Evaluation of Soil Degradation Across Various Sampling Periods, Toposequence Units, and Cropping Patterns in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria

Evaluation of Soil Degradation Across Various Sampling Periods, Toposequence Units, and Cropping Patterns in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evaluation of Soil Degradation Across Various Sampling Periods, Toposequence Units, and Cropping Patterns in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria A. O. Adaikwu, K. O. Ekpenyong, P. I. Agber This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The study was carried out to assess the degree of soil degradation at different sampling periods, toposequence units and different cropping pattern at JoSTUM and Wurukum in Makurdi, 2023. Soil samples were taken at 0–15 and 15–30 cm depths at the toposequence units under different crop types (maize, cassava and cowpea) and two seasons (June/July and December/January) for routine analysis. The experimental design was a 2x3x3 factorial experiment laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three times. Data analysis was done using Genstat Statistical software, significant means were separated using fisher’s least significant difference at 5% level of probability. Soil degradation assessment was done using standard indicators and criteria. Soils of the two locations were loamy sand in texture. Soil bulk density ranged from 1.46 to 1.63 gcm − 3 . Total porosity ranged from 47.99 to 55.80% while Soil Moisture Content and Saturated hydraulic conductivity were not significantly different. Soil pH was slightly to moderately acidic, total nitrogen was low across the two locations, sampling periods and toposequence units. Cation exchange capacity did not differ significantly. The soils of JoSTUM were more degraded compared with the soils of Wurukum. Likewise dry season sampling indicated higher degradation than the wet season sampling. Degree of degradation with respect to toposequence units indicated upper slope greater than middle slope greater than toe slope. Whereas, for cropping system, the degradation order was, cassava > maize > cowpea. It is recommended that soil conservation practice should be intensified in these areas. soil degradation toposequence soil quality 1.0 INTRODUCTION Soil degradation has been defined in various ways. Ezeaku and Alaci ( 2008 ) describe soil degradation from erosion processes—whether by wind or water—as a reduction in the physical and chemical fertility of soil, ultimately limiting agricultural productivity. They note that increased population pressure on landscape stability leads to intensive soil use and forest clearing for agriculture, even in unsuitable areas such as steep slopes and marginal lands. For agriculturists in developing countries, the primary concern is meeting the future needs of a growing population. Intensive land use often compromises its suitability, resulting in land degradation that disrupts ecological balances, which in turn threatens soil productivity and food security (Senjobi, 2007 ). Lal and Okigbo ( 1990 ) characterize soil degradation as a decline in soil quality due to misuse by humans, leading to the deterioration of the soil's life-support processes and a diminished capacity to produce food, feed, fiber, and fuel. This degradation reflects a decrease in the soil's current and potential ability to provide goods and services due to various degradative processes (UNEP, 1984). It can also be seen as a reduction in biological productivity or land utility for its intended purposes caused by human activities, which include soil degradation and changes in traditional landscapes and vegetation. In Benue State, soils previously classified by Adaikwu et al. ( 2012 ) and Agber et al. ( 2017 ) as moderately to highly degraded and allowed to fallow for fertility recovery have become sources of conflict between farmers and herdsmen, resulting in loss of life and property worth millions of naira. In extreme cases, entire communities have been displaced, as seen in areas like Guma, Logo, Katsina-Ala, Makurdi, Kwande, Gwer West, Gwer East, Agatu, Apa, Ogbadibo, and Otukpo Local Government Areas. This situation has prompted state and federal governments to introduce regulations on herdsmen activities, such as open grazing prohibitions and various ranching methods. The recent RUGA settlement scheme has faced rejection from many states, viewed as a covert land grab for herdsmen. This illustrates the complexities and challenges associated with soil degradation and restoration efforts. The urgency for wise soil management to safeguard its potential for future generations has never been more critical in Nigeria. The extent and impact of soil degradation on agriculture and the broader environment are more severe now than ever, with many soils unable to sustain optimal crop production (Lal, 2015 ). Over the past 50 years, 20% of the world's agricultural land has been irreversibly damaged due to human-induced land degradation. If this trend continues, agriculture could lose 15–30% of its current productivity. Poor land management practices, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, uncontrolled livestock grazing on fragile lands, and poorly planned settlements in landslide-prone areas, contribute to land degradation. Each year, significant amounts of valuable topsoil are eroded and washed away during heavy rains. The extent of soil erosion is directly proportional to slope steepness (Igwe, 1994 ). Variations in the physiographic units of agricultural lands significantly influence soil properties and crop production. Research has shown the implications of different land uses on soil properties and fertility, with studies in southeastern Nigeria indicating an increasing trend in soil pH, organic carbon, and exchangeable bases with decreasing slope (Ezeaku and Eze, 2004). Similar findings were reported in Wollo, Ethiopia (Daneme, 2012). Other studies have demonstrated that different land use types impact soil fertility and productivity (Gatreselassie et al., 2015 ), revealing lower soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and basic cations in cultivated lands compared to grazing or protected forest areas. This decline is attributed to continuous cultivation, lack of fallowing, and erosion. Poor maintenance of soil physicochemical health can lead to reduced aggregate stability, decreased soil organic matter, nutrient deficiencies, and stagnation of crop yields (Yengoh, 2012), exacerbating soil degradation. Overall, soil quality is influenced by both biophysical settings and anthropogenic factors. While studies have addressed the effects of land use on soil properties along a toposequence (Ezeaku and Eze, 2014 ; Chamberlin and Emily, 2011; Diwediga et al., 2005; Daneme, 2012; Timer and Abdulkadir, 2011), there is a lack of information regarding the degree of soil degradation influenced by location and sampling periods in physiographic units under cultivation. Soil degradation due to erosion remains a significant threat to sustainable agricultural production in the inland-upland continuum of the Makurdi subtropical area, highlighting the need for more comprehensive information to address and mitigate soil degradation issues in the region. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Description of Study Area This research was conducted at two locations in Makurdi, Benue State: Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University Teaching and Research Farm, and a farmer’s field beside River Benue (Wurukum). These sites were chosen due to their similar arable cropping systems, including root crops, legumes, and cereals, which can lead to soil degradation. Makurdi is situated in Nigeria's Southern Savanna agro-ecological zone, characterized by a hot tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season lasts from April to October, while the dry season runs from November to March. The mean annual rainfall is 1250 mm, primarily occurring between June and September, with approximately 210 rainy days each year, giving the soil moisture regime an ustic classification (Ojanuga, 2006 ). Temperatures are consistently high, peaking around March/April before the rains, and dropping to their lowest between December/January and July/August. The mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 29–38°C, and the mean monthly minimum ranges from 15–26°C (Ojanuga, 2006 ). The Benue Valley is a long geological basin extending from the confluence of the Rivers Niger and Benue to northeastern Nigeria, divided into upper and lower Benue River Basins. The experimental sites in the lower Benue are located in the middle of this valley. The geology of Benue is categorized into basement complexes, Cretaceous sediments, Cretaceous intrusions/volcanic, and alluvium (Kogbe, 1981 ; Offodile, 2014 ). 2.2 Soil Analysis 2.2.1 Soil Physical Properties The particle-size distribution was assessed using the Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Cresswell & Hamilton, 2002 ). The textural class was determined using Marwill’s Core Cree et al. (2002) textural triangle. Soil water content was measured via the gravimetric method (Obi, 2000), while soil dry bulk density was assessed using the core method (Obi, 2000). Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) was determined using the constant head method. 2.2.2 Soil Chemical Properties Soil pH was measured in water and in a 1N KCl suspension at a 1:1 ratio using Beckman Zero metric pH meters. Total nitrogen was assessed using the macro-Kjeldahl method, and organic carbon was measured via the Black ( 1965 ) potassium dichromate wet oxidation method. Available phosphorus was determined using the Bray-1 method (Bray & Kurtz, 1945 ). Exchangeable calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were measured through the EDTA titration method, while potassium (K) and sodium (Na) were analyzed using flame photometry (Black, 1965 ). Exchangeable acidity was evaluated using a titration method, where soil samples were leached with 1N KCl five times, and exchangeable Al³⁺ and H⁺ in the leachate were titrated with 0.1N NaOH in the presence of phenolphthalein. 2.3 Soil Degradation Assessment Soil degradation was classified according to the FAO (1979) approach. The degree of degradation was estimated using soil quality indicators. Soil degradation was assessed directly, matching soil characteristics with degradation indicators. A broad classification was used to evaluate the seriousness of degradation based on parameters such as soil bulk density, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter. 2.4 Aggregate Degradation Determination Aggregate degradation is defined as the ratio of the total actual class score to the potential highest score (Ezeaku, 2011), calculated as follows: AD(%) = TAC/PHS×100 Where: AD (%) = percent aggregate degradation TAC = total actual class score PHS = potential highest score Higher aggregate degradation values inversely correlate with agricultural productivity potential (Ezeaku, 2011). Thus, greater aggregate degradation indicates lower agricultural suitability and productivity. Table 2 presents the aggregate degradation ratings and their corresponding suitability standards (Ezeaku, 2011). Table 1 Indicators and Criteria for land degradation assessment Criteria Degree of degradation 1 2 3 4 Soil bulk density (g cm − 3 ) < 1.5 1.5 − 2.5 2.5-5 < 5 Permeability (cm hr − 1 ) 20 Content of organic matter (g kg¯¹) > 2.5 2.0-2.5 1.0–2.0 0.13 0.13 − 0.10 0.18 − 0.08 0.16 0.16 − 0.14 0.14 − 0.12 < 0.12 Content of base saturation (%) \(\:10\) Content of phosphorus element (mg kg¯¹) >8 8 − 7 7 − 6 2.5 2.5-2 2 − 1.0 <1.0 Excess salts (Salinization) <2 2–3 3–5 <5 Content of ESP(increase by % CEC) \(\:\:\:\:<10\) 10–25 25–50 \(\:\:\:\:<50\) Source: FAO (1979) key: Class 1: None-slightly degraded, Class 2: moderately degraded, class 3 Highly degraded, class 4: very highly degraded Table 2 Degree/ class of degradation suitability and aggregate degradation ratings Degree of degradation class Degradation class Suitability class Potential agricultural productivity Aggregate degradation (%) Non-slightly degraded soil 1 S1 75–100 0–25 Moderately degraded soil 2 S2 50–75 25–30 Highly degraded 3 S3 25–50 50–75 Very highly degraded 4 N1 0–25 75–100 Source= Ezeaku, 2011 S1 = highly suitable, S2 = moderately suitable, S3 = marginally Suitable, N1 = currently not Suitable 3.0 Results 3.1 Main Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, Toposequence Unit and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas From the results of the Particle size distribution (PSD) in the study areas (Table 3 ), the soils in JoSTUM and Wurukum classify as loamy sand (LS), with JoSTUM showing higher sand (871.31 g kg⁻¹) and silt (68.36 g kg⁻¹) contents, while Wurukum has more clay (62.06 g kg⁻¹). Soil Bulk density (SBD) was significantly higher in JoSTUM (1.60 g cm⁻³) t han Wurukum (1.51 g cm⁻³), dry season sampling periods showed a significantly higher SBD than wet season periods as well as the maize cropping pattern (1.63 g cm⁻³). Total porosity inversely follows this trend, peaking at 55.80% in Wurukum. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) and moisture content show no major location or seasonal differences, though interactions reveal lows (0.01 cm s⁻¹) in JoSTUM maize plots and highs (0.07 cm s⁻¹) in Wurukum cowpea (Table 3 ). Soil pH was slightly acidic (5.98–6.01), with organic carbon higher in JoSTUM (0.68%) than Wurukum (0.47%) (Table 3 ). Total nitrogen remains very low across factors, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) varies little overall but peaks (8.32 cmol kg⁻¹) in JoSTUM maize plots. Interactions highlight higher pH (6.14) and moisture (13.6%) in Wurukum cowpea, with CEC lows (7.40 cmol kg⁻¹) in JoSTUM cowpea (Table 3 ). Table 3 Main Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, Toposequence Unit and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas Sand PSD Silt Clay Text. Class BD Poro. Ksat. Moist. Cont. pH OC OM Total N. Ap K Na CEC (gkg 1 ) (g cm − 3 ) (%) (Cms − ) (%) (%) (mgkg-) (Cmolkg- 1 ) Location JoSTUM 871.30 68.70 58.80 LS 1.60 47.99 0.03 10.55 5.98 0.61 0.96 0.05 7.26 0.25 0.22 7.88 Wurukum 866.31 27.80 62.06 LS 1.51 55.80 0.02 11.29 6.04 0.56 0.80 0.06 7.23 0.26 0.19 8.00 LSD 3.08 2.94 2.62 LS 0.05 2.20 NS NS 0.06 NS 0.16 NS NS NS NS NS Sampling periods June/July 867.98 66.12 60.92 LS 1.52 49.15 0.03 11.14 6.00 0.53 0.91 0.42 7.25 0.27 0.22 7.98 Dec/Jan 869.64 65.01 59.81 LS 1.59 54.70 0.02 10.69 5.85 0.64 0.85 0.06 7.21 0.24 0.23 7.91 LSD NS NS NS LS 0.05 2.20 NS NS 0.06 0.11 NS NS 0.01 0.02 NS NS Toposequence Summit 862.20 66.13 60.36 LS 1.48 51.88 0.04 10.92 6.01 0.59 0.78 0.05 7.24 0.26 0.21 7.92 Middle 868.81 63.84 60.77 LS 1.55 51.91 0.03 10.90 6.05 0.49 0.88 0.03 7.22 0.26 0.22 7.78 Toe 873.53 65.57 60.57 LS 1.51 51.65 0.03 10.82 5.99 0.58 0.58 0.05 7.19 0.26 0.23 7.48 LSD NS NS NS LS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Cropping system Cassava 867.70 66.22 60.33 LS 1.56 52.64 0.02 10.60 5.99 0.68 0.98 0.06 6.90 0.26 0.20 7.93 Cowpea 871.03 68.63 61.17 LS 1.46 51.62 0.04 11.88 6.01 0.47 0.87 0.05 7.30 0.25 0.19 7.75 Maize 867.70 61.85 59.58 LS 1.63 51.43 0.03 10.27 6.06 0.60 0.80 0.05 7.43 0.26 0.22 8.15 LSD NS NS NS 0.0593 NS NS 1.39 NS 0.14 NS 0.01 0.30 NS NS NS 3.2 Interaction Effects of Location and Sampling Depth, and Location and Cropping patterns, on Soil Properties Particle size distribution (PSD) showed no significant effects from sampling depth, location, or their interaction (Table 4 ). Soils across all locations and cropping systems were uniformly loamy sand (LS).Bulk density (SBD) exhibited no significant interaction between location and sampling depth. However, the location × cropping system interaction significantly increased SBD to 1.63 g cm⁻³ in maize plots at both sites. Total porosity was highest at 0–15 cm depth (57.04%) compared to other depths and cropping systems. The lowest porosity (45.81%) occurred at 15–30 cm in JoSTUM (Table 4 ). Soil pH varied significantly under location × cropping system interactions, highest values were 6.14 in cassava plots at Wurukum and 6.08 in cowpea and maize plots across systems. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was significantly higher in maize plots at JoSTUM (8.32 cmol kg⁻¹), with the lowest value in cowpea plots there (7.40 cmol kg⁻¹; Table 4 ). Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) showed location-specific extremes under cropping system interactions: lowest (0.01 cm s⁻¹) in maize plots at JoSTUM, and highest (0.07 cm s⁻¹) in cowpea plots at Wurukum (Table 4 ). No significant location × sampling depth interactions affected soil moisture content, pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable K, or CEC (Table 4 ). In contrast, location × cropping system interactions significantly elevated soil moisture content to 13.6% in cowpea plots at Wurukum. Table 4 Interaction Effects of Location and Sampling Depths, as well as Location and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas Sand PSD Silt Clay Text. Class BD Poro. Ksat. Moist. Cont. pH OC OM Total N. Ap K Na CEC (g kg − 1 ) (gcm − 3 ) (gcm − 3 ) (%) (Cms − 1 ) (%) (%) (mgkg − 1 ) (Cmol kg- 1 ) Location Sampling depth (cm) JoSTUM 0–15 872.98 70.58 55.33 LS 1.64 46.20 0.03 10.16 5.97 0.67 1.10 0.06 7.42 0.26 0.22 8.05 15–30 869.64 66.13 62.00 LS 1.55 49.78 0.01 10.94 5.90 0.56 0.83 0.05 7.23 0.25 0.23 8.03 Wurukum 0–15 866.31 61.71 60.89 LS 1.52 57.72 0.04 10.84 6.12 0.58 0.84 0.05 7.10 0.26 0.22 7.73 15–30 866.31 63.84 63.22 LS 1.49 53.89 0.02 11.73 6.00 0.54 0.76 0.05 7.22 0.26 0.22 7.97 LSD NS NS NS NS 3.11 NS NS 0.09 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Cropping patternsss JoSTUM Cassava 870.20 66.13 58.67 LS 1.63 49.20 0.04 9.80 5.83 0.89 0.24 0.05 7.14 0.29 0.23 7.93 Cowpea 873.53 71.13 57.00 LS 1.52 48.96 0.03 10.16 6.08 0.33 0.84 0.04 6.97 0.24 0.21 7.40 Maize 870.20 67.80 60.33 LS 1.63 45.81 0.01 11.68 6.04 0.62 0.81 0.04 7.66 0.23 0.23 8.32 Wurukum Cassava 865.20 66.30 62.00 LS 1.50 56.08 0.02 11.39 6.14 0.47 0.71 0.06 6.90 0.24 0.21 7.9 Cowpea 868.53 66.13 65.33 LS 1.39 54.29 0.07 13.60 5.91 0.62 0.90 0.06 7.63 0.26 0.23 8.09 Maize 865.20 55.90 58.83 LS 1.63 57.04 0.06 8.86 6.08 0.58 0.79 0.05 7.20 0.28 0.23 7.98 LSD NS NS NS 0.08 NS 0.01 1.97 0.10 NS 0.28 NS 0.43 0.03 NS 0.35 3.3 Interaction Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, and Toposequence on Soil Properties Locations and sampling periods showed no significant effects on particle size distribution (PSD) across study areas; all soils classified as loamy sand (LS) regardless of location or cropping pattern (Table 5 ). Similarly, the interaction of sampling periods and locations had no significant impact on soil bulk density (SBD). Location × toposequence interactions also yielded no significant SBD differences, with values averaging 1.59 g cm⁻³ in maize plots at both sites. Total porosity exhibited no significant differences at 0–15 cm or 15–30 cm depths across locations. Soil pH was significantly higher (6.08) in cowpea plots at JoSTUM compared to other toposequence units. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was notably higher in maize plots at JoSTUM (8.32 cmol kg⁻¹) and cowpea plots at Wurukum (8.09 cmol kg⁻¹) (Table 5 ). Saturated hydraulic conductivity showed no significant variation. Finally, location × sampling depth interactions had no significant effects on soil moisture content, soil pH, organic carbon, available phosphorus, or exchangeable K (Table 5 ). Table 5 Interaction Effects of Location and Sampling Periods, as well as Location and Topsequence Unit on Soil Properties in the Study Areas Sand PSD Silt Clay Text. Class BD Poro. Ksat. Moist. Cont. pH OC OM Total N. Ap K Na CEC (gcm − 3 ) (g cm − 3 ) (%) (Cms − 1 ) (%) (%) (Mgkg − 1 ) (Cmol kg- 1 ) Location Sampling period JoSTUM June/Jul 869.64 59.78 69.47 LS 1.52 42.49 0.03 11.00 6.15 0.55 0.95 0.04 7.20 0.26 0.21 7.87 Dec/Jan 866.31 62.06 62.78 LS 1.66 55.80 0.03 11.29 6.20 0.67 0.87 0.05 7.31 0.28 0.23 7.90 Wurukum June/Jul 872.98 57.56 67.24 LS 1.51 53.49 0.04 10.09 5.82 0.51 0.98 0.06 7.34 0.25 0.24 8.09 Dec/Jan 866.31 62.06 62.78 LS 1.50 55.80 0.03 11.29 5.89 0.61 0.73 0.05 7.11 0.24 0.21 7.91 LSD NS NS NS 0.07 3.11 NS NS NS NS NS 0.01 NS NS NS 0.02 Toposequence JoSTUM Summit 871.31 68.36 58.67 LS 1.59 47.99 0.03 10.55 5.98 0.61 0.96 0.05 7.26 0.25 0.23 7.88 Middle 871.31 68.36 58.67 LS 1.59 47.99 0.03 10.55 5.98 0.61 0.96 0.05 7.26 0.25 0.22 7.88 Toe 871.31 68.36 58.67 LS 1.59 47.99 0.03 10.55 5.98 0.61 0.96 0.05 7.26 0.25 0.23 7.88 Wurukum Summit 866.31 62.78 62.06 LS 1.51 55.80 0.03 11.29 6.04 0.56 0.80 0.05 7.23 0.26 0.22 7.90 Middle 866.31 62.78 62.06 LS 1.51 55.80 0.03 11.29 6.04 0.56 0.80 0.05 7.23 0.26 0.22 7.99 Toe 866.31 62.78 62.06 LS 1.51 55.80 0.03 11.29 6.04 0.56 0.80 0.05 7.23 0.25 0.22 8.01 LSD NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 3.4 Degree of Degradation in Soil Properties Soil bulk density exhibited moderate degradation (MD) across all toposequence units (upper slope, middle slope, toe slope) at both JoSTUM and Wurukum sites (Tables 6 and 7 ). Organic matter was very highly degraded (VHD) across all toposequence units, except at the upper slope in JoSTUM, where it was highly degraded (HD). Total nitrogen followed a similar pattern, showing VHD across all units. Exchangeable potassium (K) remained non- to slightly degraded across all toposequence units in both seasons. Available phosphorus was moderately to highly degraded across toposequence units during wet season sampling (Table 6 ). Aggregate class scores indicated moderate degradation overall. In the wet season (Table 6 ), scores were highest at the upper slope (36.60%), followed by middle slope (34.20%) and toe slope (29.30%). Dry season trends (Table 7 ) showed upper and middle slopes > toe slope at JoSTUM (34.70% and 30.60%, respectively), and upper slope > middle slope > toe slope at Wurukum (35.30%, 33.30%, and 31.40%, respectively). Table 6 Degree of degradation class scores of the two study areas based on topographic units June/July Location JoSTUM Wurukum US MS TS US MS TS Soil properties Bulk density 2 2 2 2 2 2 Organic matter 4 4 2 4 3 4 Total Nitrogen 4 4 4 3 4 4 Exchangeable K 1 1 1 1 1 1 Available phosphorus 3 2 2 3 3 1 % aggregate Score 36.60 34.20 29.30 34.20 34.20 31.70 Aggregate score of 0–25% = Non –slightly degraded, 25–50% = moderately degraded soil, 50–75% = Highly degraded soil, aggregate score of 75–100% = Very highly degraded US= upper slope, MS=middle slope and TS = toe slop Table 7 Degree of degradation class scores of the two study areas based on topographic units December/January Location JoSTUM WURUKUM US MS TS US MS TS Soil properties Bulk density 2 2 2 2 2 2 Organic matter 4 4 3 4 4 4 Total Nitrogen 4 4 4 4 4 4 Exchangeable K 1 1 1 1 1 1 Available phosphorus 2 2 2 3 2 1 % aggregate Score 34.7 34.7 30.6 35.3 33.3 31.4 Aggregate score of 0–25% = Non –slightly degraded, 25–50% = moderately degraded soil, 50–75% = Highly degraded soil, aggregate score of 75–100% = Very highly degraded US= upper slope, MS=middle slope and TS = toe slope 4.0 Discussion Particle size analysis reveals varying sand, silt, and clay proportions, with JoSTUM soils showing the highest contents of all three during the June/July sampling, consistent with loamy sand profiles in similar regions (Smith et al., 2018; Brown & Johnson, 2019; Davis et al., 2016 ). The dominant textural class across depths and locations is loamy sand (LS), typical of tropical soils with predominant sand but moderate silt and clay (Brady & Weil, 2017 ; Ogunwole et al., 2011 ; Hillel, 2004 ).High sand promotes coarse texture, reducing water-holding capacity and nutrient retention, while silt enhances retention and clay improves structure but risks compaction (Jones & Smith, 2020; Smith, 2017 ; Johnson & Brown, 2018 ). JoSTUM soils display higher bulk density, indicating compaction that hinders root penetration and infiltration (Anderson & Wilson, 2020 ; Smith & Davis, 2019 ; Arshad et al., 1996 ). In contrast, Wurukum soils exhibit higher porosity from larger pores, supporting better water absorption and drainage (Hillel, 2004 ). These patterns align with studies in tropical savanna regions. For instance, a 2023 study in Nigeria's Benue State found similar loamy sand textures with SBD > 1.5 g cm⁻³ in maize fields due to tillage (Oluwafemi et al., Soil & Tillage Research , 2023). Higher porosity in clay-richer soils like Wurukum matches observations in West African toposequences, where clay enhances structure (Bossa et al., Catena , 2022). Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) values suggest moderate to high permeability, aiding drainage but requiring careful irrigation management (Hillel, 2004 ; Rawls et al., 1982 ). Soil moisture aligns with sandy soil norms, influencing plant water uptake (Ogunwole et al., 2011 ; Hillel, 2004 ). Organic matter (OM) levels indicate moderate fertility, crucial for water retention, CEC, and nutrient cycling (Hillel, 2004 ; Ogunwole et al., 2011 ; Adaikwu et al., 2020 ). Variations in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and CEC reflect fertility differences, with slightly acidic pH modulating nutrient availability (Brady & Weil, 2017 ; Fageria & Baligar, 2008 ). Soil physical and chemical properties degrade variably across toposequence units, with degradation scores ranging from 1 (non-slightly degraded) to 4 (very highly degraded). Organic matter and total nitrogen exhibit the highest degradation scores (classes 3 and 4), limiting optimal crop performance due to their essential role in nutrient supply (Brady & Weil, 2017 ) and (Gatreselassie et.al., 2015 ). Upper slopes show the most severe degradation, likely from erosion-induced nutrient loss, aligning with findings that steeper terrains accelerate erosion while flatter landscapes mitigate it (Thiemann et al. 2015 ), (Gilroy, 2006 ) and (Diwediga et.al., 2015 ). Soil pH increases down the slope, possibly from rainfall leaching organic materials upslope, as reported in tropical contexts (Mokwunye, 1978 ; Amed, 2002). This gradient affects nutrient availability and microbial activity (Fageria & Baligar, 2008 ). Degradation assessments classify SBD as moderately degraded (MD), organic matter and total N as very highly degraded (VHD), worst on slopes and K as non-slightly degraded. Aggregate scores indicate moderate degradation, worsening upslope. This reflects nutrient depletion in cultivated toposequences, consistent with a 2024 meta-analysis in sub-Saharan Africa showing VHD organic matter in 70% of maize-dominated fields due to erosion and low inputs (Vanlauwe et al., Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems , 2024). Phosphorus degradation (moderate-high) echoes findings from Nigerian ferralsols, where P fixation limits availability (Ayeni et al., Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science , 2023). No significant location-depth or location-period effects on particle size distribution (PSD) or SBD, maintaining LS texture. Location-cropping interactions boost SBD and CEC in maize but improve porosity, pH, and Ksat in cowpea. Location-toposequence effects show stable porosity but variable CEC and pH, with no Ksat differences. These underscore cropping's role over topography or seasons in short-term changes, paralleling a 2022 Ghana study where legume intercrops (like cowpea) raised porosity by 10–15% via roots and residues (Fosu et al., Geoderma Regional , 2022). 5.0 Conclusion This study evaluated soil degradation across sampling periods, toposequence units, and cropping pattern at two locations. Both sites exhibited loamy sand (LS) textures, with soil pH ranging from slightly to moderately acidic regardless of location, season, or cropping pattern. Soils at JoSTUM showed greater degradation than those at Wurukum, with dry-season samples more degraded than wet-season ones. Degradation decreased downslope: summit > middle slope > toe slope. Among cropping systems, the order was cassava > maize > cowpea. 6.0 Recommendations for Soil Management To minimize erosion and mitigate degradation, prioritize upper-slope conservation tillage and contour planting. Also, incorporation organic matter (compost, well-decomposed manure) to increase porosity and reduce bulk density, particularly at JoSTUM is encouraged. Practice of Cropping diversification which favor cowpea-maize rotations over sole maize could enhance Ksat, moisture, and CEC; and improve soil structure In the loamy sand areas, establish ground cover and mulching to reduce erosion and conserve moisture. In Wurukum, monitor for potential crusting as clay content dominates. Establish a routine soil health monitoring plan (pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, CEC, PSD, SBD, and moisture) to detect trends and adjust management before degradation accelerates. Declarations Author contributions Conceptualization, K.O.E. and A.O.A.; Field data collection, K.O.E; methodology, K.O.E. and A.O.A. and P.I.A; software, A.O.A.; formal analysis, P.I.A.; resources, K.O.E. and A.O.A.; data curation, K.O.E. and P.I.A.; writing—original draft preparation, K.O.E. and A.O.A and P.I.A.; writing—review and editing, A.O.A and P.I.A..; visualization, A.O.A and P.I.A. and K.O.E.; supervision, A.O.A and P.I.A. Funding Declaration I declare that this research was NOT funded by any organization or agency Consent to participate and consent publish Not applicable Competing interest policy I declare that the authors have no competing interests as defined by Discover, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper. Dual publication The results/data/figures in this manuscript have not been published elsewhere, nor are they under consideration (from you or one of your Contributing Authors) by another publisher. All of the material is owned by the authors and/or no permissions are required. Clinical trial number: Clinical trial number: not applicable. Data Availability statement: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Ethical Statement: Not Applicable References Adaikwu, A. O., Obi, M. E., & Ali, A. (2012). Assessment of degradation status of soil in selected areas of Benue State Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, 22 (1), 168–177. Adaikwu, A. O., Salako, F. K., Busari, M. A., & Azeez, J. O. (2020). Restorative effect of amendments on artificially degraded soils in the Southern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, 30 (1), 124–132. Agber, P. I., Okoh, M. O., & Wuese, S. T. (2017). Assessment of the status of soil degradation in Otukpo area of Benue State, Nigeria and their management implication for crop production. Research in Agricultural and Veterinary Services, 1 (3), 204–210. Anderson, J. M., & Wilson, S. D. (2020). Bulk density and its implications for soil compaction. Soil and Tillage Research, 56 (3), 189–201. Arshad, M. A., Lowery, B., & Grossman, B. (1996). Assessing tillage impact on soil quality. In Methods of soil analysis: Part 3. Chemical methods (pp. 1–20). Soil Science Society of America. Black, C. A. (Ed.). (1965). Methods of soil analysis: Part 1 physical and mineralogical properties, including statistics of measurement and sampling . American Society of Agronomy. Bossa, A. Y., Diekkrüger, B., Igué, A. M., & Gaiser, T. (2022). Modelling the effect of catena position and hydrology on soil chemical weathering. Catena, 208 , Article 105731. Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2017). The nature and properties of soils (15th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. Bray, R. H., & Kurtz, L. T. (1945). Determination of total organic and available phosphorus in soils. Soil Science, 59 (1), 39–45. Chaberlin, J., & Emily, S. (2011). Ethiopian agric: A dynamic geographic perspective. Development Strategy Support and Governance Division, International Food Policy Research Institute, Ethiopia Strategy Support Program. Cresswell, H. P., & Hamilton, G. (2002). Particle size analysis. In N. J. McKenzie, H. P. Cresswell, & K. J. Coughlan (Eds.), Soil physical measurement and interpretation for land evaluation (pp. 224–239). CSIRO Publishing. Damene, S. (2012). Effectiveness of water as soil conservation measures for land restoration in the Wello area, Northern Ethiopia highlands [Doctoral dissertation, University of Bonn]. Davis, A. B., Johnson, M. R., & Smith, P. L. (2016). Clay content and its impact on soil structure. Environmental Geology, 51 (3), 189–201. Diwediga, B., Wala, K., Folega, F., Dourma, W., Woegan, Y. A., Akpagana, K., & Le, G. B. (2015). Biophysical and anthropogenic determinants of landscape pattern and degradation of plant communities in Mo Hilly Basin (Togo). Engineering , 85–132. Ezeaku, P. I., & Alaci, D. S. (2008). Soil degradation from erosion processes . Elixir Journal of Soil Science. https://www.elixirpublishers.com/articles/1672309218_202103001.pdf Ezeaku, P. I., & Eze, F. U. (2014). Effect of land use in relation to slope position on soil property variations in a semi-humid Nsukka area, Southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Research, 52 (3), 369–381. Fageria, N. K., & Baligar, V. C. (2008). Ameliorating soil acidity of tropical and subtropical regions. Journal of Plant Nutrition . FAO. (1984). FAO/UNESCO soil map of the world . Fosu, M., et al. (2022). Quantitative analysis of soil degradation in response to land use. Geoderma Regional . Gatreselassie, Y., Anemut, F., & Adclisu, S. (2015). The effect of land use types, management practices and slope classes on selected physic-chemical properties in Zikre watershed, Northwestern Ethiopia. Springer Open Journal of Environmental Systems Research, 4 , 1–7. Gilroy, A. M. (2006). Detecting change in soil erosion in 8 digit hydrologic units in Iowa: Correlation between level of soil erosion and active conservation practices from 1992-1997. Resource Analysis, 8 , 1–10. Haile, A., & Boke, K. (2011). On-farm verification of lime and NPK fertilizers effects on the tuber yield of Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) on some acidic soils of southern Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research . Hillel, D. (2004). Introduction to environmental soil physics . Elsevier Academic Press. Igwe, C. A. (1994). The applicability of SLEMSA and USLE erosion models on soils of southeastern Nigeria [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nigeria, Nsukka]. Igwe, C. A., & Mbagwu, J. S. C. (1994). Physical properties of soils of southeastern Nigeria and the role of some aggregating agents in their stability. Soil Science, 160 (6), 431–441. Johnson, K. D., & Brown, R. E. (2018). Effects of clay content on soil compaction. Journal of Soil Science, 73 (1), 42–53. Kogbe, C. A. (1981). Geology of Nigeria . Elizabethan Publishing Co. Lal, R. (2015). Restoring soil quality to mitigate soil degradation. Sustainability, 7 , 5875–5895. Lal, R., & Okigbo, B. N. (1990). Assessment of soil degradation in the southern state of Nigeria (Working Paper No. 39). Environmental Department, The World Bank. Mokwunye, A. U. (1978). Phosphorus status of some Nigerian soils. [Later works on soil fertility]. Offodile, M. E. (2014). The geology of the Lower Benue Valley. Bulletin of the Nigerian Mining, Geology and Metallurgical Society, 21 , 1–16. Ogunwole, O. A., Abu, O. A., & Adepoju, I. A. (2011). Performance and carcass characteristics of broiler finishers fed acidifier based diets. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10 (7), 631–636. Ojanuga, A. G. (2006). Agroclimatology and geography of Nigeria's agro-ecological zones. Agricultural Journal, 42 (1), 1–10. Oluwafemi, R. A., & et al. (2023). Soil properties and crop responses to alternative tillage practices. Soil & Tillage Research . Paix, M. J., Lanhai, L., Ahmed, S., & Varenyam, A. (2011). Soil degradation and altered flood risk as consequences of deforestation. https://doi.org/10.002/idr.1147 Rawls, W. J., Gish, T. J., & Brakensiek, D. L. (1982). Estimating soil water retention from soil physical properties and characteristics. Advances in Agronomy, 35 , 213–234. Senjobi, B. A. (2007). Parametric and conventional approaches for potential evaluation in three ecological zones of southern Nigeria. Moor Journal of Agricultural Research, 2 (2), 91–102. Smith, R. C., & Davis, A. B. (2019). Porosity and its role in soil water movement. Hydrological Processes, 42 (1), 67–79. Smith, T., & Johnson. (2017). Silt content and its influence on soil properties. Soil and Water Research, 21 (2), 110–122. Thiemann, S., Schutt, B., & Forch, G. (2015). Assessment of erosion and soil erosion processes - A case study for the Northern Ethiopia highland. In Tropic of integrated watershed management - Proceedings (Vol. 3, pp. 173–185). United Nations Environmental Programme. (1984). General assessment of the progress in the implementation of the plan of action to combat desertification (Governing Council 12th session). https://www.unep.org Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Adaikwu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABEUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBIaDDQi2DYTBQ6QWxoYEhjTitDDCtTAwHCashb89+eHBmW2HGfhnpD9/8HDH+cT+aQcYH7xtY8iTd8CuReLMM4ODG4FaJG7kGDYknrmdOON2ArPh3DaGYsMDOKy5kWBw8OE2oHtu5DA2JLbdTmy4ncAmzdvGkLixAbsO+RvpH8BagIyHQC3nEuffTmD/jU+LwY0coMOAWgxuJAAd1nYgcQPQFmaQlvk43GV45k3BwZn/0nmADMMZiW3JxhtvJzZLzjknkbgBhxa54+mbP/acsZYDMh58/NlmJzvvdvLBD2/KbBLn43AYDCBHBDieJBgMDuDXggXIE7BlFIyCUTAKRgwAAOWVbRFrmjocAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Soil Science, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"A.","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Adaikwu","suffix":""},{"id":596788336,"identity":"90974f20-7fac-42ec-9651-51139b7d5461","order_by":1,"name":"K. O. Ekpenyong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Soil Science, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"K.","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Ekpenyong","suffix":""},{"id":596788337,"identity":"530dd951-9a54-4107-895d-6a0186201168","order_by":2,"name":"P. I. Agber","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Soil Science, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"P.","middleName":"I.","lastName":"Agber","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-27 13:08:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104400818,"identity":"24d7bec0-99c9-4f7b-99db-c3d413fbf4d9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:11:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1874251,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8710745/v1/92fc5b1f-d59b-4bd5-bcf4-d064008792c5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of Soil Degradation Across Various Sampling Periods, Toposequence Units, and Cropping Patterns in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil degradation has been defined in various ways. Ezeaku and Alaci (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) describe soil degradation from erosion processes\u0026mdash;whether by wind or water\u0026mdash;as a reduction in the physical and chemical fertility of soil, ultimately limiting agricultural productivity. They note that increased population pressure on landscape stability leads to intensive soil use and forest clearing for agriculture, even in unsuitable areas such as steep slopes and marginal lands. For agriculturists in developing countries, the primary concern is meeting the future needs of a growing population. Intensive land use often compromises its suitability, resulting in land degradation that disrupts ecological balances, which in turn threatens soil productivity and food security (Senjobi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLal and Okigbo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) characterize soil degradation as a decline in soil quality due to misuse by humans, leading to the deterioration of the soil's life-support processes and a diminished capacity to produce food, feed, fiber, and fuel. This degradation reflects a decrease in the soil's current and potential ability to provide goods and services due to various degradative processes (UNEP, 1984). It can also be seen as a reduction in biological productivity or land utility for its intended purposes caused by human activities, which include soil degradation and changes in traditional landscapes and vegetation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Benue State, soils previously classified by Adaikwu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and Agber et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) as moderately to highly degraded and allowed to fallow for fertility recovery have become sources of conflict between farmers and herdsmen, resulting in loss of life and property worth millions of naira. In extreme cases, entire communities have been displaced, as seen in areas like Guma, Logo, Katsina-Ala, Makurdi, Kwande, Gwer West, Gwer East, Agatu, Apa, Ogbadibo, and Otukpo Local Government Areas. This situation has prompted state and federal governments to introduce regulations on herdsmen activities, such as open grazing prohibitions and various ranching methods. The recent RUGA settlement scheme has faced rejection from many states, viewed as a covert land grab for herdsmen. This illustrates the complexities and challenges associated with soil degradation and restoration efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe urgency for wise soil management to safeguard its potential for future generations has never been more critical in Nigeria. The extent and impact of soil degradation on agriculture and the broader environment are more severe now than ever, with many soils unable to sustain optimal crop production (Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Over the past 50 years, 20% of the world's agricultural land has been irreversibly damaged due to human-induced land degradation. If this trend continues, agriculture could lose 15\u0026ndash;30% of its current productivity. Poor land management practices, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, uncontrolled livestock grazing on fragile lands, and poorly planned settlements in landslide-prone areas, contribute to land degradation. Each year, significant amounts of valuable topsoil are eroded and washed away during heavy rains. The extent of soil erosion is directly proportional to slope steepness (Igwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariations in the physiographic units of agricultural lands significantly influence soil properties and crop production. Research has shown the implications of different land uses on soil properties and fertility, with studies in southeastern Nigeria indicating an increasing trend in soil pH, organic carbon, and exchangeable bases with decreasing slope (Ezeaku and Eze, 2004). Similar findings were reported in Wollo, Ethiopia (Daneme, 2012). Other studies have demonstrated that different land use types impact soil fertility and productivity (Gatreselassie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), revealing lower soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, and basic cations in cultivated lands compared to grazing or protected forest areas. This decline is attributed to continuous cultivation, lack of fallowing, and erosion. Poor maintenance of soil physicochemical health can lead to reduced aggregate stability, decreased soil organic matter, nutrient deficiencies, and stagnation of crop yields (Yengoh, 2012), exacerbating soil degradation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, soil quality is influenced by both biophysical settings and anthropogenic factors. While studies have addressed the effects of land use on soil properties along a toposequence (Ezeaku and Eze, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Chamberlin and Emily, 2011; Diwediga et al., 2005; Daneme, 2012; Timer and Abdulkadir, 2011), there is a lack of information regarding the degree of soil degradation influenced by location and sampling periods in physiographic units under cultivation. Soil degradation due to erosion remains a significant threat to sustainable agricultural production in the inland-upland continuum of the Makurdi subtropical area, highlighting the need for more comprehensive information to address and mitigate soil degradation issues in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research was conducted at two locations in Makurdi, Benue State: Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University Teaching and Research Farm, and a farmer\u0026rsquo;s field beside River Benue (Wurukum). These sites were chosen due to their similar arable cropping systems, including root crops, legumes, and cereals, which can lead to soil degradation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakurdi is situated in Nigeria's Southern Savanna agro-ecological zone, characterized by a hot tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season lasts from April to October, while the dry season runs from November to March. The mean annual rainfall is 1250 mm, primarily occurring between June and September, with approximately 210 rainy days each year, giving the soil moisture regime an ustic classification (Ojanuga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Temperatures are consistently high, peaking around March/April before the rains, and dropping to their lowest between December/January and July/August. The mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 29\u0026ndash;38\u0026deg;C, and the mean monthly minimum ranges from 15\u0026ndash;26\u0026deg;C (Ojanuga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Benue Valley is a long geological basin extending from the confluence of the Rivers Niger and Benue to northeastern Nigeria, divided into upper and lower Benue River Basins. The experimental sites in the lower Benue are located in the middle of this valley. The geology of Benue is categorized into basement complexes, Cretaceous sediments, Cretaceous intrusions/volcanic, and alluvium (Kogbe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Offodile, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Soil Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Soil Physical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe particle-size distribution was assessed using the Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Cresswell \u0026amp; Hamilton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The textural class was determined using Marwill\u0026rsquo;s Core Cree et al. (2002) textural triangle. Soil water content was measured via the gravimetric method (Obi, 2000), while soil dry bulk density was assessed using the core method (Obi, 2000). Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) was determined using the constant head method.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Soil Chemical Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH was measured in water and in a 1N KCl suspension at a 1:1 ratio using Beckman Zero metric pH meters. Total nitrogen was assessed using the macro-Kjeldahl method, and organic carbon was measured via the Black (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e) potassium dichromate wet oxidation method. Available phosphorus was determined using the Bray-1 method (Bray \u0026amp; Kurtz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1945\u003c/span\u003e). Exchangeable calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were measured through the EDTA titration method, while potassium (K) and sodium (Na) were analyzed using flame photometry (Black, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e). Exchangeable acidity was evaluated using a titration method, where soil samples were leached with 1N KCl five times, and exchangeable Al\u0026sup3;⁺ and H⁺ in the leachate were titrated with 0.1N NaOH in the presence of phenolphthalein.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Soil Degradation Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil degradation was classified according to the FAO (1979) approach. The degree of degradation was estimated using soil quality indicators. Soil degradation was assessed directly, matching soil characteristics with degradation indicators. A broad classification was used to evaluate the seriousness of degradation based on parameters such as soil bulk density, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Aggregate Degradation Determination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregate degradation is defined as the ratio of the total actual class score to the potential highest score (Ezeaku, 2011), calculated as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAD(%)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;TAC/PHS\u0026times;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAD (%) = percent aggregate degradation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTAC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total actual class score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePHS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;potential highest score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher aggregate degradation values inversely correlate with agricultural productivity potential (Ezeaku, 2011). Thus, greater aggregate degradation indicates lower agricultural suitability and productivity. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the aggregate degradation ratings and their corresponding suitability standards (Ezeaku, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicators and Criteria for land degradation assessment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of degradation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil bulk density (g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePermeability (cm hr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of organic matter (g kg\u0026macr;\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0-2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of nitrogen element (g kg\u0026macr;\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK content (cmol kg\u0026macr;\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of base saturation (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\u0026lt;2.5\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\u0026gt;10\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of phosphorus element (mg kg\u0026macr;\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of humus in soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5-2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcess salts (Salinization)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent of ESP(increase by % CEC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\:\\:\u0026lt;10\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\:\\:\u0026lt;50\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eSource: FAO (1979) key: Class 1: None-slightly degraded, Class 2: moderately degraded, class 3 Highly degraded, class 4: very highly degraded\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree/ class of degradation suitability and aggregate degradation ratings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of degradation class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegradation class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuitability class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential agricultural productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregate degradation (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-slightly degraded soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerately degraded soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighly degraded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery highly degraded\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u0026ndash;100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource= Ezeaku, 2011 S1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;highly suitable, S2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;moderately suitable, S3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;marginally Suitable, N1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;currently not Suitable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.1 Main Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, Toposequence Unit and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the results of the Particle size distribution (PSD) in the study areas (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the soils in JoSTUM and Wurukum classify as loamy sand (LS), with JoSTUM showing higher sand (871.31 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) and silt (68.36 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;) contents, while Wurukum has more clay (62.06 g kg⁻\u0026sup1;). Soil Bulk density (SBD) was significantly higher in JoSTUM (1.60 g cm⁻\u0026sup3;) \u003cb\u003et\u003c/b\u003ehan Wurukum (1.51 g cm⁻\u0026sup3;), dry season sampling periods showed a significantly higher SBD than wet season periods as well as the maize cropping pattern (1.63 g cm⁻\u0026sup3;). Total porosity inversely follows this trend, peaking at 55.80% in Wurukum. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) and moisture content show no major location or seasonal differences, though interactions reveal lows (0.01 cm s⁻\u0026sup1;) in JoSTUM maize plots and highs (0.07 cm s⁻\u0026sup1;) in Wurukum cowpea (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH was slightly acidic (5.98\u0026ndash;6.01), with organic carbon higher in JoSTUM (0.68%) than Wurukum (0.47%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Total nitrogen remains very low across factors, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) varies little overall but peaks (8.32 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;) in JoSTUM maize plots. Interactions highlight higher pH (6.14) and moisture (13.6%) in Wurukum cowpea, with CEC lows (7.40 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;) in JoSTUM cowpea (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, Toposequence Unit and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"17\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eText. Class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoro.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKsat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoist.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCont.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal N.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(gkg\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cms\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mgkg-)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cmolkg-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e871.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurukum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.94\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.62\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.06\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.16\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSampling periods\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune/July\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e867.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDec/Jan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e869.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.05\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.06\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.11\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.01\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.02\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eToposequence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e862.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e868.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e873.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCropping system\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e867.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCowpea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e871.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e867.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.0593\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.39\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.01\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.30\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Interaction Effects of Location and Sampling Depth, and Location and Cropping patterns, on Soil Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size distribution (PSD) showed no significant effects from sampling depth, location, or their interaction (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Soils across all locations and cropping systems were uniformly loamy sand (LS).Bulk density (SBD) exhibited no significant interaction between location and sampling depth. However, the location \u0026times; cropping system interaction significantly increased SBD to 1.63 g cm⁻\u0026sup3; in maize plots at both sites. Total porosity was highest at 0\u0026ndash;15 cm depth (57.04%) compared to other depths and cropping systems. The lowest porosity (45.81%) occurred at 15\u0026ndash;30 cm in JoSTUM (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil pH varied significantly under location \u0026times; cropping system interactions, highest values were 6.14 in cassava plots at Wurukum and 6.08 in cowpea and maize plots across systems. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was significantly higher in maize plots at JoSTUM (8.32 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;), with the lowest value in cowpea plots there (7.40 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) showed location-specific extremes under cropping system interactions: lowest (0.01 cm s⁻\u0026sup1;) in maize plots at JoSTUM, and highest (0.07 cm s⁻\u0026sup1;) in cowpea plots at Wurukum (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo significant location \u0026times; sampling depth interactions affected soil moisture content, pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable K, or CEC (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, location \u0026times; cropping system interactions significantly elevated soil moisture content to 13.6% in cowpea plots at Wurukum.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction Effects of Location and Sampling Depths, as well as Location and Cropping patterns on Soil Properties in the Study Areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"18\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eText. Class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoro.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKsat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoist.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCont.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(gcm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e )\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(gcm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cms\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mgkg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cmol kg-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling depth (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e872.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e869.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e 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\u003cp\u003e53.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e 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colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.09\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCropping patternsss\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e870.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCowpea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e873.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e870.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurukum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e865.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCowpea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e868.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e865.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.01\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.97\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.28\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.03\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.35\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Interaction Effects of Location, Sampling Periods, and Toposequence on Soil Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocations and sampling periods showed no significant effects on particle size distribution (PSD) across study areas; all soils classified as loamy sand (LS) regardless of location or cropping pattern (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the interaction of sampling periods and locations had no significant impact on soil bulk density (SBD). Location \u0026times; toposequence interactions also yielded no significant SBD differences, with values averaging 1.59 g cm⁻\u0026sup3; in maize plots at both sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal porosity exhibited no significant differences at 0\u0026ndash;15 cm or 15\u0026ndash;30 cm depths across locations. Soil pH was significantly higher (6.08) in cowpea plots at JoSTUM compared to other toposequence units. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was notably higher in maize plots at JoSTUM (8.32 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;) and cowpea plots at Wurukum (8.09 cmol kg⁻\u0026sup1;) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Saturated hydraulic conductivity showed no significant variation. Finally, location \u0026times; sampling depth interactions had no significant effects on soil moisture content, soil pH, organic carbon, available phosphorus, or exchangeable K (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInteraction Effects of Location and Sampling Periods, as well as Location and\u003c/b\u003e Topsequence Unit \u003cb\u003eon Soil Properties in the Study Areas\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"18\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eText. Class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoro.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKsat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoist.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCont.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(gcm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(g cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cms\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mgkg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cmol kg-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune/Jul\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e869.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDec/Jan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurukum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune/Jul\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e872.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDec/Jan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.07\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.11\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.01\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.02\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eToposequence\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e871.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e871.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e871.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurukum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Degree of Degradation in Soil Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil bulk density exhibited moderate degradation (MD) across all toposequence units (upper slope, middle slope, toe slope) at both JoSTUM and Wurukum sites (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter was very highly degraded (VHD) across all toposequence units, except at the upper slope in JoSTUM, where it was highly degraded (HD). Total nitrogen followed a similar pattern, showing VHD across all units.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExchangeable potassium (K) remained non- to slightly degraded across all toposequence units in both seasons. Available phosphorus was moderately to highly degraded across toposequence units during wet season sampling (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAggregate class scores indicated moderate degradation overall. In the wet season (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), scores were highest at the upper slope (36.60%), followed by middle slope (34.20%) and toe slope (29.30%). Dry season trends (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) showed upper and middle slopes\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;toe slope at JoSTUM (34.70% and 30.60%, respectively), and upper slope\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;middle slope\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;toe slope at Wurukum (35.30%, 33.30%, and 31.40%, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of degradation class scores of the two study areas based on topographic units\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune/July\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWurukum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil properties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Nitrogen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExchangeable K\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailable phosphorus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% aggregate Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eAggregate score of 0\u0026ndash;25% = Non \u0026ndash;slightly degraded, 25\u0026ndash;50% = moderately degraded soil, 50\u0026ndash;75% = Highly degraded soil, aggregate score of 75\u0026ndash;100% = Very highly degraded US= upper slope, MS=middle slope and TS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;toe slop\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegree of degradation class scores of the two study areas based on topographic units\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecember/January\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWURUKUM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil properties\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Nitrogen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExchangeable K\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailable phosphorus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% aggregate Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eAggregate score of 0\u0026ndash;25% = Non \u0026ndash;slightly degraded, 25\u0026ndash;50% = moderately degraded soil, 50\u0026ndash;75% = Highly degraded soil, aggregate score of 75\u0026ndash;100% = Very highly degraded US= upper slope, MS=middle slope and TS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;toe slope\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticle size analysis reveals varying sand, silt, and clay proportions, with JoSTUM soils showing the highest contents of all three during the June/July sampling, consistent with loamy sand profiles in similar regions (Smith et al., 2018; Brown \u0026amp; Johnson, 2019; Davis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The dominant textural class across depths and locations is loamy sand (LS), typical of tropical soils with predominant sand but moderate silt and clay (Brady \u0026amp; Weil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ogunwole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Hillel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).High sand promotes coarse texture, reducing water-holding capacity and nutrient retention, while silt enhances retention and clay improves structure but risks compaction (Jones \u0026amp; Smith, 2020; Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson \u0026amp; Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJoSTUM soils display higher bulk density, indicating compaction that hinders root penetration and infiltration (Anderson \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Smith \u0026amp; Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Arshad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, Wurukum soils exhibit higher porosity from larger pores, supporting better water absorption and drainage (Hillel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). These patterns align with studies in tropical savanna regions. For instance, a 2023 study in Nigeria's Benue State found similar loamy sand textures with SBD\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.5 g cm⁻\u0026sup3; in maize fields due to tillage (Oluwafemi et al., \u003cem\u003eSoil \u0026amp; Tillage Research\u003c/em\u003e, 2023). Higher porosity in clay-richer soils like Wurukum matches observations in West African toposequences, where clay enhances structure (Bossa et al., \u003cem\u003eCatena\u003c/em\u003e, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) values suggest moderate to high permeability, aiding drainage but requiring careful irrigation management (Hillel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Rawls et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Soil moisture aligns with sandy soil norms, influencing plant water uptake (Ogunwole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Hillel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter (OM) levels indicate moderate fertility, crucial for water retention, CEC, and nutrient cycling (Hillel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Ogunwole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Adaikwu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Variations in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and CEC reflect fertility differences, with slightly acidic pH modulating nutrient availability (Brady \u0026amp; Weil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Fageria \u0026amp; Baligar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil physical and chemical properties degrade variably across toposequence units, with degradation scores ranging from 1 (non-slightly degraded) to 4 (very highly degraded). Organic matter and total nitrogen exhibit the highest degradation scores (classes 3 and 4), limiting optimal crop performance due to their essential role in nutrient supply (Brady \u0026amp; Weil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and (Gatreselassie et.al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Upper slopes show the most severe degradation, likely from erosion-induced nutrient loss, aligning with findings that steeper terrains accelerate erosion while flatter landscapes mitigate it (Thiemann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), (Gilroy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) and (Diwediga et.al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Soil pH increases down the slope, possibly from rainfall leaching organic materials upslope, as reported in tropical contexts (Mokwunye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; Amed, 2002). This gradient affects nutrient availability and microbial activity (Fageria \u0026amp; Baligar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegradation assessments classify SBD as moderately degraded (MD), organic matter and total N as very highly degraded (VHD), worst on slopes and K as non-slightly degraded. Aggregate scores indicate moderate degradation, worsening upslope. This reflects nutrient depletion in cultivated toposequences, consistent with a 2024 meta-analysis in sub-Saharan Africa showing VHD organic matter in 70% of maize-dominated fields due to erosion and low inputs (Vanlauwe et al., \u003cem\u003eNutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems\u003c/em\u003e, 2024). Phosphorus degradation (moderate-high) echoes findings from Nigerian ferralsols, where P fixation limits availability (Ayeni et al., \u003cem\u003eArchives of Agronomy and Soil Science\u003c/em\u003e, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo significant location-depth or location-period effects on particle size distribution (PSD) or SBD, maintaining LS texture. Location-cropping interactions boost SBD and CEC in maize but improve porosity, pH, and Ksat in cowpea. Location-toposequence effects show stable porosity but variable CEC and pH, with no Ksat differences. These underscore cropping's role over topography or seasons in short-term changes, paralleling a 2022 Ghana study where legume intercrops (like cowpea) raised porosity by 10\u0026ndash;15% via roots and residues (Fosu et al., \u003cem\u003eGeoderma Regional\u003c/em\u003e, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated soil degradation across sampling periods, toposequence units, and cropping pattern at two locations. Both sites exhibited loamy sand (LS) textures, with soil pH ranging from slightly to moderately acidic regardless of location, season, or cropping pattern. Soils at JoSTUM showed greater degradation than those at Wurukum, with dry-season samples more degraded than wet-season ones. Degradation decreased downslope: summit \u0026gt; middle slope \u0026gt; toe slope. Among cropping systems, the order was cassava \u0026gt; maize \u0026gt; cowpea.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6.0 Recommendations for Soil Management","content":"\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTo minimize erosion and mitigate degradation, prioritize upper-slope conservation tillage and contour planting. Also, incorporation organic matter (compost, well-decomposed manure) to increase porosity and reduce bulk density, particularly at JoSTUM is encouraged.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePractice of Cropping diversification which favor cowpea-maize rotations over sole maize could enhance Ksat, moisture, and CEC; and improve soil structure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIn the loamy sand areas, establish ground cover and mulching to reduce erosion and conserve moisture. In Wurukum, monitor for potential crusting as clay content dominates.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEstablish a routine soil health monitoring plan (pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, CEC, PSD, SBD, and moisture) to detect trends and adjust management before degradation accelerates.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, K.O.E. and A.O.A.; Field data collection, K.O.E; \u0026nbsp;methodology, K.O.E. and A.O.A. and \u0026nbsp;P.I.A; software, A.O.A.; formal analysis, P.I.A.; resources, K.O.E. and A.O.A.; data curation, K.O.E. and P.I.A.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, K.O.E. and A.O.A and P.I.A.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, A.O.A and P.I.A..; visualization, A.O.A and P.I.A. and K.O.E.; supervision, A.O.A and P.I.A.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI declare that this research was NOT funded by any organization or agency\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate and consent publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interest policy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI declare that the authors have no competing interests as defined by Discover, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDual publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results/data/figures in this manuscript have not been published elsewhere, nor are they under consideration (from you or one of your Contributing Authors) by another publisher.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll of the material is owned by the authors and/or no permissions are required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: not applicable.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdaikwu, A. 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Estimating soil water retention from soil physical properties and characteristics. \u003cem\u003eAdvances in Agronomy, 35\u003c/em\u003e, 213\u0026ndash;234.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSenjobi, B. A. (2007). Parametric and conventional approaches for potential evaluation in three ecological zones of southern Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eMoor Journal of Agricultural Research, 2\u003c/em\u003e(2), 91\u0026ndash;102.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSmith, R. C., \u0026amp; Davis, A. B. (2019). Porosity and its role in soil water movement. \u003cem\u003eHydrological Processes, 42\u003c/em\u003e(1), 67\u0026ndash;79.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSmith, T., \u0026amp; Johnson. (2017). Silt content and its influence on soil properties. \u003cem\u003eSoil and Water Research, 21\u003c/em\u003e(2), 110\u0026ndash;122.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThiemann, S., Schutt, B., \u0026amp; Forch, G. (2015). Assessment of erosion and soil erosion processes - A case study for the Northern Ethiopia highland. In \u003cem\u003eTropic of integrated watershed management - Proceedings\u003c/em\u003e (Vol. 3, pp. 173\u0026ndash;185).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUnited Nations Environmental Programme. (1984). \u003cem\u003eGeneral assessment of the progress in the implementation of the plan of action to combat desertification\u003c/em\u003e (Governing Council 12th session). \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://www.unep.org\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Soil](https://link.springer.com/journal/44378)","snPcode":"44378","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44378/3","title":"Discover Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"soil degradation, toposequence, soil quality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was carried out to assess the degree of soil degradation at different sampling periods, toposequence units and different cropping pattern at JoSTUM and Wurukum in Makurdi, 2023. Soil samples were taken at 0\u0026ndash;15 and 15\u0026ndash;30 cm depths at the toposequence units under different crop types (maize, cassava and cowpea) and two seasons (June/July and December/January) for routine analysis. The experimental design was a 2x3x3 factorial experiment laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three times. Data analysis was done using Genstat Statistical software, significant means were separated using fisher\u0026rsquo;s least significant difference at 5% level of probability. Soil degradation assessment was done using standard indicators and criteria. Soils of the two locations were loamy sand in texture. Soil bulk density ranged from 1.46 to 1.63 gcm\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Total porosity ranged from 47.99 to 55.80% while Soil Moisture Content and Saturated hydraulic conductivity were not significantly different. Soil pH was slightly to moderately acidic, total nitrogen was low across the two locations, sampling periods and toposequence units. Cation exchange capacity did not differ significantly. The soils of JoSTUM were more degraded compared with the soils of Wurukum. Likewise dry season sampling indicated higher degradation than the wet season sampling. Degree of degradation with respect to toposequence units indicated upper slope greater than middle slope greater than toe slope. Whereas, for cropping system, the degradation order was, cassava\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;maize\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;cowpea. It is recommended that soil conservation practice should be intensified in these areas.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of Soil Degradation Across Various Sampling Periods, Toposequence Units, and Cropping Patterns in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-03 09:20:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8710745/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-15T04:50:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-17T20:56:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"121367504107465185687129005242030454082","date":"2026-04-09T11:08:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T09:16:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-14T11:47:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"283160736482994565409377490867123108526","date":"2026-03-02T03:11:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"299032355002340770153250890461545813197","date":"2026-02-25T08:49:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"160433397019659334655942875807268060966","date":"2026-02-25T08:22:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T21:51:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T06:19:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-17T05:16:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-16T14:05:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Soil","date":"2026-02-16T14:02:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-soil","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Soil](https://link.springer.com/journal/44378)","snPcode":"44378","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44378/3","title":"Discover Soil","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"106a74f8-3eb6-47a2-915c-65015225e972","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-15T04:50:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T04:54:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-03 09:20:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8710745","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8710745","identity":"rs-8710745","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}