphological and physiological alterations that exert a detrimental effect on the functionality and integrity of the intestinal epithelium. This has been demonstrated to affect intestinal permeability, leading to a decrease in oxygen and nutrient supply to enterocytes (Ahmad et al., 2022 ). In a similar vein, Liu et al. ( 2023 ) observed that heat stress induced morphological alterations in the intestinal epithelium, manifesting as a reduction in villus height and crypt depth. This, in turn, resulted in a decrease in the absorption surface area of the villi, thereby negatively impacting nutrient absorption. It can be hypothesized that these mechanisms may have contributed to a reduction in feed conversion rates in chickens drinking from plastic drinkers. In conditions of severe stress, hens experience a state of life-threatening distress, characterized by a decrease in respiratory rate, insufficient evaporation, and an increase in body temperature that can reach 47°C, ultimately resulting in the death of the animal (Wasti et al., 2020 ). The findings of this study demonstrated a negative correlation between rectal temperature and the mortality rate of chickens. The mortality rate was found to be lowest amongst chickens watered with terracotta drinkers and having the lowest rectal temperature. It is evident that the reduction or maintenance of low internal temperature, facilitated by the combination of cool water and minimal energy density, has contributed to the mitigation of the likelihood of chickens reaching lethal temperatures. It has been reported by several authors that the provision of cool water has several beneficial effects on chickens raised in hot climates. These effects include the prevention of dehydration, the lowering of body temperature, and a reduction in mortality rates (Saeed et al., 2019 ; Kaya and Dereli, 2023; Cyrille D'Alex et al ., 2024). The histomorphometry of the intestines of broiler chickens demonstrated that villus height was significantly higher in subjects watered from terracotta drinkers. Similarly, the villus height/crypt depth ratio was elevated in subjects receiving the lowest energy density; a phenomenon that was particularly pronounced in subjects watered from the terracotta drinker. This finding indicates that subjects receiving fresh water, particularly those subjected to the lowest energy density, exhibited a reduced response to the deleterious effects of heat stress on the intestine. Indeed, an elevated villi height/crypt depth ratio is frequently associated with superior health outcomes, enhanced intestinal digestive function, and optimized nutrient absorption (Manon and Vetea, 2022 ). This hypothesis could provide a theoretical framework to explain the observed lower feed conversion ratio results with fresh water. Conclusion At the end of this study, which evaluated the effects Effects of dietary energy level and terracotta drinker on the behaviour and zootechnical performance of broiler chickens exposed to high temperature-humidity index, it can be concluded that the terracotta drinker has been shown to be an effective measure in combating heat stress in broilers. This is evidenced by a reduction in both the rectal temperature and the respiration rate of the birds. It has been demonstrated that the installation of a terracotta bird drinker has the capacity to optimized growth performance and liveability of broilers exposed to heat stress, thereby promoting intestinal health, and enhancing physiological response. However, the optimal outcome was observed with the terracotta drinker, which was associated with the low program energy density utilized in this study. Declarations Competing Interest The authors have declared no conflict of interest. Ethics approval This study was performed in line with the principles of the declaration of Helsinki. Animal manipulation carried out in this study followed the protocol approved by the Cameroonian Bioethics Committee (Reg N° FWA-IRB00001945). Funding This project was supported by the authors. Author contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Tadondjou Tchingo Cyrille d’Alex, Kaoga Bassa, Toukala Jean Paul, Ledang Narcisse. the first draft of the manuscript was written by Tadondjou Tchingo Cyrille d’Alex, under the supervision of Kana Jean Raphael, Ngoula Ferdinand, Teguia Alexis who commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank and appreciate the National Advanced School of Engineering of the University of Maroua, and the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences of the University of Dschang, Cameroon, for the facilities used to conduct the present study. Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Abdel‐Moneim, A. M. E., Shehata, A. M., Khidr, R. E., Paswan, V. K., Ibrahim, N. S., El‐Ghoul, A. A., Aldhumri, S. A., Gabr, S. A., Mesalam, N. 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Animals, 10: 1266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081266 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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06:55:11","extension":"html","order_by":41,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":127171,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/55a8eaed333f28ca5f662dce.html"},{"id":96791330,"identity":"2b163994-3a45-42da-a9e3-43dd951c4383","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 06:55:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":225337,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA location map of the study area. (A) Far-North Region of Cameroon; (B) Divisions of the Far north Region; (C) Subdivisions of the Diamaré division; (D) Location of the National Advanced School of Engineering in Maroua 2 subdivision. The application farm of the National Advanced School of Engineering of Maroua is in Maroua 2, a sub‐division of the Diamaré division, Far‐North Region, Cameroon.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/0222305e33d95b0df9cc6ff8.jpg"},{"id":96916211,"identity":"667090f6-48b1-4755-ba00-fe39a2914c72","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:08:12","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":125961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod for measurements of villus and crypt lengths\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/f2362f366aec9065dcfad40a.jpg"},{"id":96791390,"identity":"be63a7f3-44d3-4ac6-bf3d-b88a13a3f15b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 06:55:13","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":78949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeat index inside the breeding room during the experiment.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/ab16822dd2ccf99a99c9faa7.jpg"},{"id":96791382,"identity":"2c682cba-e80e-48a0-b743-9eecd57a5657","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 06:55:12","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47476,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDaily variation of water temperature in plastic or terracotta drinkers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePD: Plastic drinker; TD3: Terracotta drinker of 3L; TD5: Terracotta drinker of 5L\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/a0da95d545abb49b7ad7676c.jpg"},{"id":96791339,"identity":"8f301c80-9c01-4f26-8489-aca1c93027b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 06:55:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":143096,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeekly variation of the rectal temperature at 7 AM (A), 1 PM (B), 7 PM (C) and mean daily (D)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/cd80278e0e07029a54881649.jpg"},{"id":96791353,"identity":"4649a193-79f6-48f2-8012-d56256784653","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 06:55:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":132165,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeekly variation of the respiration rate at 7 AM (A), 1 PM (B), 7 PM (C) and mean daily (D)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/1a6986d095fddf4146aa8baf.jpg"},{"id":98625664,"identity":"50c99c63-29a5-45fd-86e1-547f1473885f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:09:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1854766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8021167/v1/270ea0c8-e0e3-423e-b129-6f56397a15b5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Impacts of dietary energy level and terracotta drinker on the performance of heat-stressed broiler chickens","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNutritional manipulation is among the most practical and cost-effective approaches to mitigating the negative impacts of heat stress. As Onagbesan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrate, modifying the bird's diet has the potential to enhance its physiological resilience, oxidative balance, and immune response. As demonstrated by Abdel Moneim \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021), the nutritional manipulation of livestock feed includes the addition of natural antioxidants, minerals, electrolytes, phytobiotics, probiotics, fat, and protein. Furthermore, the restriction of feed intake, the form of feed, and the provision of cold water have also been demonstrated to have a significant impact on the nutritional status of livestock. Prates (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the potential of antioxidant supplementation (vitamin E, vitamin C, selenium, polyphenols, etc.), osmolytes (betaine, taurine, etc.), probiotics, prebiotics, and optimized energy-to-protein ratios as promising tools to enhance thermotolerance and meat quality. Phytochemicals and cold-water consumption have also demonstrated potential for enhancing resilience to climate stress (Cyrille d'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024, 2025). Despite its potential, authors indicated that nutritional management is most effective when combined with other heat stress mitigation strategies, such as proper ventilation, cooling systems, and management practices (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). Furthermore, given the species-specific responses and the variability of production systems, it appears imperative to integrate dietary approaches with stage-specific management to enhance the efficacy of nutritional manipulation. Prates (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) posited that future research should concentrate on specific aspects, including the validation of synergistic nutritional strategies that safeguard performance and meat quality in monogastric production systems. In accordance with the recommendations, the present study evaluated the synergistic effect of fresh water and diet energy density on the behavior and zootechnical performance of broiler chickens exposed to a high temperature-humidity index.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context of heat stress, chickens have been observed to increase their water intake by a factor of two to four. It has been demonstrated that the provision of adequate water space, the maintenance of well-functioning waterers and the supply of sufficient fresh and cool drinking water (at a temperature of around 20\u0026deg;C, which is ideal) can contribute to the alleviation of heat stress in poultry by promoting hydration and facilitating the regulation of body temperature (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It has been demonstrated that the provision of cold drinking water to hens subjected to heat stress has been shown to result in the maintenance of high levels of feed intake and egg production (Abioja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, Eltahan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that cold-water exposure led to elevated heat dissipation and augmented cellular and humoral immunity in heat-exposed laying hens. In the study conducted by Cyrille d'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2024), it was demonstrated that the provision of fresh drinking water to broiler breeders can result in a reduction in their behavioral response to heat stress and an enhancement in their growth performance. It has been demonstrated that cool water exerts its effects by preventing dehydration and lowering body temperature. In contrast, a higher diet energy level appears to mitigate heat stress in poultry through alternative mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt has been demonstrated that periods of elevated ambient temperature can result in a decline in the rate of consumption of feed, nutrients and metabolizable energy. It is recommended to increase dietary metabolizable energy above the recommended level and to add fat up to 5% of the diet to alleviate the side effects of heat stress on the performance of broiler chicks (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). In conditions of elevated ambient temperatures, the recommendation is for higher energy density diets, frequently characterized by augmented fat content, to ensure adequate calorie intake with a reduced amount of feed. This strategy has been shown to minimize the heat produced during digestion, thereby helping to maintain both body weight and performance (Onagbesan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study was conducted at the application and research farm of the National Advanced School of Engineering of Maroua, situated in the Far North Region of Cameroon (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The geographical location of the farm is specified by the following coordinates: 10\u0026deg;35'02.74\"N, 14\u0026deg;18'05.3\"E, and the altitude of the site is 384 meters above sea level. During the experimental period (1st April \u0026ndash; 19 May 2024), the mean ambient temperature registered at the study area was 33.37\u0026deg;C, 41.44\u0026deg;C, and 37.12\u0026deg;C at 7am, 1pm, and 7pm, respectively. Meanwhile, the relative humidity ranged between 11% and 23%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental animals and their management\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 200 one-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks were procured from a commercial hatchery (Agrocam, Yaound\u0026eacute;, Cameroon) for the experiment. The study was conducted in accordance with the animal welfare requirements approved by the Cameroonian Bioethics Committee (Reg. No. FWA-IRB00001945/2024) and the HIN-care and use of laboratory animals\u0026rsquo; manual (8th edition).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpon arrival, the chicks were weighed (39.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.21 g) and randomly distributed into 20 cages (10 chicks/cage). The birds were accommodated within floor cages, with a layer of wood shavings (5 cm deep) serving as bedding material, and a density of 8 birds/m\u0026sup2; was maintained. The lighting schedule was continuous for the initial 24-hour period, followed by a 4-hour period of darkness and 20 hours of light until the conclusion of the experiment. Throughout the experiment, the broiler chickens were housed in an open-sided poultry housing system where the environmental elements were not controlled during the hot season. The animals were provided with food and water ad libitum in adapted facilities. Standard health and vaccination programs against Newcastle and Gumboro diseases were carried out. The chicks were observed and examined daily for any syndromes throughout the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental design employed a randomized complete block design, incorporating two factors: drinkers and diet energy density at two levels. The levels of drinkers were categorized as either plastic or terracotta, while the diet energy density levels ranged from 3300 to 3300 to 3250 kcal and 3300 to 3250 to 3100 kcal/kg. The chicks were randomly distributed into 20 pens (with four groups of 10 chicks in each pen, and five replications). The following treatments were allocated to each group: Group 1 was provided with water in a plastic drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3300 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3250 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 2 was provided with water in a plastic drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3250 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3100 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 3 was provided with water in a terracotta drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3300 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3250 kcal/kg for the finisher. Group 4 was provided with water in a terracotta drinker, with an energy density of 3300 kcal/kg for the starter, 3250 kcal/kg for the grower, and 3100 kcal/kg for the finisher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental diets\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rations were formulated from various ingredients purchased at harvest time in the town of Maroua. The chemical composition of the rations was estimated according to the methodology described by Helrich and AOAC (1990) at the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences' (The University of Dschang) laboratory of nutrition and animal feed. As demonstrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, two isoproteinic diets were formulated for each developmental stage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" width=\"100%\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIngredients and nutrient composition of experimental diet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIngredients (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStarter1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStarter2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrower1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrower2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinisher1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinisher2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorn bran\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeanut meal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoybean meal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFish meal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*Premix 5%\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBone meal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSalt\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePalm oil\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNutrients\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM E (Kcal/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude Protein (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhosphore (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalcium (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLysine (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMethionine (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3307.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3353.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3320.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3250.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3258.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3100.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eME: Metabolizable energy; *Premix 5%: ME: 2078 kcal/kg; Crude Protein: 40%; Calcium: 8%; Phosphorus: 2.05%; Lysine: 3.3%; Methionine: 2.4%\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respiratory rate, rectal temperature, water intake, feed intake and live body weight were recorded on a weekly basis. The mortality rate was determined at 49 days of age. In the experiment, two birds per pen were selected at random. This process was repeated until a total of ten birds per treatment had been included. The birds were then fasted for 12 hours, weighed, and slaughtered. The portion of the intestine was then collected for the purpose of histological analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The animal manipulation carried out in this study was in accordance with the recommendations of institutional guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals. The handling of the chicks was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards stipulated in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its subsequent amendments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHeat index (HI)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ambient temperature and relative humidity were measured daily at 7 AM, 1 PM and 7 PM using a Taylor brand temperature and humidity sensor (FCC ID: WEC-1502) positioned at the chickens\u0026rsquo; back level in the center of the room. The heat index was calculated using the formula described by National Research Council (1971), cited by Kendal and Webster (2009).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe heat Index (HI) was calculated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHI = (1.8Tmax\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;32) \u0026ndash; [(0.55\u0026ndash;0.0055 Hmin) \u0026times; (1.8 Tmax \u0026ndash; 26)]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this equation, T denotes the maximum ambient temperature (\u0026deg;C), and H represents the minimum relative humidity (%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e described the heat stress classes as \u0026ldquo;bird comfort\u0026rdquo;, according to the recommendation of Wasti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat stress classification for poultry\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(adapted from Wasti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHI value (\u0026deg;F)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;72\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 to 76\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e77 to 80\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e81 to 87\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsolute comfort (no heat stress)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLight discomfort (mild heat stress)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eModerate discomfort (moderate heat stress)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSevere discomfort (severe heat stress)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLife threatening (extreme heat stress)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRefreshing capacity of the terracotta drinkers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to the commencement of the experiment, the terracotta water trough was subjected to a capacity assessment, which determined its efficacy in the replenishment of water. Water was collected from the tap and introduced into one terracotta tank for the night over a period of five consecutive days, at ambient temperature. In the morning, at 7:00, the water was collected from the tank and introduced into one plastic drinker and two terracotta drinkers (3L and 5L), which had been purchased from a canary producer in Maroua. Prior to the introduction of water into the drinkers (at 7am) and at 2-hour intervals (9am, 11am, 1pm, 3pm, 5pm and 7pm), the temperature of the water was measured.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRespiratory rate\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach day, between 12 AM and 1 PM, the respiratory rate of each bird was estimated as described by Perez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2006).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRespiration Rate\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10 \u0026times; 60/t\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere: t\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e represents the time required to count 10 successive panting breaths.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRectal temperature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRectal temperature (RT) was measured once a week at 13:00 hours. The individual measurement of RT was carried out by introducing the probe into the cloaca of the bird up to the terminal colon, as recommended by Perez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2006). For the measurement, the subjects were always in the center of the batch, which facilitated the capture of the birds by simply extending the arms, thus avoiding any rough handling that might cause additional stress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGrowth parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeed and water intake: The quantity of water and food consumed by the birds was measured at the conclusion of each week. The birds were provided with a known amount of water and food, and the remainder was measured for each replicate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal water consumption (L)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Total water given to birds (L) \u0026ndash; water left-over (L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal feed intake (g)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Total feed given to birds (g) \u0026ndash; feed left-over (g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e After measuring the feed intake and live body weight with a scale of 5 kg and 1 g precision, the body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio were calculated in accordance with the following formulas:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody weight gain\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Live body weight of week (n\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1)\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;Live body weight of week (n)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFeed conversion ratio\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Weekly Feed intake (g)/Weekly Body weight gain (g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMortality records were maintained throughout the experimental period and were expressed as a ratio of the number of dead birds to the total number of birds contained in each pen at the beginning of the study expressed as a percentage. This was calculated on a replicate basis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHistomorphometric measurements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe intestinal tissue of five animals per treatment group was subjected to histological examination. The animals were randomly selected for this purpose. Following the slaughter of the animals, samples for the purpose of histopathology were removed from the mid-gut (jejunum) region and placed into neutral buffered formalin for fixation. 5-micron thick hematoxylin-eosin-stained sections were prepared following paraffin embedding and histological processing (Lison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e). The histological sections were evaluated using standard light microscopy. Quantitative histomorphometric measurements of intestinal villus lengths and crypt were performed using ImageJ 1.32j 0.0.0.0. software. The measurements were obtained from photomicrographs captured at 40\u0026times; magnification. The length of both the villi and crypt regions for a total of 10 selected individual and apparently complete, full-sized intestinal villi not exhibiting bending or mechanical damage, were measured for each sample (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). It is important to note that all measurements were made by a single individual. Subsequently, crypt to villus ratios were calculated using the length data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData collected were expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (SD) and analyzed in a complete 2 \u0026times; 2 factorial design (type of drinker and diet energy level). Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using Graphpad Prism 8.4.3 with the model including the main effects of the factors with their interaction. Statistical significance was considered at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Comparisons of multiple means were made using Tukey multiple tests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHeat index\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the ambient heat index in the room during the experiment exceeded 78\u0026deg;F. The lowest values of the heat index were recorded at 07:00 (78\u0026ndash;81\u0026deg;F) and the highest values were obtained around 13:00 (86\u0026ndash;88\u0026deg;F).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRefreshing capacity of terracotta drinkers\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe daily variations in the terracotta and plastic drinkers, as well as the temperature of the water previously stored for 12 hours in a terracotta tank, are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4. The water temperature in the terracotta drinkers (3 and 5L) remained consistent from 7am to 7pm, measuring between 23 and 25\u0026deg;C. However, in the plastic drinker, an increase was observed from 24\u0026deg;C to a maximum of 37\u0026deg;C at 1 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRectal temperature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe weekly variations in the rectal temperature of the heat-stressed broilers are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Irrespective of the age and the day measurement time, broilers receiving water into the terracotta drinkers exhibited lower values of the rectal temperature. However, the lowest values were recorded in the broiler chickens that received the diet energy program with the lowest caloric content. Irrespective of the dietary energy program, broilers receiving water from the plastic drinker exhibited no difference in rectal temperature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRespiration rate\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the week-on-week fluctuations in the respiration rate of heat-stressed broilers are depicted according to the diet energy program and water access method employed. These fluctuations are further categorized into two distinct drinker types. Throughout the experiment period, the respiration rate recorded at 7 a.m. exhibited no significant differences between the treatments. Even though, at 1 pm and 7 pm, the broilers receiving water into the terracotta drinkers exhibited a reduced respiration rate, the lowest values were recorded in those receiving the lowest diet energy program.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGrowth parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs demonstrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the growth parameters of heat-stressed broilers receiving different dietary energy program and water from two different drinkers are shown. The statistical analyses demonstrated that the type of drinker had a significant effect on growth parameters (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), except for the feed conversion ratio. The findings revealed a significant increase in daily water intake, daily feed intake, and body weight gain (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) in the terracotta group as compared to the plastic group. Concurrently, the mortality rate was observed to decrease significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) in the terracotta group. The daily water intake and daily feed intake were found to be significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) influenced by the interaction between the type of drinkers and the diet energy program. Apart from the mortality rate, the diet energy program exerted no influence on the growth parameters of heat-stressed broilers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrowth parameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic drinker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerracotta drinker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrinkers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDWI (mL)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDFI (g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDBWG (g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMR (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e295.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.84\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.68\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.49\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e323.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.71\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.47\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e290.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.65\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.62\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.98\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e273.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.33\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.11\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.56\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.07\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0021\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0122\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4503\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1187\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1718\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8330\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0091\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0005\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8302\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7119\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.332\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE: Diet energy; MR: Mortality rate; DWI: Daily water intake; DFI: Daily feed intake; DBWG: Daily body weight gain; FCR: Feed conversion ratio.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHistological characteristic of the small intestine\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the histomorphometric parameters of a segment of the jejunum of heat-stressed broilers receiving distinct dietary energy program and water from two different drinkers are presented. The investigation revealed that, except for wall thickness, all histomorphometric parameters exhibited a significant response to the type of drinker and/or the dietary energy program. The broilers that were exposed to elevated temperatures and provided with access to a terracotta drinker exhibited increased values (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) of villi length and the villi length to crypt depth ratio. Despite the absence of a statistically significant effect of the subject's drinking habits or dietary energy program on crypt depth, the interaction between these factors was found to have a significant impact (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistomorphometric parameters of the intestine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic drinker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerracotta drinker\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDE2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrinkers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInteraction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWT (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVL (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCD (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVL/CD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e687.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;117.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e372.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.56\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.69\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e668.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;197.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e328.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23.84\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.28\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.83\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e710.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;151.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e392\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e96.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.76\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e612.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;60.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e402.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;65.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.93\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.38\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2967\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.088\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1460\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2598\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8911\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1323\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eDE: Diet energy; WT: Wall thickness; VL: Villi length; VW: Villi width; VH/VW: Villi length to crypt depth ratio; CD: Crypt depth\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCooling capacity of terracotta drinking troughs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the present study, the water temperature in plastic drinking troughs was observed to rise from 24.17\u0026deg;C to 37.57\u0026deg;C between 7 a.m. and 1 p.m., before falling slightly from 37.57\u0026deg;C to 33.41\u0026deg;C between 1 p.m. and 7 p.m. This increase in water temperature is hypothesized to be the result of the rise in ambient temperature during the day. Conversely, the water temperature in the terracotta troughs exhibited a consistent average of 24.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u0026deg;C. This stability in the water temperature in the terracotta drinking troughs is hypothesized to be attributable to the effect of storing water in a 100L terracotta reservoir the day before. The 3L and 5L terracotta drinking troughs exhibited the property of maintaining the water temperature throughout the day, a phenomenon attributable to their inherent cooling properties. The terracotta trough, with its slight porosity, permits the passage of a minimal quantity of water through its walls to the exterior, thereby maintaining the container's moisture content. During the phase change from liquid to gas, the water absorbs energy in the form of heat from the ambient air, thereby reducing the temperature of the air. This cooling method requires only water as a coolant. This natural evaporation process has been shown to maintain a significantly lower temperature in the water within the trough in comparison to the ambient temperature (Makule et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffect of energy density and type of waterer on the physiological response of broiler chickens exposed to heat stress\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Thermal Heat Index (THI) is a widely utilized metric for the description of the heat load experienced by animals and has been identified as a reliable indicator of stressful thermal conditions (Sisman \u0026amp; Kocaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of poultry, the Thermax Heat Index (THI) method is employed to delineate four distinct levels of heat stress risk. As posited by Wasti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), the range of 73\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;THI\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;80 is designated as 'moderate risk'; 81\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;THI\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;87 is designated as 'severe risk'; and THI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;87 is designated as 'very severe risk'. During the trial period, the THI values ranged from 79.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48 to 87.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49 between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., indicating that the experiment was conducted under conditions of severe heat stress risk (Onagbesan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In poultry, this stress manifests itself in increased internal temperature and hyperventilation, among other things (Oluwagbenga and Fraley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn hot climates, birds have evolved the capacity to regulate their internal temperature through increased respiration, a process known as hyperventilation. In conditions of heat stress, the process of hyperventilation facilitates the rapid dissipation of heat from the body. As air passes through the respiratory tract, it gradually becomes saturated with water vapour until it reaches saturation vapor pressure. It has been demonstrated that an increase in respiratory rate results in a sharp increase in the total amount of heat eliminated (Mangan et Siwek, 2023). The findings of the present study demonstrate that the respiratory rate of chickens provided with water from the clay trough was significantly lower (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in comparison to those imbibing from the plastic trough. This result suggests that the total amount of heat to be eliminated by birds drinking from the clay trough is lower than that to be eliminated by birds receiving water from the plastic trough. The cool water in the clay trough may be a contributing factor to the observed decrease in respiratory rate. It has been posited by various authors that the reduction in respiratory rate observed in chickens is a consequence of the lowering of their body temperature by cool water (Collin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Cyrille D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrated that the rectal temperature of chickens drinking from terracotta waterers was significantly lower (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) than that of chickens drinking from plastic waterers. This phenomenon is hypothesized to be attributable to the impact of cool water, which resulted in a reduction of body temperature in avian subjects imbibing from terracotta vessels. The ingestion of cool water has been demonstrated to facilitate heat dissipation through the processes of water evaporation and cooling of the respiratory tract and mouth. Furthermore, it facilitates thermoregulation through direct conduction. In addition, the provision of cool water ensures the maintenance of adequate hydration in chickens, a vital aspect of their physiological function, particularly in regard to thermoregulation (Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of the present experiment, the ingestion of water maintained at a temperature of 24\u0026deg;C during the diurnal period resulted in a reduction of body temperature in broiler chickens, ranging from 0.5 to 2\u0026deg;C, contingent upon the intensity of the ambient heat. These results are consistent with those reported by Xin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), who found that in conditions of heat stress, birds that consumed cool water were able to reduce their body temperature by up to 1.5 degrees. Irrespective of the type of waterer, subjects receiving the least energy-dense diet exhibited lower body temperatures than birds on the most energy-dense diet. However, this difference was only significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) in subjects drinking from the terracotta drinker. This finding, as indicated by the analysis of variance (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014), suggests that the energy density of the feed program exerts a significant influence on the body temperature of broiler chickens. In circumstances involving heat stress, it is advised to provide a more energy-dense diet, enabling chickens to satisfy their energy requirements with a reduced amount of feed (Abdel-Moneim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, if the energy density is excessively high, it has been demonstrated that this can generate additional metabolic heat, which can lead to an increase in the chickens' internal temperature (Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the denser feed program appears to have contributed to increased feed thermogenesis in chickens. However, this effect was mitigated by the presence of fresh water in subjects who consumed water from terracotta drinkers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffect of energy density and type of waterer on the growth performance of broiler chickens exposed to heat stress\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the trial period, average daily water consumption was significantly lower (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in birds drinking from the clay trough compared to those drinking from the plastic trough while receiving the most energy-dense feed program. It is notable that birds are devoid of sweat glands, thus their main means of reducing heat loss in elevated temperatures is through the process of water vaporization within their respiratory tract. This increase in evaporative losses during periods of elevated temperature is associated with an increase in respiratory rate. The occurrence of evaporative losses is contingent upon optimal water consumption. The ingestion of cool water has been demonstrated to reduce internal temperature, thereby decreasing the amount of heat that must be eliminated through the process of evaporation (Bruno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These results are consistent with those of several authors, who have shown that birds in high ambient temperatures consume more water compared to those given fresh water (Abioja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, Cyrille D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2024) posited an alternative viewpoint, demonstrating that water consumption among chickens provided with water in terracotta drinkers was significantly higher than among birds drinking from plastic drinkers. This controversy may be explained by the fact that, during their study, the water served each morning had not been refreshed the day before in a terracotta reservoir, as was the case in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a manner analogous to the reduced water consumption observed, chickens that imbibed from terracotta drinkers exhibited a diminished rate of feed consumption (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in comparison to those on the least energy-dense diet and utilizing plastic drinkers. This outcome can be partially attributed to a favourable interaction between the least energy-dense diet and fresh water on the birds' physiological mechanisms. It is hypothesized that the provision of fresh water may have facilitated thermoregulation, thereby enhancing the utilization of energy ingested by chickens provided with water from terracotta drinkers. Indeed, at elevated temperatures, avian species are required to expend energy in order to maintain normal body temperature and metabolic activity. This has the effect of diverting energy away from growth and production, which in turn leads to a loss of performance (Oluwagbenga and Fraley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It is evident that a reduction in internal temperature is achieved through the application of cool water, which consequently leads to a decrease in the energy requirements of the chicken. However, in birds imbibing from the clay trough, elevated levels of feed intake in those receiving the most energy-dense diet suggest that this diet increases internal extra-heat production (Souza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The findings of the present study demonstrated that subjects subjected to the designated feeding program exhibited significantly elevated rectal temperatures. In the subjects under consideration, it appears that a higher feed intake is necessary to ensure thermoregulation and other maintenance and production functions. The findings of this study stand in opposition to those of Cyrille D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2024), who demonstrated that the food consumption of chickens drinking from terracotta drinkers was lower than that of chickens drinking from plastic drinkers. During the experiment, the subjects were exposed to water at an initial temperature of 28.1\u0026deg;C, which is approximately 8\u0026deg;C above the typical thermal comfort range for chickens (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It is noteworthy that the subjects displayed behaviours indicative of heat stress prior to this temperature exposure. The observed discrepancy of 4\u0026deg;C between the present study and the aforementioned study (24\u0026deg;C) could potentially elucidate the observed controversy between the two studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe assessment of average daily gain demonstrated significantly higher values (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in chickens allocated water from terracotta drinkers and the least energy-dense feed program, in comparison to those obtained in birds allocated water from plastic drinkers. This discrepancy may be attributable, at least in part, to the capacity of cool water from terracotta drinkers to reduce the body temperature of the animals. It is evident that a reduction in internal temperature is conducive to the optimization of the conditions necessary for metabolism and the assimilation of nutrients provided by feed. In addition, the performance of animals during periods of high temperature has been found to be directly correlated with the coolness of the water provided (Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The findings of this study are consistent with those of several authors who have reported increased weight gain in chickens consuming cool water (Cyrille D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024). However, in contrast to the aforementioned studies, which observed weight gain as a consequence of increased feed intake, the present study demonstrates that this phenomenon occurs in response to reduced feed intake. This finding suggests that the feed conversion ratio may be enhanced.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnimals that received water in terracotta troughs exhibited a significantly lower consumption index (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in comparison to animals that received water in plastic troughs. This finding indicates that the presence of fresh water has a positive impact on the utilization of feed, which is achieved through enhanced digestibility and/or nutrient absorption. Maintaining a stable body temperature and ensuring adequate hydration are pivotal for facilitating optimal conditions for the processes of digestion, absorption, and nutrient assimilation (Kaya and Dereli, 2023). Moreover, earlier research has demonstrated that stress instigates morphological and physiological alterations that exert a detrimental effect on the functionality and integrity of the intestinal epithelium. This has been demonstrated to affect intestinal permeability, leading to a decrease in oxygen and nutrient supply to enterocytes (Ahmad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In a similar vein, Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) observed that heat stress induced morphological alterations in the intestinal epithelium, manifesting as a reduction in villus height and crypt depth. This, in turn, resulted in a decrease in the absorption surface area of the villi, thereby negatively impacting nutrient absorption. It can be hypothesized that these mechanisms may have contributed to a reduction in feed conversion rates in chickens drinking from plastic drinkers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conditions of severe stress, hens experience a state of life-threatening distress, characterized by a decrease in respiratory rate, insufficient evaporation, and an increase in body temperature that can reach 47\u0026deg;C, ultimately resulting in the death of the animal (Wasti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The findings of this study demonstrated a negative correlation between rectal temperature and the mortality rate of chickens. The mortality rate was found to be lowest amongst chickens watered with terracotta drinkers and having the lowest rectal temperature. It is evident that the reduction or maintenance of low internal temperature, facilitated by the combination of cool water and minimal energy density, has contributed to the mitigation of the likelihood of chickens reaching lethal temperatures. It has been reported by several authors that the provision of cool water has several beneficial effects on chickens raised in hot climates. These effects include the prevention of dehydration, the lowering of body temperature, and a reduction in mortality rates (Saeed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kaya and Dereli, 2023; Cyrille D'Alex \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe histomorphometry of the intestines of broiler chickens demonstrated that villus height was significantly higher in subjects watered from terracotta drinkers. Similarly, the villus height/crypt depth ratio was elevated in subjects receiving the lowest energy density; a phenomenon that was particularly pronounced in subjects watered from the terracotta drinker. This finding indicates that subjects receiving fresh water, particularly those subjected to the lowest energy density, exhibited a reduced response to the deleterious effects of heat stress on the intestine. Indeed, an elevated villi height/crypt depth ratio is frequently associated with superior health outcomes, enhanced intestinal digestive function, and optimized nutrient absorption (Manon and Vetea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This hypothesis could provide a theoretical framework to explain the observed lower feed conversion ratio results with fresh water.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAt the end of this study, which evaluated the effects Effects of dietary energy level and terracotta drinker on the behaviour and zootechnical performance of broiler chickens exposed to high temperature-humidity index, it can be concluded that the terracotta drinker has been shown to be an effective measure in combating heat stress in broilers. This is evidenced by a reduction in both the rectal temperature and the respiration rate of the birds. It has been demonstrated that the installation of a terracotta bird drinker has the capacity to optimized growth performance and liveability of broilers exposed to heat stress, thereby promoting intestinal health, and enhancing physiological response. However, the optimal outcome was observed with the terracotta drinker, which was associated with the low program energy density utilized in this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe authors have declared no conflict of interest.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthics approval\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis study was performed in line with the principles of the declaration of Helsinki. Animal manipulation carried out in this study followed the protocol approved by the Cameroonian Bioethics Committee (Reg N\u0026deg; FWA-IRB00001945).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis project was supported by the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Tadondjou Tchingo Cyrille d\u0026rsquo;Alex, Kaoga Bassa, Toukala Jean Paul, Ledang Narcisse. the first draft of the manuscript was written by Tadondjou Tchingo Cyrille d\u0026rsquo;Alex, under the supervision of Kana Jean Raphael, Ngoula Ferdinand, Teguia Alexis who commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank and appreciate the National Advanced School of Engineering of the University of Maroua, and the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences of the University of Dschang, Cameroon, for the facilities used to conduct the present study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdel‐Moneim, A. M. E., Shehata, A. M., Khidr, R. E., Paswan, V. K., Ibrahim, N. S., El‐Ghoul, A. A., Aldhumri, S. A., Gabr, S. A., Mesalam, N. M., Elbaz, A. M., Elsayed, M. A., Wakwak, M. M., \u0026amp; Ebeid, T. A. (2021). Nutritional manipulation to combat heat stress in poultry\u0026ndash;A comprehensive review. Journal of Thermal Biology, 98, 102915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.102915\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbioja, M. O., Osinowo, O. A., Smith, O. F., Eruvbetine, D., \u0026amp; Abiona, J. A. (2011). Evaluation of cold water and vitamin C on broiler growth during hot‐dry season in the humid tropical conditions of south‐western Nigeria. Archivos de Zootecnia, 60(232), 1095\u0026ndash;1103. https://doi.org/10.4321/S0004‐0592201100025\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmad, R.; Yu, Y.-H.; Hsiao, F.S.-H.; Su, C.-H.; Liu, H.-C.; Tobin, I.; Zhang, G.; Cheng, Y.-H. (2022). Influence of Heat Stress on Poultry Growth Performance, Intestinal Inflammation, and Immune Function and Potential Mitigation by Probiotics. Animals, 12, 2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12172297\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBruno, L. D. G., Maiorka, A., Macari, M., Furlan, R. L., \u0026amp; Givisiez, P. E. N. (2011). 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Le stress thermique chez les poules pondeuses commerciales. In Fiche technique, NO 20‐026, AGDEX 451/20. Publi\u0026eacute; par le Minist\u0026egrave;re de l\u0026rsquo;Agriculture, l\u0026rsquo;Alimentation et des Affaires rurales de l\u0026rsquo;Ontario. Imprimeur de la reine pour l\u0026rsquo;Ontario. ISSN 1198‐7138.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWasti S, Sah N, Mishra B (2020). Impact of heat stress on poultry health and performances, and potential mitigation strategies. Animals, 10: 1266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081266\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"behaviour, broiler-chicken, dietary energy level, growth, terracotta drinker","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8021167/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8021167/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study was conducted with the objective of evaluating the effects of a terracotta drinker and dietary energy level on the physiological response and growth performance of broiler chickens reared in a hot environment. A total of 200-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks (39.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4 g) were divided into four distinct treatment groups in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of drinker type (plastic or terracotta) and diet energy density (3300-3300-3250 kcal/kg or 3300-3250-3100 kcal/kg for starter-grower-finisher, respectively). Each group consisted of five replicate pens. The water intake, feed intake and feed conversion ratio exhibited a significant decrease (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) in the terracotta group as compared to the plastic group. A significant increase in body weight was observed in the terracotta drinker group in comparison to the plastic drinker group (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). However, this increase was more pronounced in individuals with lower energy levels. The mortality rate, the rectal temperature and the respiration rate of broilers receiving water from the terracotta drinker and fed on a low-energy diet were significantly lower (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). In the case of broilers that received water from the terracotta drinker, higher values were observed for both villus length and the villus height/crypt depth ratio (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). It can be concluded that the terracotta drinker can be more efficient in reducing the behavioral response to heat stress and can improve liveability and growth performance. However, the optimal outcomes were observed in conjunction with a low diet energy density.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Impacts of dietary energy level and terracotta drinker on the performance of heat-stressed broiler chickens","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-26 06:54:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8021167/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1195ad65-4b9f-483b-8ab3-5c1b03921c40","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-18T12:27:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-26 06:54:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8021167","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8021167","identity":"rs-8021167","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}