Aqueous matrix and limiting factors in steel slag carbonation under elevated CO2 at ambient conditions

Aqueous matrix and limiting factors in steel slag carbonation under elevated CO2 at ambient conditions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Aqueous matrix and limiting factors in steel slag carbonation under elevated CO 2 at ambient conditions Reinaldy Poetra, Jens Hartmann, Mathilde Hagens, Ina Sophia Nipper, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7992829/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Alkaline industrial by-products have significant potential for permanent CO 2 sequestration, but their reaction kinetics and controlling factors are often overlooked. This study examined the direct aqueous carbonation of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag in a slurry setup with continuous mechanical mixing and CO 2 -enriched air bubbling in ultrapure water and natural seawater, at 25% pCO 2 under ambient temperature and 1 atm for 24 h. CO 2 sequestration into carbonate minerals was higher in the ultrapure water (105 ± 5 kg CO 2 t − 1 slag; 90% CO 2 capture efficiency) than in seawater (78 ± 4 kg CO 2 t − 1 slag; 70% CO 2 capture efficiency). Most of the rapid mineralisation potential of Ca-(hydr)oxides was realised within 4–12 h, after which the reaction rate slowed and the system approached equilibrium. The common linear extrapolation for estimating the full mineralisation potential can be misleading, as it neglects the multi-step dissolution process, starting with Ca-(hydr)oxide and followed by kinetically controlled reactions. Physical sciences/Chemistry Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences accelerated mineralisation alkaline waste valorisation pH-driven precipitation slag mineralogy calcium carbonate polymorph Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files PoetraCarbonationKASupplementary20251030.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 26 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 26 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 05 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 03 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 30 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7992829","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":551269588,"identity":"bb80a545-ed42-4870-8a23-b27d2caba121","order_by":0,"name":"Reinaldy Poetra","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA10lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5oMPPsDYCcRpYUs2nAGkeMBaiNPDYybNA9NClDXmsxsMpG132MjZSx9+9uDhDxsG/vZu/Bpl7hxIMM49k2bMw5dmbpCQkMYgcebsBrxaJCQSDiTnth1O7OFhMJNISDjMYCCRS0hLYsNhy7bD9T087N+AWv4ToyWZsZmx7XACDw8PyJYDRGiROcbM2HsmzbDnDE+ZREJaMg9hv0j3f//xc4eNPHsP+zbJHzZ2cvztvfi1MEgAMWMDgs+DXzk2LaNgFIyCUTAKMAAAgH1BS1zaTeMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Universität Hamburg","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reinaldy","middleName":"","lastName":"Poetra","suffix":""},{"id":551269589,"identity":"854498d7-0f55-4a08-81fd-911a359ae62c","order_by":1,"name":"Jens Hartmann","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universität Hamburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jens","middleName":"","lastName":"Hartmann","suffix":""},{"id":551269591,"identity":"a5a5970b-3983-4f90-a416-025bb5606209","order_by":2,"name":"Mathilde Hagens","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Wageningen University \u0026 Research","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mathilde","middleName":"","lastName":"Hagens","suffix":""},{"id":551269592,"identity":"3ce38335-68db-47b0-a3bd-ab41435ea54c","order_by":3,"name":"Ina Sophia Nipper","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universität Hamburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ina","middleName":"Sophia","lastName":"Nipper","suffix":""},{"id":551269593,"identity":"ff391c3c-0c33-4013-90f3-82d2dcb332b3","order_by":4,"name":"Lukas Rieder","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universität Hamburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lukas","middleName":"","lastName":"Rieder","suffix":""},{"id":551269595,"identity":"c9f0f365-ae89-4e3b-a774-dc6b48ca8b4a","order_by":5,"name":"Charly A. 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conditions\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-materials-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj Materials Sustainability](https://www.nature.com/npjmatsustain)","snPcode":"44296","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44296/3","title":"npj Materials Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"NPJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"accelerated mineralisation, alkaline waste valorisation, pH-driven precipitation, slag mineralogy, calcium carbonate polymorph","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7992829/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7992829/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAlkaline industrial by-products have significant potential for permanent CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e sequestration, but their reaction kinetics and controlling factors are often overlooked. This study examined the direct aqueous carbonation of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag in a slurry setup with continuous mechanical mixing and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-enriched air bubbling in ultrapure water and natural seawater, at 25% pCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e under ambient temperature and 1 atm for 24 h. CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e sequestration into carbonate minerals was higher in the ultrapure water (105\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e t\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e slag; 90% CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e capture efficiency) than in seawater (78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e t\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e slag; 70% CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e capture efficiency). Most of the rapid mineralisation potential of Ca-(hydr)oxides was realised within 4\u0026ndash;12 h, after which the reaction rate slowed and the system approached equilibrium. The common linear extrapolation for estimating the full mineralisation potential can be misleading, as it neglects the multi-step dissolution process, starting with Ca-(hydr)oxide and followed by kinetically controlled reactions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Aqueous matrix and limiting factors in steel slag carbonation under elevated CO2 at ambient conditions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-27 13:17:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7992829/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-26T16:52:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-16T08:25:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-16T08:23:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-26T14:55:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"157641199378682592900599493342914247768","date":"2025-11-26T12:01:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"213147889959729394720921009556294475548","date":"2025-11-24T23:21:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"58769025160848884351930195816757062903","date":"2025-11-20T03:52:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-19T17:00:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-05T07:51:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T04:47:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj Materials Sustainability","date":"2025-10-30T22:00:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-materials-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj Materials Sustainability](https://www.nature.com/npjmatsustain)","snPcode":"44296","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44296/3","title":"npj Materials Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"NPJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"48d54612-fbc7-49a7-af59-04d9387e5f7f","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":58717801,"name":"Physical sciences/Chemistry"},{"id":58717802,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T14:53:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-27 13:17:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7992829","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7992829","identity":"rs-7992829","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}