Synergistic effects of limestone calcined clay cement on alkalinity, mechanical performance, and vegetative compatibility of ecological concrete

Synergistic effects of limestone calcined clay cement on alkalinity, mechanical performance, and vegetative compatibility of ecological concrete | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Synergistic effects of limestone calcined clay cement on alkalinity, mechanical performance, and vegetative compatibility of ecological concrete Yi Fang, Cheng Yang, Hui Zeng, Jin Yang, Hailong Zhang, Yue Gu, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8028427/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Ecological concrete is essential for sustainable construction, yet its application is limited by the high alkalinity of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which inhibits plant growth, and by conventional alkalinity-reduction methods that often compromise mechanical performance. This study explores the use of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC³) as a sustainable alternative, aiming to achieve a synergistic balance among low alkalinity, adequate compressive strength, and enhanced vegetative compatibility. LC³ ecological concretes with varying metakaolin and limestone proportions (M20L15, M30L15, M40L15) and porosities (22%, 26%, 30%) were prepared at a water-to-binder ratio of 0.24. The materials were characterized in terms of pH, compressive strength, hydration products (XRD, TGA/DTG, SEM, LF-NMR), pore structure, and plant growth performance using tall fescue over 60 days. Results indicate that LC³ significantly reduces 28-day pH to a plant-compatible range of 8.4–8.8, while mixes such as M20L15 and M30L15 achieve compressive strengths up to 13 MPa at 22% porosity. Microstructural analyses revealed that metakaolin’s pozzolanic reaction consumes portlandite, and its synergy with limestone promotes the formation of dense C-A-S-H gels and carboaluminate phases, refining the pore structure and hindering alkali ion migration. Vegetation tests confirmed vigorous plant growth on LC³ concrete, particularly at 30% porosity, whereas OPC controls caused plant mortality. Overall, LC³ ecological concrete effectively addresses the limitations of conventional formulations, simultaneously ensuring mechanical integrity, controlling alkalinity, and supporting sustainable vegetative growth, highlighting its potential for green infrastructure applications. Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Physical sciences/Materials science Limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) Ecological concrete Alkalinity reduction Compressive strength Vegetative compatibility Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 05 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 17 Nov, 2025 Editor invited by journal 17 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 09 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8028427","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":552767962,"identity":"0b3d17f2-22bc-428f-8e3b-b7c51fbbc40a","order_by":0,"name":"Yi 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concrete","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Limestone calcined clay cement (LC³), Ecological concrete, Alkalinity reduction, Compressive strength, Vegetative compatibility","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8028427/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8028427/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEcological concrete is essential for sustainable construction, yet its application is limited by the high alkalinity of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), which inhibits plant growth, and by conventional alkalinity-reduction methods that often compromise mechanical performance. This study explores the use of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC\u0026sup3;) as a sustainable alternative, aiming to achieve a synergistic balance among low alkalinity, adequate compressive strength, and enhanced vegetative compatibility. LC\u0026sup3; ecological concretes with varying metakaolin and limestone proportions (M20L15, M30L15, M40L15) and porosities (22%, 26%, 30%) were prepared at a water-to-binder ratio of 0.24. The materials were characterized in terms of pH, compressive strength, hydration products (XRD, TGA/DTG, SEM, LF-NMR), pore structure, and plant growth performance using tall fescue over 60 days. Results indicate that LC\u0026sup3; significantly reduces 28-day pH to a plant-compatible range of 8.4\u0026ndash;8.8, while mixes such as M20L15 and M30L15 achieve compressive strengths up to 13 MPa at 22% porosity. Microstructural analyses revealed that metakaolin\u0026rsquo;s pozzolanic reaction consumes portlandite, and its synergy with limestone promotes the formation of dense C-A-S-H gels and carboaluminate phases, refining the pore structure and hindering alkali ion migration. Vegetation tests confirmed vigorous plant growth on LC\u0026sup3; concrete, particularly at 30% porosity, whereas OPC controls caused plant mortality. Overall, LC\u0026sup3; ecological concrete effectively addresses the limitations of conventional formulations, simultaneously ensuring mechanical integrity, controlling alkalinity, and supporting sustainable vegetative growth, highlighting its potential for green infrastructure applications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Synergistic effects of limestone calcined clay cement on alkalinity, mechanical performance, and vegetative compatibility of ecological concrete","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-01 06:24:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8028427/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-11T12:24:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-05T09:45:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-02T14:06:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234269946629638907598671683944048055582","date":"2025-11-29T20:54:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"179899301027902863241599429005363595393","date":"2025-11-27T16:54:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"2893398234959800354408846655680999037","date":"2025-11-27T13:54:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"263262838104065045249969121538649272513","date":"2025-11-27T08:44:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-27T08:39:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-17T23:31:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-17T22:12:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-09T13:57:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-11-09T13:54:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"12b39016-41fc-432d-be82-59f24d18de78","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":58825386,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":58825387,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":58825388,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-09T16:08:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8028427","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38329-6","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-02 15:57:36","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-01 06:24:40","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-38329-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-38329-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8028427","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8028427","identity":"rs-8028427","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}