The Effect of Background Colors of Learning Materials on Memory:evidence from Chinese Characters

The Effect of Background Colors of Learning Materials on Memory:evidence from Chinese Characters | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Effect of Background Colors of Learning Materials on Memory:evidence from Chinese Characters PING CAI, Jun Wang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In teaching practice, color is a common and significant stimulus that can influence learners' cognitive load and learning outcomes through the mediating effects of attention and emotion. Given the challenges faced by CSL learners in mastering and memorizing Chinese characters, this study explores the impact of the background color of learning materials—one aspect of the physical learning environment—on the memory retention of Chinese characters among CSL learners. The study employs four background colors (white, red, blue, and green) and adopts a combination of E-Prime psychological experimentation, questionnaire surveys, and semi-structured interviews to examine the recall performance of 30 participants with similar working memory capacity and no particular color preference. The participants' ability to recall Chinese characters was assessed through written recall tasks under the four different background colors. The collected data were then analyzed using SPSS 26.0, with the p -values adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser method and multiple comparisons corrected using the Bonferroni method. The results indicate that the background color of the learning materials has a significant effect on the memorization of Chinese characters. Specifically, the red background was found to facilitate the completion of focused memory tasks and demonstrated a robust memory enhancement effect. In contrast, the blue background may be more suitable for creative tasks, as it exhibited a certain degree of memory suppression effect in focused memory tests. Moreover, the effects of white and green backgrounds on character recall were similar, falling between the effects observed for red and blue backgrounds. These findings partially validate the revised cognitive load model proposed by Choi et al. ( 2014 ) and highlight that color, as an independent factor, plays a crucial role in influencing learning outcomes. This study thus contributes to the theoretical understanding of background color and its implications for enhancing the efficacy of learning materials. Humanities/Language and linguistics Social science/Education Social science/Language and linguistics Social science/Psychology Background Color CSL Acquisition Intermediate-level International Students Chinese Character Memory Teaching Recommendations Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction In educational practice, learners are complex “polytopes.” In addition to learner characteristics and task attributes, the learning environment is also a crucial factor influencing cognitive load and learning outcomes. Jiang et al. (2013) pointed out that color is not only a prominent feature in the visual world but also a symbolic transmitter of meaning. In the physical learning environment, color is considered a relatively significant element. Both the color background theory (Elliot & Maier, 2012 ) and the cognitive load theory (Choi, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 2014) suggest that color can exert a substantial impact on individuals’ psychology, cognition, and learning. Previous research has directly explored the relationship between color in instructional design and learning outcomes. The results indicate that stimuli from the physical learning environment can impose a certain influence on learners’ working memory (Choi et al., 2014 ). Color can serve as a memory cue, making information encoded with specific colors easier to distinguish and thus reducing cognitive load (Skulmowski, 2022 ). Background color is a contextual cue that always remains within the learner’s visual field (Isarida & Isarida, 2007 ). The background color of learning materials can influence attention levels and trigger emotional arousal, thereby playing a role in enhancing memory performance (Chai et al., 2019 ; Llinares et al., 2021 ; Plass et al., 2013; Gao, 2009 ; Wong & Adesope, 2021 ; Alpizar et al., 2020 ; An & Li, 2012 ; Sun & Liu, 2016 ). In Chinese character learning, due to the vast number of characters, complex structures, and the lack of a systematic phonetic mechanism (Su, 2014 ), recognizing, remembering, and writing Chinese characters is considered the most challenging aspect for Chinese as a second language(CSL) learners (Liu, 2000 ). Thus, a question worth exploring is whether the background color of learning materials can be leveraged to facilitate the learning and memorization of Chinese characters. Currently, research on the impact of background color on Chinese character memory is mainly concentrated in the field of Chinese as a first language acquisition, with no specialized studies addressing this issue in the context of CSL acquisition. In the teaching environment for CSL, color, as a fundamental visual element, plays a vital role at various levels and stages of teaching. From textbook design to the layout of the learning environment, from the creation of multimedia presentations to the implementation of modern online teaching, the use of color is inevitable. Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and learning experiences between CSL learners and native speakers, their perception and understanding of color may differ, leading to conclusions that diverge from those derived from native speaker studies. Moreover, although research on the effects of color on memory and learning outcomes has accumulated certain results, the overall volume of research is still relatively limited, and the studies lack depth and systematicity. There remains controversy over which colors are most conducive to enhancing learning outcomes. Some researchers have found that cool tones are more favorable for academic performance. For example, Chellappa et al. ( 2011 ) argued that blue light can enhance individuals’ subjective awareness, contributing to better performance in attention-based tasks. On the other hand, red light may interfere with challenging cognitive tasks, resulting in lower scores on intelligence tests under red backgrounds compared to blue and green (Houtman & Notebaert, 2013 ). Other studies suggest that warm background colors, as opposed to cool colors, can improve learners’ performance and short-term memory (Hsieh et al., 2024 ; Jadhao et al., 2020 ; Sun & Liu, 2016 ). There are two main limitations in the existing research: First, when examining the effects of different colors on memory performance, the variable of working memory capacity of participants has not been controlled. Second, the chosen experimental materials, especially during word recognition tasks, did not consider the color knowledge embedded in the selected words, which may have influenced the accuracy of the results. Therefore, the generalizability and applicability of these research conclusions require further empirical studies for verification and refinement. Given the close relationship between background color and learning, it should be one of the key factors considered in instructional design. However, in teaching practice, not all educators can effectively use background colors to improve and enhance their teaching outcomes, and some even tend to overlook this factor, particularly in the field of CSL acquisition. This study employs the E-Prime psychological experimental method and questionnaire survey to conduct working memory capacity tests and color perception tests on 60 recruited intermediate-level CSL learners. From these, 30 participants with similar working memory capacities and no specific color preferences were selected to participate in the Chinese character memory-recall writing tests. This study aims to investigate the effect of background color in learning materials on Chinese character memory among CSL learners. Theoretically, it enriches and refines the color background theory and further tests the revised model of cognitive load structure. Practically, the experimental results can help optimize the use of colors in Chinese character teaching, thus contributing to improving the teaching effectiveness in international Chinese language classrooms to a certain extent. Literature Review Color can serve as an “implicit emotional cue” that subtly and unconsciously influences an individual's psychological functioning (Friedman & Forster, 2010). Elliot & Maier ( 2012 , 2014 ) proposed the Color-in-Context Theory, which posits that colors convey and transmit distinct meanings. These meanings are contextually dependent, which endows colors with corresponding psychological functions that can significantly influence people’s emotions, cognition, and behavior. Choi, Van Merrienboer, and Paas (2014) further developed a revised model of cognitive load structure, which emphasizes that the physical learning environment—defined as the complete set of physical attributes in which teaching and learning take place, including the physical characteristics of learning materials or tools, such as color—is a crucial factor influencing cognitive load and learning outcomes. The inclusion of the physical learning environment variables in the new model has significantly expanded the cognitive load theory, though more empirical studies are needed to validate this extension. Current academic research has conducted a series of studies on whether color influences learners' memory and learning outcomes, reaching a relatively consistent conclusion: color can affect learning and memory performance by modulating attention levels and inducing emotional arousal (Dzulkifli & Mustafar, 2013 ). Color Influences Individual Cognition and Memory Through Emotional Arousal Neurological and physiological studies support the role of emotional arousal in driving memory performance (Buchanan et al., 2006 ; Cahill et al., 1996 ). Positive emotions can enhance learners' motivation levels, lower the perceived difficulty of tasks, strengthen subjective confidence in emotional experience recall, increase psychological effort and satisfaction, and consequently improve memory performance (Um et al., 2011). In contrast, negative emotions yield the opposite effects. Relevant studies consistently suggest that color can trigger and arouse different positive or negative emotions. Some studies argue that warm colors generally elicit positive emotions, while cool colors induce neutral or slightly negative psychological responses. Long-wavelength colors, such as red and yellow, are typically perceived as “warm colors” that bring feelings of enthusiasm and warmth to individuals, whereas short-wavelength colors, such as blue and green, are considered “cool colors” that evoke a sense of tranquility and calmness (Nakashian, 1964). In terms of emotional arousal, most behavioral and EEG experiments have found that long-wavelength colors (e.g., red, yellow) elicit higher arousal levels compared to short-wavelength colors (e.g., blue, green), with red being more likely to induce high-arousal emotions than blue (Gerard, 1958 ; Jacob & Hustmyer, 1974; Wilson, 1966 ). Wolfson & Case ( 2000 ) indicated that warm colors are more likely to evoke pleasure and excitement in individuals compared to cool colors. Clarke & Costall ( 2008 ) found that cool colors (e.g., green, blue, and purple) are associated with emotions such as comfort, relaxation, calmness, and harmony, and can reduce levels of stress and anxiety. In contrast, warm colors (e.g., red, yellow, and orange) are more stimulating and can evoke more intense emotional responses. Hsieh et al. ( 2024 ) examined whether background color (warm or cool) affects consumers’ memory and reactions. The results showed that warm color backgrounds elicited higher levels of emotional arousal and stronger memory performance compared to cool color backgrounds. However, some studies have reached the opposite conclusion, suggesting that warm colors (e.g., red and yellow) tend to induce anxiety and tension, while cool colors (e.g., green and blue) make people feel more relaxed and stimulate positive emotions (Moller, Elliot, & Maier, 2009 ; Frühholz, Fehr, & Herrmann, 2009 ; Gerend & Tricia, 2009; Camgoz, Yener, & Guvenc, 2002). Using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Spielberger et al. ( 1970 ) measured people’s perceptions of red, yellow, blue, and green, and found that red and yellow were associated with greater anxiety, whereas blue and green elicited more relaxed feelings. Aslam ( 2006 ) explored the relationship between color and psychological emotions, finding that red often conveys psychological meanings such as power, aggression, and anger. Cross-cultural comparisons revealed a consistent pattern of associations across different regions and cultures, indicating that red appears to possess symbolic meanings of aggression and dominance. Red is also often linked to warning signals and error messages, which can activate avoidance motivation, making people more vigilant and risk-averse (Greene et al., 1983 ). Gerend & Tricia (2009) found that red was associated with negative emotions, thereby influencing persuasive outcomes. Kamaruzzaman & Zawawi ( 2010 ) concluded that blue had the strongest arousal effect and received the highest ratings in an operational environment. Color Influences Individual Cognition and Memory Through Attention Stimulation There is a close relationship between attention and memory, and this reciprocal influence has long been a focus of researchers’ investigations. The allocation of attention and the utilization of attentional resources have a significant impact on memory performance. When a stimulus captures more attention, it is more likely to be remembered effectively. Concentrated attention not only enhances recall accuracy but also shortens response time. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have shown that color can improve the connectivity of neural networks, enhance the efficiency of brain information processing, and increase attention arousal (Chai et al., 2019 ), thereby allowing color-coded objects to be prioritized in processing (Lee et al., 2018 ) and increasing the likelihood that environmental stimuli are successfully encoded, stored, and retrieved (Wichmann et al., 2002 ). However, there is ongoing debate over whether warm or cool tones are more conducive to maintaining and focusing attention. Wexner ( 1954 ) argued that warm colors are more stimulating and lead to faster reaction times, whereas cool colors are more relaxing and calming, which are beneficial for maintaining and focusing attention during learning processes. Llinares et al. ( 2021 ) also found that, compared to warm colors, cool colors can enhance arousal levels, having a more positive effect on attention and memory processes. In contrast, Greene et al. ( 1983 ) suggested that color choices can have varying degrees of impact on attention performance. Overall, warm colors (e.g., yellow, red, and orange) have a greater influence on attention compared to cool colors (e.g., brown, gray, etc.). Jadhao et al. ( 2020 ) discovered that, compared to white or blue, a red background color has a more positive impact on sustained attention and short-term memory. From the above, it can be concluded that color affects cognition and memory through emotional arousal and attention stimulation, suggesting that color factors play a role in enhancing memory performance. However, there are still unresolved issues regarding what types of emotions are elicited by warm and cool tones, which tone is more beneficial for maintaining and focusing attention, and which color is more effective in improving memory performance. These issues require further empirical research to provide conclusive answers. Research on the Impact of Color on Memory and Learning in Education In educational practice, color, as a common and significant visual stimulus, plays a crucial role across various levels and aspects of teaching. First, as the carrier of teaching content, the selection and use of colors in textbooks can have a significant impact on stimulating students' interest in learning and desire for reading. Second, the arrangement of the teaching environment is another context where color plays an important role. The color schemes in classrooms, wall decorations, and the color combinations of teaching tools all subtly influence students' psychological states and the learning atmosphere. Third, the use of colors is particularly critical in the production of multimedia courseware. Variations in color contrast, gradients, and saturation can highlight key teaching points, guide students' visual focus and attention, and make the courseware content more clear and understandable. Especially in the current digital era where online education is prevalent, the role of color is even more prominent. The interface design of online courses, the visual presentation of video lectures, and the color schemes of online learning platforms all require the effective utilization of color elements to enhance students’ learning experience and outcomes. Given that color can significantly affect individual cognition and memory, and that it is an indispensable factor in educational practice, some researchers have begun to explore the effects of color usage in teaching on learners’ learning and memory performance. For printed learning materials, color can influence learning outcomes. In reading and writing activities, green writing paper is more conducive to maintaining attention and alleviating visual fatigue compared to white paper (Lu et al., 2003 ). Color illustrations offer advantages in text reading; compared to text without illustrations, they require fewer fixation points and shorter saccadic movements (Cheng & Yang, 2006 ). Red backgrounds have shown unique advantages in promoting the resolution of memory test questions, while blue backgrounds positively facilitate the solution of creative problems (Sun & Liu, 2016 ), which is consistent with the findings of Elliot et al. (2013). Plass et al. (2013) found that using warm tones in learning materials can create a positive and motivating learning environment. This not only helps learners increase their interest and confidence in the learning content but also promotes greater interaction with the learning materials. For digital learning materials, both background color and font color can influence learning outcomes. Due to their visual appeal, interactivity, and flexibility, multimedia courseware and other learning resources are widely used in teaching. Under this context, multimedia learning materials often include a large number of images, text, and other elements. Researchers have paid attention to the question of how to use color combinations to organize and present these diverse forms of information to achieve better learning outcomes. Zhang et al. ( 2008 ) focused on the issue of text-background color combinations in multimedia instructional courseware and found that high-contrast or different hue combinations facilitate text recognition and memory. This result is consistent with the findings of Du et al. ( 2013 ) in a vocabulary judgment task. Using bright colors to highlight important parts of the learning content can draw students’ attention to these highlighted sections, leading to selective processing, which enhances learning outcomes (Gao, 2009 ). An and Li ( 2012 ) conducted a study from the perspective of color psychology, using eye-tracking methods to record the reading behavior of 15 college students under different PPT background colors. They found that white is the most suitable background color for PPTs, as it easily helps individuals concentrate and is less likely to cause fatigue, followed by yellow, while blue is the least suitable as a background color. It is worth noting that existing research has found that the consistency between the color of visual input and the color knowledge of objects in memory can have a significant impact on the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory. Color can be categorized into surface color and color knowledge. Surface color refers to the color of an object perceived during the perceptual process (e.g., the red color of a strawberry), while color knowledge refers to the typical color information of an object (e.g., a strawberry is typically red), which is acquired through long-term life experiences and stored in long-term memory in the form of semantic or visual representations (Zhou et al., 2021 ). For certain characters that inherently contain color knowledge, when the background color they are presented on is consistent with this color knowledge, it can facilitate perceptual discrimination and semantic representation. For example, the character “血” (blood) carries the color knowledge of “red.” When we see the character “血,” it is easy to associate it with the color red. Therefore, when selecting experimental characters, it is crucial to consider the potential interference or facilitation effects that the color knowledge inherent in Chinese characters might have on the experimental results. However, most existing studies have not taken this consideration into account when choosing experimental materials, which may impact research outcomes to some extent. Some studies have pointed out that individual differences in working memory capacity can influence the effectiveness of memory tasks. Generally, individuals with high working memory capacity perform better in attention control (Kane & Engle, 2003 ), are able to maintain information more effectively, and can retrieve information from long-term memory more efficiently when needed, resulting in superior performance in memory tasks (Unsworth & Engle, 2007 ). Existing research on the effects of color on learning and memory has not considered the influence of participants’ working memory capacity on research outcomes, which is an aspect that future research needs to address. Overall, the appropriate use of background colors in learning materials can effectively enhance learning outcomes. However, due to differences in the choice of research participants, colors, and task types, it remains unclear which specific colors are more beneficial for learning and memory. Additionally, current research has not adequately considered the impact of participants’ working memory capacity and the inherent color knowledge of the selected research materials on experimental results. Therefore, this field still presents significant research potential and value. Meusel et al. ( 2024 ) pointed out in their article that future studies should investigate whether different background colors have varying effects on memory and learning performance, especially whether background colors can serve as reliable retrieval cues across different cultures. This conclusion is enlightening for Chinese character teaching targeting CSL learners. The present study argues that further research on this issue in the context of CSL acquisition is necessary. Research Question This study selected four representative colors: white, red, blue, and green. First, in the exploration of color science, red, blue, and green are considered fundamental colors, as they cannot be mixed from other colors (Lin, 2011 ). Moreover, the human visual system is particularly sensitive to these three colors. Red, with its longest wavelength in the visible spectrum, serves as a prominent representative of warm tones, while blue, characterized by its unique calmness, stands out as a typical cool tone. A substantial amount of research has been conducted on the effects of color on cognition and behavior, yet the results have shown considerable divergence. Among these studies, the effects of red and blue on emotions, attention, and learning outcomes are the most extensively explored and highly debated topics (Wang et al., 2014 ). Therefore, red and blue were selected as the focal points of this research, as they demonstrate strong representativeness when investigating the influence of warm and cool tones on learning and memory. Secondly, numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effects of green and its related elements on learning and memory. Under the same lighting conditions, compared to other colors, green light (wavelength: 540-570nm) results in the highest luminous flux received by the human eye. In other words, when observing objects with the same level of clarity, green causes the least energy consumption of visual cells, making it the least likely to cause fatigue (Lu et al., 2003 ). As a cool color, green is sometimes argued to be detrimental to memory, leading to controversy. Thus, we included green in our study to further examine whether green, as a cool tone, can enhance learning and memory performance. Finally, white has a significant impact on human well-being (Fehrman & Fehrman, 2004 ; Kamaruzzaman & Zawawi, 2010 ; Kuller et al., 2009; Kwallek, 1996 ; Kwallek et al., 1990; Kwallek et al., 1996 ). As a commonly used color in educational settings, white is familiar to learners, and selecting white facilitates comparative analysis of research results with red, green, and blue. Key Research Question What are the differences in the effects of background colors of learning materials (white, red, blue, and green) on Chinese character memory performance among CSL learners? Methods Research Design This study employed a single-factor within-subjects experimental design, using background color as the independent variable. The background color variable had four levels: white, red, blue, and green. The dependent variable was the participants' performance in recalling Chinese characters within a fixed time frame. Participants A total of 60 intermediate-level CSL learners (non-Chinese ethnicities) were recruited for the experiment. The participants came from non-Chinese-character cultural backgrounds, including countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Colombia, Spain, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Belgium, and Pakistan. The average age of the participants was 26, with an average of 4 years of Chinese language learning experience. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision, were right-handed, and had no color blindness or color vision deficiency. Intermediate-level CSL learners were selected as the target research group to facilitate the smooth implementation of the experimental tasks and to enhance the representativeness of the results. Initially, a questionnaire was used to survey participants' color perception, and five participants with strong color preferences were excluded from the study. Previous research has indicated that individual differences in working memory capacity can significantly affect the outcomes of memory tasks. Generally, individuals with higher working memory capacity perform better in attention control, are more capable of maintaining information, and can retrieve information from long-term memory more effectively when needed, resulting in better performance in memory tasks (Kane & Engle, 2003; Unsworth & Engle, 2007). To ensure consistency in working memory capacity among the participants involved in the Chinese character cognition task and to eliminate confounding effects on the experimental results, we administered a working memory capacity test to the remaining 55 participants. Preliminary statistics showed an average working memory capacity score of 75, with a standard deviation of 10. We selected participants whose scores fell within the range of ±1 standard deviation from the mean (i.e., scores between 65 and 85) as the candidate pool. Within this range, 32 participants were identified, and a final group of 30 participants with similar working memory capacities was randomly selected for the subsequent Chinese character cognition task. Instruments and Materials The experiment was conducted indoors under adequate fluorescent lighting conditions. A 14-inch ThinkPad monitor was used, with a refresh rate of 60 Hz and a resolution of 756×1024. The RGB color settings were as follows: white (R=255, G=255, B=255), red (R=255, G=0, B=0), blue (R=0, G=0, B=255), and green (R=0, G=255, B=0). E-Prime 3.0 software was used to present the test items and control the timing. To control the influence of text color and its interaction effect with background color, the text displayed on the white, red, and green backgrounds in this study was presented in neutral black (RGB values all set to 0). However, because black text is difficult to read against a blue background, white text (R= 255, G= 255, B= 255) was used for the blue background condition. Additionally, the amount of text presented on all background colors was minimal, occupying a small area, and the presentation speed was fast. The working memory capacity test utilized the 3-back task materials designed by Gong & Zhang (2013), which included 15 different Chinese characters and graphics. The Chinese character cognition task followed the experimental paradigm of Sun & Liu (2016). The Chinese characters were selected from Level 6 of the International Chinese Proficiency Grading Standards (2021) and were not previously learned by the participants. A total of 80 Chinese characters were used as stimuli in the formal experiment, with 20 characters presented in each of the four background colors, covering the pronunciation, shape, and meaning of each character. Characters that inherently carry color knowledge, such as “墨” (ink), which is easily associated with black and could interact with the background color, were excluded to avoid confounding effects. The selected experimental characters had similar stroke counts and frequency of use, and as many different structural types of Chinese characters as possible were included. Research Procedures Before the experiment began, the experimenter explained the basic procedure and instructions to the participants. After the participants understood the guidelines and experimental process, they started the computer and entered the experiment. Working Memory Capacity Test：First, participants’ working memory capacity was tested. The procedure was as follows: the first Chinese character or shape was presented, followed by the presentation of the second and third characters or shapes. When the fourth character or shape appeared, participants were required to judge whether it was the same as the first character or shape and make a key response. After responding, the fifth character or shape was presented, and participants were to determine if it was the same as the second character or shape, and respond accordingly. This process continued in the same manner. If the character or shape was the same, participants pressed the “J” key; if it was different, they pressed the “F” key. After each key press, a 500 ms blank screen appeared, followed by the next character or shape. Each character or shape was displayed for 500 ms. After practicing, participants proceeded to the formal test, completing the word task first, followed by the shape task. They were instructed to respond as quickly as possible while maintaining accuracy. The task procedure is shown in Figure 1. Chinese Character Memory Test：After the working memory capacity test, a one-day interval was provided before conducting the Chinese character memory test. The presentation procedure for the Chinese character memory test was as follows: first, a “+” sign appeared in the center of the computer screen for 1 second to indicate the start of the test, with the background color set to white, red, blue, or green in sequence. Then, 20 target characters were randomly presented on the same background, one by one, at a pace of 5 seconds per character. After the presentation, a 2-minute break was given. During the break, participants were asked to recall the characters they had just seen and write them down on the answer sheet as quickly as possible within 90 seconds while maintaining accuracy. The system simultaneously started timing. Each correctly recalled character was awarded 1 point. To avoid fatigue effects, there was a standardized 1-hour interval between tests with different background colors. After completing all the tests, participants received a small gift as compensation. The task procedure is illustrated in Figure 2a，2b，2c，2d. Data Analysis Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 software, with repeated measures ANOVA used to explore the relationships among the data. The Greenhouse-Geisser correction method was applied to adjust p -values, and the Bonferroni method was used for multiple comparisons to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. Research Results After the completion of the experiment, all collected Chinese character recall answer sheets were independently scored and coded by two trained raters according to pre-established scoring criteria. The scoring process strictly adhered to the principles of double-blind review to minimize subjective bias and ensure objectivity and consistency in scoring. The scoring criteria are as follows： 1）Correctly Recalled Chinese Characters: The recalled characters match the target characters exactly, including the shape, structure, and layout of the characters. Each correctly recalled character is awarded 1 point. 2）Incomplete or Erroneous Chinese Characters: Characters with missing strokes, incorrect characters (e.g., visually or phonetically similar characters), or obvious structural errors are not awarded points. 3）Other Cases: Illegible or unrecognizable writing is not scored and is recorded under the category of "Not Recalled" (NR). The maximum score under each background color condition is 20 points (corresponding to the 20 target characters presented during the experiment). All scoring results were entered into Excel by a designated data entry specialist. The memory scores of each participant under the different background color conditions were sequentially recorded in the table, resulting in an original dataset that includes participant ID, background color conditions (white, red, blue, green), and the corresponding recall scores for the Chinese characters. Based on the analysis of the recall and writing performance of Chinese characters under four different background colors (white, red, blue, green) by CSL learners, descriptive statistics were conducted, as shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. The mean (M) represents the arithmetic average of all scores, reflecting the overall performance of participants in terms of Chinese character memory under each background color condition. The highest M was observed under the red background condition, with a value of 12.37, indicating that the recall effect of Chinese characters was significantly better than that of other background colors under this condition. The lowest M was found under the blue background condition, with a value of 7.13, suggesting that the recall effect was relatively poor under this condition. The M values under the white and green backgrounds were between those of the red and blue backgrounds, being 9.63 and 9.43, respectively, indicating that the effects of these two background colors on Chinese character memory were similar. The standard deviation (SD) was used to assess the consistency of participants' memory performance under different background conditions. In this experiment, the SD for the red background was 1.30, indicating that although the average score was high, the participants' performance under this background was relatively consistent. In contrast, the SD for the blue background was 0.82, showing that the performance of participants under this condition was more concentrated, suggesting that this background color had a relatively stable impact on memory performance. The standard error (SE) provided an evaluation of the reliability of the sample mean. In this experiment, the SE for the red background was 0.24, indicating that the sample mean under this condition was an accurate estimate of the population mean, demonstrating the reliability of the result that memory performance was the best under the red background. The SE for the blue background was 0.15, also indicating that the sample mean under this condition had high reliability. The 95% confidence interval (95% CI) calculated in this study provided important statistical support for the sample mean. The 95% CI for the red background was [11.90, 12.83], indicating that this condition significantly promoted Chinese character memory. In contrast, the 95% CI for the blue background was [6.84, 7.43], reflecting that the memory effect was relatively low but still statistically credible. The 95% CIs for the white and green backgrounds were [9.26, 10.00] and [8.96, 9.91], respectively, showing that the effects of these two conditions on memory were similar, both having a certain degree of statistical support. To further investigate the impact of different background colors (white, red, blue, green) on Chinese character memory performance among CSL learners, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted. The analysis results indicated a significant effect of background color on Chinese character memory performance, F (3, 87) = 62.68, p < 0.001, with a large effect size, η² = 0.347. This suggests that background color is an important factor influencing Chinese character memory performance. To identify the specific background colors that showed significant differences, post hoc comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments were performed to examine the mean differences between groups. Specific comparisons included red background vs. blue, white, and green backgrounds, as well as blue background vs. white and green backgrounds. The results showed that Chinese character memory performance under the red background was significantly higher than that under the blue (M difference = 5.24, p < 0.001), white (M difference = 2.74, p < 0.001), and green backgrounds (M difference = 2.94, p < 0.001). This indicates that the red background had a significant positive effect on improving Chinese character memory performance. Conversely, the memory performance under the blue background was significantly lower than that under the white (M difference = -2.50, p < 0.001) and green backgrounds (M difference = -2.30, p < 0.001). This implies that the blue background might have a negative impact on Chinese character memory. Moreover, the difference in memory performance between the white and green backgrounds was relatively small (M difference = 0.20, p > 0.05) and did not reach a significant level. This suggests that the participants' memory performance under these two background colors was similar, indicating that white and green backgrounds may have a neutral effect on Chinese character memory and are relatively weaker in effect compared to other colors. In summary, the results of this study demonstrate that the red background outperforms other colors (blue, white, green) in promoting Chinese character memory. The red background shows a significant advantage in enhancing memory performance, while the blue background may have a suppressive effect on memory. The influence of white and green backgrounds is relatively weak, and no significant difference was found between them. Discussion Memory Enhancement Effect of the Red Background This study found that the background color of learning materials had a significant impact on Chinese character memory ( p < 0.001). Participants achieved the highest memory scores under the red background condition (M = 12.37, SD = 1.30) and the lowest scores under the blue background condition (M = 7.13, SD = 0.82), while no significant difference was observed between the white and green background conditions (M = 9.63, SD = 1.03; M = 9.43, SD = 1.33), both of which were at a moderate level. The results indicate that the red background is more conducive to solving memory test tasks, exhibiting a certain memory enhancement effect. This may be related to the following factors: First, the stimulating characteristics of red are more likely to elicit positive emotions. As a warm color, red represents vitality, enthusiasm, and health, making it more stimulating and more capable of evoking pleasure and excitement compared to cool tones (Wolfson & Case, 2000 ; Clarke & Costall, 2008 ; Plass et al., 2013). Positive emotions can enhance learners' motivation, reduce the perceived difficulty of tasks, increase subjective confidence in recalling emotional experiences, and elevate learners' psychological effort, satisfaction, or positive perception of learning, thereby improving memory performance (Um et al., 2011). In the context of the relatively challenging task of recalling and writing Chinese characters, participants need to process information quickly within a limited time, which demands substantial cognitive resources. Under such conditions of high cognitive load, using warm colors such as red can create a positive and motivating learning environment (Plass et al., 2013), encouraging participants to invest more cognitive resources to complete the experimental task. Second, the high arousal state induced by the red background is more beneficial for focusing learners' attention. Red often conveys psychological meanings such as power, aggression, and anger. Cross-regional and cross-cultural comparisons show that this unique association demonstrates cross-cultural consistency, indicating that red seems to possess symbolic meanings of aggression and dominance (Aslam, 2006 ). Therefore, red is commonly associated with emotional states of tension and alertness. Such high levels of physiological arousal can enhance attention arousal (Chai et al., 2019 ), lead to faster reaction times (Wexner, 1954 ), and improve brain efficiency and arousal levels during information processing (Hsieh et al., 2024 ), thereby facilitating deeper encoding of Chinese characters. Deep encoding is a source of memory enhancement (Leventon et al., 2018 ). In this experiment, the Chinese characters were presented at a fast pace, and there was a subsequent recall task requirement, necessitating high levels of participant attention. The high arousal state induced by the red background may offer unique advantages in this regard. Third, red can trigger a prevention-focused orientation, which helps in completing tasks that require focused thinking. Different colors can activate different self-regulation strategies, which are important variables in predicting learning outcomes (Shi, 2011 ). According to regulatory focus theory, individuals typically adopt two types of self-regulation strategies: promotion focus and prevention focus. The former represents the desired end state as aspirations and accomplishment, focusing more on positive outcomes, while the latter represents it as responsibilities and security, focusing more on negative outcomes (Yao et al., 2010 ). Red is often associated with negative information such as warnings and errors, evoking associations with danger, mistakes, or failure (Jadhao et al., 2020 ; Moller et al., 2009 ; Rutchick et al., 2010 ), reminding individuals to prevent the occurrence of negative outcomes. This may activate a prevention-focused orientation, making individuals more vigilant and risk-averse (Greene et al., 1983 ). The memory test tasks in this experiment required precise answers, and participants were concerned about making mistakes. Therefore, the prevention focus induced by red matched the requirements of the memory test tasks, which facilitated task completion. This result is also consistent with previous studies (Mehta & Zhu, 2009 ; Friedman & Förster, 2010 ; Smeesters & Liu, 2011; Sun & Liu, 2016 ). Memory Suppression Effect of the Blue Background In this study, the memory performance of non-native Chinese speakers under the blue background condition was poor, displaying a certain degree of memory inhibition effect. This may be explained by the following reasons. On the one hand, the low-arousal state induced by the blue background is not conducive to attention concentration and maintenance. As a cool tone, blue is associated with emotions such as tranquility, rationality, and serenity, as well as comfort, relaxation, calmness, and harmony (Spielberger et al., 1970 ). Although blue can reduce levels of stress and anxiety (Clarke & Costall, 2008 ), this relaxing effect might become an impediment in tasks that require quick recall and efficient memory performance. Such a low-arousal state may reduce participants’ cognitive activation levels during the memory process, leading to insufficient attention and ultimately affecting recall performance. On the other hand, blue tends to activate a promotion-focused orientation, which is more beneficial for solving creative problems and conflicts with the focused thinking mode required for the Chinese character memory tasks in this experiment. Blue is often associated with freedom and openness, and it can evoke a promotion focus, which refers to a mindset inclined to pursue positive outcomes and achieve goals. In this state, individuals are more likely to exhibit divergent thinking—a type of unrestricted thinking style suited for exploring multiple possibilities and generating novel ideas. Divergent thinking is particularly critical when solving creative problems, which usually do not have a single correct answer but require individuals to propose multiple solutions or ideas, emphasizing flexibility and innovation rather than precision. In a study by Mehta & Zhu ( 2009 ), participants were asked to come up with as many creative uses for a brick as possible within one minute, while in Sun & Liu’s ( 2016 ) study, native Chinese speakers were instructed to write down as many uses for a newspaper as possible within 90 seconds. Results from both studies showed that participants in the blue background group performed significantly better on creative tasks than those in the red background group, with shorter task completion times. Because blue can activate a promotion-focused mindset that aligns with the thinking mode needed for creative tasks, it facilitates the resolution of such problems. The Chinese character memory test in this study is a focused task, and the blue background may have induced divergent thinking in the participants, thereby causing a certain degree of memory inhibition. From the above, we speculate that for non-native Chinese speakers, the blue background may exhibit a memory inhibition effect in focused Chinese character memory tasks but could enhance memory performance in creative Chinese character tasks, such as creative writing tasks using given characters. However, this conclusion requires further empirical research for validation. It is worth noting that some studies have found that the extraneous cognitive load induced by red is generally higher than that induced by blue. Paas, Tuovinen, van Merriënboer, & Darabi (2005) found that the more positive learners’ emotions were, the more cognitive resources they were willing to invest, leading to higher cognitive load. Similarly, Fraser et al. (2012) found that there is a close relationship between emotions and cognitive load: cognitive load tends to be lower when individuals are calm, and higher when individuals are excited or emotionally aroused. Sun & Liu’s ( 2016 ) study indicated that when task difficulty and cognitive load are both relatively low, the physical learning environment, such as the background color of learning materials, has a significant impact on cognitive load, with warm tones (e.g., red) inducing a higher cognitive load than cool tones (e.g., blue). Sweller et al. ( 1998 ) suggested that reducing extraneous cognitive load (e.g., through segmented learning or removing redundant information) can significantly improve learning outcomes because it allows learners to focus their cognitive resources on processing information related to learning objectives, thereby enhancing memory performance. Therefore, red may induce a higher extraneous cognitive load compared to blue, which could be detrimental to Chinese character memory, seemingly contradicting our research findings. In essence, lower cognitive load is not always better; instead, it should be optimized and matched to the task demands. The Chinese character memory task is an activity that requires high levels of attention. Although red induces a relatively high extraneous cognitive load, it provides a form of “moderate pressure” in memory tasks, keeping learners in a state of high alertness and efficient functioning, thereby stimulating greater engagement and motivation. This high activation state may even lead learners to unconsciously invest more cognitive resources in the memory task, potentially offsetting some of the adverse effects of the extraneous load. Conversely, the calm state induced by the blue background may reduce extraneous load but also diminish participants’ attention concentration and cognitive resource investment, resulting in a lack of necessary motivation and urgency during the memory task, which could, in turn, hinder memory performance. Teaching Recommendations In the context of teaching Chinese characters, the choice of background color for learning materials is a critical factor that can significantly impact learning outcomes. Teachers should flexibly select background colors based on the nature of the task to maximize learners’ memory performance and creativity. Research indicates that a red background performs well in tasks requiring high attention and precise recall. Red not only elicits positive emotions but also enhances learners’ attentional arousal and prevention-focused thinking mode, thereby improving the accuracy of Chinese character memory. This is because red is typically associated with emotions like vigilance and tension, which can accelerate brain information processing. For example, when preparing for Chinese character tests or engaging in complex character recall and writing tasks, teachers can use a red background to present learning materials. This color setting can improve students' focus, motivate their learning, and reduce errors during the character writing and recall process, especially in the critical stages of exam review. Additionally, red backgrounds can be used for in-class immediate recall exercises, such as quick tests conducted after students learn new characters or vocabulary. This approach can ensure that students maintain optimal cognitive performance in high-pressure environments, thereby enhancing their exam preparedness. On the other hand, when the teaching task requires creative thinking or aims to reduce students’ stress and anxiety, a blue background may be more suitable. Blue is associated with calmness, relaxation, and tranquility, which can create a more relaxed learning atmosphere for students. For instance, blue backgrounds can be used during warm-up activities at the beginning of class or relaxation sessions at the end of class to help students transition from high-intensity learning states, achieving the effects of emotion regulation and stress reduction. Moreover, during free writing exercises or brainstorming activities that require students to use the characters they have learned, teachers can also opt for a blue background. This setting can stimulate students’ divergent thinking, allowing them to explore multiple possibilities and generate more innovative ideas within an open-thinking framework. However, although blue backgrounds can facilitate creative thinking, their low-arousal nature may reduce students' attentional focus in memory tasks that require precise recall. Therefore, teachers should be cautious when using blue backgrounds in focused memory and quick recall tasks. Limitation and Future Research Although this study addressed some of the issues in existing research, making the study of the impact of learning material background colors on memory performance more comprehensive and in-depth, there are still some areas worth further exploration. Regarding Experimental Materials: This experiment was based on the RGB color model, selecting only four representative colors: red, green, blue, and white. This indicates that there is still ample room for exploration of other colors. Future research can expand the variety of colors to fully understand the psychological and behavioral impacts of colors. Regarding Research Methods and Techniques: This study primarily adopted a behavioral experimental approach based on psychology. To gain a deeper understanding, future research can consider using electroencephalography (EEG) or eye-tracking technology to obtain more detailed physiological and cognitive data, thereby further validating and analyzing the research findings. Regarding Experimental Tasks: This study utilized a focused Chinese character memory test task. Future research can focus on creative Chinese character memory tasks to more precisely understand the impact of colors on Chinese character memory performance. Conclusion Using background colors of learning materials in the physical learning environment as an example, this study examined the effects of four colors—white, red, blue, and green—on the learning and memory of Chinese characters among second language learners. The results indicate that background color of learning materials can significantly influence Chinese character memory performance. Red can elicit positive emotions, stimulate the concentration and maintenance of attention, and activate a prevention-focused orientation, thus facilitating the completion of focused memory tasks and showing a strong memory-enhancing effect. In contrast, the low arousal induced by blue and its tendency to activate a promotion-focused orientation may be more suitable for creative tasks, and it exhibited a certain degree of memory suppression effect in focused memory tests. Additionally, white and green backgrounds had similar effects on Chinese character memory, with results falling between those of red and blue. These findings partially validate the revised cognitive load structure model proposed by Choi et al. ( 2014 ), while also revealing that color, as a relatively independent factor affecting learners' learning outcomes, should not be ignored. This study enriches the theoretical understanding of background colors. Based on the above findings, this paper recommends that in the context of teaching Chinese characters, teachers should flexibly choose the background color of learning materials according to the nature of the tasks to maximize learners' memory performance and creativity. Declarations Data availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Data will be provided in a de-identified format to ensure participant confidentiality. Author contributions First author contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, literature review, data collection, analysis, and writing of the manuscript. Corresponding author assisted in the conceptualization, methodology, and revision of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval The research reported in this article was conducted following the ethical guidelines of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. There was no specific approval number attached to the approval. All procedures performed in the study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, and their rights to withdraw at any time without penalty. Consent was obtained through written forms, and participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. References Alpizar, D., Adesope, O. O., & Wong, R. M. (2020). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5266192","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":377431989,"identity":"11135215-8b3d-4fde-93a9-028b3fbbc833","order_by":0,"name":"PING CAI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"PING","middleName":"","lastName":"CAI","suffix":""},{"id":377431990,"identity":"efc734e3-93dd-4489-a1bc-585e817f73d0","order_by":1,"name":"Jun Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCA2wMDBUMzGA2D/FazjAw85CghYGNgbENqpooLQYHDz97+HNeHbu9RALjg7dtDPLmBLUcOGZuzLvtMDOPRAKz4dw2BsOdDQS0mB04wybNuO0ASAubNG8bQ4LBASK0SP6cUwfSwv6baC0SvA3MYFuYidJif+CYmTTPMaBfzjxslpxzTsJwAyEtkjMOP5P8UVOXzN6efPDDmzIbeYK2MEhAVCQzMDA2gLiE1AMBfwOYsiNC6SgYBaNgFIxUAACE6zuMg5aY0gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jun","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-15 06:53:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":71550828,"identity":"1a05db69-cc27-47a8-b20c-e6a600eae265","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 15:46:24","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37491,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExample of the 3-back task procedure\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266192/v1/565c6742be638d0d942ab5b6.png"},{"id":71550830,"identity":"41f613a9-293a-4b69-97b6-cabf7335a7c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 15:46:24","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":158790,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExample of Chinese character memory test（Figure 2a. Example of Chinese character memory test-white background. Figure 2b. Example of Chinese character memory test-green background. Figure 2c. Example of Chinese character memory test-red background. Figure 2d. Example of Chinese character memory test-blue background.）\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266192/v1/50ac0de5cd15e17469c55927.png"},{"id":71550827,"identity":"2b0ce215-c495-4094-8d3b-08122538706e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 15:46:24","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16766,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBar chart of average memory scores for each background color.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266192/v1/c732b9417b7ee2739e2138c5.png"},{"id":81776992,"identity":"8b1f3e0b-b9de-4238-8fe2-5f0057585a4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-01 16:16:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":810478,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266192/v1/8d28e677-3f4b-47a1-92dc-f83c7ba7429c.pdf"},{"id":71552130,"identity":"6b3ae0c3-4f21-43e7-ba38-15853c395901","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-16 15:54:24","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":30384,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.DescriptivestatisticalanalysisofChinesecharactermemoryperformanceunderdifferentbackgroundcolorconditions.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5266192/v1/397cd872fd0f293003a05637.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Effect of Background Colors of Learning Materials on Memory:evidence from Chinese Characters","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn educational practice, learners are complex \u0026ldquo;polytopes.\u0026rdquo; In addition to learner characteristics and task attributes, the learning environment is also a crucial factor influencing cognitive load and learning outcomes. Jiang et al. (2013) pointed out that color is not only a prominent feature in the visual world but also a symbolic transmitter of meaning. In the physical learning environment, color is considered a relatively significant element. Both the color background theory (Elliot \u0026amp; Maier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and the cognitive load theory (Choi, Van Merrienboer, \u0026amp; Paas, 2014) suggest that color can exert a substantial impact on individuals\u0026rsquo; psychology, cognition, and learning. Previous research has directly explored the relationship between color in instructional design and learning outcomes. The results indicate that stimuli from the physical learning environment can impose a certain influence on learners\u0026rsquo; working memory (Choi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Color can serve as a memory cue, making information encoded with specific colors easier to distinguish and thus reducing cognitive load (Skulmowski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Background color is a contextual cue that always remains within the learner\u0026rsquo;s visual field (Isarida \u0026amp; Isarida, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The background color of learning materials can influence attention levels and trigger emotional arousal, thereby playing a role in enhancing memory performance (Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Llinares et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Plass et al., 2013; Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wong \u0026amp; Adesope, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Alpizar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; An \u0026amp; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sun \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Chinese character learning, due to the vast number of characters, complex structures, and the lack of a systematic phonetic mechanism (Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), recognizing, remembering, and writing Chinese characters is considered the most challenging aspect for Chinese as a second language(CSL) learners (Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, a question worth exploring is whether the background color of learning materials can be leveraged to facilitate the learning and memorization of Chinese characters. Currently, research on the impact of background color on Chinese character memory is mainly concentrated in the field of Chinese as a first language acquisition, with no specialized studies addressing this issue in the context of CSL acquisition. In the teaching environment for CSL, color, as a fundamental visual element, plays a vital role at various levels and stages of teaching. From textbook design to the layout of the learning environment, from the creation of multimedia presentations to the implementation of modern online teaching, the use of color is inevitable. Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and learning experiences between CSL learners and native speakers, their perception and understanding of color may differ, leading to conclusions that diverge from those derived from native speaker studies. Moreover, although research on the effects of color on memory and learning outcomes has accumulated certain results, the overall volume of research is still relatively limited, and the studies lack depth and systematicity. There remains controversy over which colors are most conducive to enhancing learning outcomes. Some researchers have found that cool tones are more favorable for academic performance. For example, Chellappa et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) argued that blue light can enhance individuals\u0026rsquo; subjective awareness, contributing to better performance in attention-based tasks. On the other hand, red light may interfere with challenging cognitive tasks, resulting in lower scores on intelligence tests under red backgrounds compared to blue and green (Houtman \u0026amp; Notebaert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Other studies suggest that warm background colors, as opposed to cool colors, can improve learners\u0026rsquo; performance and short-term memory (Hsieh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Jadhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sun \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are two main limitations in the existing research: First, when examining the effects of different colors on memory performance, the variable of working memory capacity of participants has not been controlled. Second, the chosen experimental materials, especially during word recognition tasks, did not consider the color knowledge embedded in the selected words, which may have influenced the accuracy of the results. Therefore, the generalizability and applicability of these research conclusions require further empirical studies for verification and refinement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the close relationship between background color and learning, it should be one of the key factors considered in instructional design. However, in teaching practice, not all educators can effectively use background colors to improve and enhance their teaching outcomes, and some even tend to overlook this factor, particularly in the field of CSL acquisition. This study employs the E-Prime psychological experimental method and questionnaire survey to conduct working memory capacity tests and color perception tests on 60 recruited intermediate-level CSL learners. From these, 30 participants with similar working memory capacities and no specific color preferences were selected to participate in the Chinese character memory-recall writing tests. This study aims to investigate the effect of background color in learning materials on Chinese character memory among CSL learners. Theoretically, it enriches and refines the color background theory and further tests the revised model of cognitive load structure. Practically, the experimental results can help optimize the use of colors in Chinese character teaching, thus contributing to improving the teaching effectiveness in international Chinese language classrooms to a certain extent.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eColor can serve as an \u0026ldquo;implicit emotional cue\u0026rdquo; that subtly and unconsciously influences an individual's psychological functioning (Friedman \u0026amp; Forster, 2010). Elliot \u0026amp; Maier (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) proposed the Color-in-Context Theory, which posits that colors convey and transmit distinct meanings. These meanings are contextually dependent, which endows colors with corresponding psychological functions that can significantly influence people\u0026rsquo;s emotions, cognition, and behavior. Choi, Van Merrienboer, and Paas (2014) further developed a revised model of cognitive load structure, which emphasizes that the physical learning environment\u0026mdash;defined as the complete set of physical attributes in which teaching and learning take place, including the physical characteristics of learning materials or tools, such as color\u0026mdash;is a crucial factor influencing cognitive load and learning outcomes. The inclusion of the physical learning environment variables in the new model has significantly expanded the cognitive load theory, though more empirical studies are needed to validate this extension. Current academic research has conducted a series of studies on whether color influences learners' memory and learning outcomes, reaching a relatively consistent conclusion: color can affect learning and memory performance by modulating attention levels and inducing emotional arousal (Dzulkifli \u0026amp; Mustafar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eColor Influences Individual Cognition and Memory Through Emotional Arousal\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurological and physiological studies support the role of emotional arousal in driving memory performance (Buchanan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Cahill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). Positive emotions can enhance learners' motivation levels, lower the perceived difficulty of tasks, strengthen subjective confidence in emotional experience recall, increase psychological effort and satisfaction, and consequently improve memory performance (Um et al., 2011). In contrast, negative emotions yield the opposite effects. Relevant studies consistently suggest that color can trigger and arouse different positive or negative emotions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome studies argue that warm colors generally elicit positive emotions, while cool colors induce neutral or slightly negative psychological responses. Long-wavelength colors, such as red and yellow, are typically perceived as \u0026ldquo;warm colors\u0026rdquo; that bring feelings of enthusiasm and warmth to individuals, whereas short-wavelength colors, such as blue and green, are considered \u0026ldquo;cool colors\u0026rdquo; that evoke a sense of tranquility and calmness (Nakashian, 1964). In terms of emotional arousal, most behavioral and EEG experiments have found that long-wavelength colors (e.g., red, yellow) elicit higher arousal levels compared to short-wavelength colors (e.g., blue, green), with red being more likely to induce high-arousal emotions than blue (Gerard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1958\u003c/span\u003e; Jacob \u0026amp; Hustmyer, 1974; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e). Wolfson \u0026amp; Case (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that warm colors are more likely to evoke pleasure and excitement in individuals compared to cool colors. Clarke \u0026amp; Costall (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) found that cool colors (e.g., green, blue, and purple) are associated with emotions such as comfort, relaxation, calmness, and harmony, and can reduce levels of stress and anxiety. In contrast, warm colors (e.g., red, yellow, and orange) are more stimulating and can evoke more intense emotional responses. Hsieh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) examined whether background color (warm or cool) affects consumers\u0026rsquo; memory and reactions. The results showed that warm color backgrounds elicited higher levels of emotional arousal and stronger memory performance compared to cool color backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, some studies have reached the opposite conclusion, suggesting that warm colors (e.g., red and yellow) tend to induce anxiety and tension, while cool colors (e.g., green and blue) make people feel more relaxed and stimulate positive emotions (Moller, Elliot, \u0026amp; Maier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Fr\u0026uuml;hholz, Fehr, \u0026amp; Herrmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Gerend \u0026amp; Tricia, 2009; Camgoz, Yener, \u0026amp; Guvenc, 2002). Using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Spielberger et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e) measured people\u0026rsquo;s perceptions of red, yellow, blue, and green, and found that red and yellow were associated with greater anxiety, whereas blue and green elicited more relaxed feelings. Aslam (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) explored the relationship between color and psychological emotions, finding that red often conveys psychological meanings such as power, aggression, and anger. Cross-cultural comparisons revealed a consistent pattern of associations across different regions and cultures, indicating that red appears to possess symbolic meanings of aggression and dominance. Red is also often linked to warning signals and error messages, which can activate avoidance motivation, making people more vigilant and risk-averse (Greene et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Gerend \u0026amp; Tricia (2009) found that red was associated with negative emotions, thereby influencing persuasive outcomes. Kamaruzzaman \u0026amp; Zawawi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that blue had the strongest arousal effect and received the highest ratings in an operational environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eColor Influences Individual Cognition and Memory Through Attention Stimulation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a close relationship between attention and memory, and this reciprocal influence has long been a focus of researchers\u0026rsquo; investigations. The allocation of attention and the utilization of attentional resources have a significant impact on memory performance. When a stimulus captures more attention, it is more likely to be remembered effectively. Concentrated attention not only enhances recall accuracy but also shortens response time. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have shown that color can improve the connectivity of neural networks, enhance the efficiency of brain information processing, and increase attention arousal (Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), thereby allowing color-coded objects to be prioritized in processing (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and increasing the likelihood that environmental stimuli are successfully encoded, stored, and retrieved (Wichmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is ongoing debate over whether warm or cool tones are more conducive to maintaining and focusing attention. Wexner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e) argued that warm colors are more stimulating and lead to faster reaction times, whereas cool colors are more relaxing and calming, which are beneficial for maintaining and focusing attention during learning processes. Llinares et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) also found that, compared to warm colors, cool colors can enhance arousal levels, having a more positive effect on attention and memory processes. In contrast, Greene et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that color choices can have varying degrees of impact on attention performance. Overall, warm colors (e.g., yellow, red, and orange) have a greater influence on attention compared to cool colors (e.g., brown, gray, etc.). Jadhao et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that, compared to white or blue, a red background color has a more positive impact on sustained attention and short-term memory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the above, it can be concluded that color affects cognition and memory through emotional arousal and attention stimulation, suggesting that color factors play a role in enhancing memory performance. However, there are still unresolved issues regarding what types of emotions are elicited by warm and cool tones, which tone is more beneficial for maintaining and focusing attention, and which color is more effective in improving memory performance. These issues require further empirical research to provide conclusive answers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearch on the Impact of Color on Memory and Learning in Education\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn educational practice, color, as a common and significant visual stimulus, plays a crucial role across various levels and aspects of teaching. First, as the carrier of teaching content, the selection and use of colors in textbooks can have a significant impact on stimulating students' interest in learning and desire for reading. Second, the arrangement of the teaching environment is another context where color plays an important role. The color schemes in classrooms, wall decorations, and the color combinations of teaching tools all subtly influence students' psychological states and the learning atmosphere. Third, the use of colors is particularly critical in the production of multimedia courseware. Variations in color contrast, gradients, and saturation can highlight key teaching points, guide students' visual focus and attention, and make the courseware content more clear and understandable. Especially in the current digital era where online education is prevalent, the role of color is even more prominent. The interface design of online courses, the visual presentation of video lectures, and the color schemes of online learning platforms all require the effective utilization of color elements to enhance students\u0026rsquo; learning experience and outcomes. Given that color can significantly affect individual cognition and memory, and that it is an indispensable factor in educational practice, some researchers have begun to explore the effects of color usage in teaching on learners\u0026rsquo; learning and memory performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor printed learning materials, color can influence learning outcomes. In reading and writing activities, green writing paper is more conducive to maintaining attention and alleviating visual fatigue compared to white paper (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Color illustrations offer advantages in text reading; compared to text without illustrations, they require fewer fixation points and shorter saccadic movements (Cheng \u0026amp; Yang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Red backgrounds have shown unique advantages in promoting the resolution of memory test questions, while blue backgrounds positively facilitate the solution of creative problems (Sun \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), which is consistent with the findings of Elliot et al. (2013). Plass et al. (2013) found that using warm tones in learning materials can create a positive and motivating learning environment. This not only helps learners increase their interest and confidence in the learning content but also promotes greater interaction with the learning materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor digital learning materials, both background color and font color can influence learning outcomes. Due to their visual appeal, interactivity, and flexibility, multimedia courseware and other learning resources are widely used in teaching. Under this context, multimedia learning materials often include a large number of images, text, and other elements. Researchers have paid attention to the question of how to use color combinations to organize and present these diverse forms of information to achieve better learning outcomes. Zhang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) focused on the issue of text-background color combinations in multimedia instructional courseware and found that high-contrast or different hue combinations facilitate text recognition and memory. This result is consistent with the findings of Du et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) in a vocabulary judgment task. Using bright colors to highlight important parts of the learning content can draw students\u0026rsquo; attention to these highlighted sections, leading to selective processing, which enhances learning outcomes (Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). An and Li (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study from the perspective of color psychology, using eye-tracking methods to record the reading behavior of 15 college students under different PPT background colors. They found that white is the most suitable background color for PPTs, as it easily helps individuals concentrate and is less likely to cause fatigue, followed by yellow, while blue is the least suitable as a background color.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting that existing research has found that the consistency between the color of visual input and the color knowledge of objects in memory can have a significant impact on the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory. Color can be categorized into surface color and color knowledge. Surface color refers to the color of an object perceived during the perceptual process (e.g., the red color of a strawberry), while color knowledge refers to the typical color information of an object (e.g., a strawberry is typically red), which is acquired through long-term life experiences and stored in long-term memory in the form of semantic or visual representations (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For certain characters that inherently contain color knowledge, when the background color they are presented on is consistent with this color knowledge, it can facilitate perceptual discrimination and semantic representation. For example, the character \u0026ldquo;血\u0026rdquo; (blood) carries the color knowledge of \u0026ldquo;red.\u0026rdquo; When we see the character \u0026ldquo;血,\u0026rdquo; it is easy to associate it with the color red. Therefore, when selecting experimental characters, it is crucial to consider the potential interference or facilitation effects that the color knowledge inherent in Chinese characters might have on the experimental results. However, most existing studies have not taken this consideration into account when choosing experimental materials, which may impact research outcomes to some extent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome studies have pointed out that individual differences in working memory capacity can influence the effectiveness of memory tasks. Generally, individuals with high working memory capacity perform better in attention control (Kane \u0026amp; Engle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), are able to maintain information more effectively, and can retrieve information from long-term memory more efficiently when needed, resulting in superior performance in memory tasks (Unsworth \u0026amp; Engle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Existing research on the effects of color on learning and memory has not considered the influence of participants\u0026rsquo; working memory capacity on research outcomes, which is an aspect that future research needs to address.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the appropriate use of background colors in learning materials can effectively enhance learning outcomes. However, due to differences in the choice of research participants, colors, and task types, it remains unclear which specific colors are more beneficial for learning and memory. Additionally, current research has not adequately considered the impact of participants\u0026rsquo; working memory capacity and the inherent color knowledge of the selected research materials on experimental results. Therefore, this field still presents significant research potential and value. Meusel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) pointed out in their article that future studies should investigate whether different background colors have varying effects on memory and learning performance, especially whether background colors can serve as reliable retrieval cues across different cultures. This conclusion is enlightening for Chinese character teaching targeting CSL learners. The present study argues that further research on this issue in the context of CSL acquisition is necessary.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearch Question\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study selected four representative colors: white, red, blue, and green. First, in the exploration of color science, red, blue, and green are considered fundamental colors, as they cannot be mixed from other colors (Lin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the human visual system is particularly sensitive to these three colors. Red, with its longest wavelength in the visible spectrum, serves as a prominent representative of warm tones, while blue, characterized by its unique calmness, stands out as a typical cool tone. A substantial amount of research has been conducted on the effects of color on cognition and behavior, yet the results have shown considerable divergence. Among these studies, the effects of red and blue on emotions, attention, and learning outcomes are the most extensively explored and highly debated topics (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, red and blue were selected as the focal points of this research, as they demonstrate strong representativeness when investigating the influence of warm and cool tones on learning and memory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effects of green and its related elements on learning and memory. Under the same lighting conditions, compared to other colors, green light (wavelength: 540-570nm) results in the highest luminous flux received by the human eye. In other words, when observing objects with the same level of clarity, green causes the least energy consumption of visual cells, making it the least likely to cause fatigue (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). As a cool color, green is sometimes argued to be detrimental to memory, leading to controversy. Thus, we included green in our study to further examine whether green, as a cool tone, can enhance learning and memory performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, white has a significant impact on human well-being (Fehrman \u0026amp; Fehrman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kamaruzzaman \u0026amp; Zawawi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Kuller et al., 2009; Kwallek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Kwallek et al., 1990; Kwallek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). As a commonly used color in educational settings, white is familiar to learners, and selecting white facilitates comparative analysis of research results with red, green, and blue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eKey Research Question\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are the differences in the effects of background colors of learning materials (white, red, blue, and green) on Chinese character memory performance among CSL learners?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eResearch Design\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a single-factor within-subjects experimental design, using background color as the independent variable. The background color variable had four levels: white, red, blue, and green. The dependent variable was the participants' performance in recalling Chinese characters within a fixed time frame.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipants\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 60 intermediate-level CSL learners (non-Chinese ethnicities) were recruited for the experiment. The participants came from non-Chinese-character cultural backgrounds, including countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Colombia, Spain, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Belgium, and Pakistan. The average age of the participants was 26, with an average of 4 years of Chinese language learning experience. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision, were right-handed, and had no color blindness or color vision deficiency. Intermediate-level CSL learners were selected as the target research group to facilitate the smooth implementation of the experimental tasks and to enhance the representativeness of the results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially, a questionnaire was used to survey participants' color perception, and five participants with strong color preferences were excluded from the study. Previous research has indicated that individual differences in working memory capacity can significantly affect the outcomes of memory tasks. Generally, individuals with higher working memory capacity perform better in attention control, are more capable of maintaining information, and can retrieve information from long-term memory more effectively when needed, resulting in better performance in memory tasks (Kane \u0026amp; Engle, 2003; Unsworth \u0026amp; Engle, 2007). To ensure consistency in working memory capacity among the participants involved in the Chinese character cognition task and to eliminate confounding effects on the experimental results, we administered a working memory capacity test to the remaining 55 participants. Preliminary statistics showed an average working memory capacity score of 75, with a standard deviation of 10. We selected participants whose scores fell within the range of ±1 standard deviation from the mean (i.e., scores between 65 and 85) as the candidate pool. Within this range, 32 participants were identified, and a final group of 30 participants with similar working memory capacities was randomly selected for the subsequent Chinese character cognition task.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInstruments and Materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted indoors under adequate fluorescent lighting conditions. A 14-inch ThinkPad monitor was used, with a refresh rate of 60 Hz and a resolution of 756×1024. The RGB color settings were as follows: white (R=255, G=255, B=255), red (R=255, G=0, B=0), blue (R=0, G=0, B=255), and green (R=0, G=255, B=0). E-Prime 3.0 software was used to present the test items and control the timing. To control the influence of text color and its interaction effect with background color, the text displayed on the white, red, and green backgrounds in this study was presented in neutral black (RGB values all set to 0). However, because black text is difficult to read against a blue background, white text (R= 255, G= 255, B= 255) was used for the blue background condition. Additionally, the amount of text presented on all background colors was minimal, occupying a small area, and the presentation speed was fast.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe working memory capacity test utilized the 3-back task materials designed by Gong \u0026amp; Zhang (2013), which included 15 different Chinese characters and graphics. The Chinese character cognition task followed the experimental paradigm of Sun \u0026amp; Liu (2016). The Chinese characters were selected from Level 6 of the International Chinese Proficiency Grading Standards (2021) and were not previously learned by the participants. A total of 80 Chinese characters were used as stimuli in the formal experiment, with 20 characters presented in each of the four background colors, covering the pronunciation, shape, and meaning of each character. Characters that inherently carry color knowledge, such as\u0026nbsp;“墨”\u0026nbsp;(ink), which is easily associated with black and could interact with the background color, were excluded to avoid confounding effects. The selected experimental characters had similar stroke counts and frequency of use, and as many different structural types of Chinese characters as possible were included.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eResearch Procedures\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore the experiment began, the experimenter explained the basic procedure and instructions to the participants. After the participants understood the guidelines and experimental process, they started the computer and entered the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWorking Memory Capacity Test：First, participants’ working memory capacity was tested. The procedure was as follows: the first Chinese character or shape was presented, followed by the presentation of the second and third characters or shapes. When the fourth character or shape appeared, participants were required to judge whether it was the same as the first character or shape and make a key response. After responding, the fifth character or shape was presented, and participants were to determine if it was the same as the second character or shape, and respond accordingly. This process continued in the same manner. If the character or shape was the same, participants pressed the\u0026nbsp;“J”\u0026nbsp;key; if it was different, they pressed the\u0026nbsp;“F”\u0026nbsp;key. After each key press, a 500 ms blank screen appeared, followed by the next character or shape. Each character or shape was displayed for 500 ms. After practicing, participants proceeded to the formal test, completing the word task first, followed by the shape task. They were instructed to respond as quickly as possible while maintaining accuracy. The task procedure is shown in Figure 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChinese Character Memory Test：After the working memory capacity test, a one-day interval was provided before conducting the Chinese character memory test. The presentation procedure for the Chinese character memory test was as follows: first, a “+” sign appeared in the center of the computer screen for 1 second to indicate the start of the test, with the background color set to white, red, blue, or green in sequence. Then, 20 target characters were randomly presented on the same background, one by one, at a pace of 5 seconds per character. After the presentation, a 2-minute break was given. During the break, participants were asked to recall the characters they had just seen and write them down on the answer sheet as quickly as possible within 90 seconds while maintaining accuracy. The system simultaneously started timing. Each correctly recalled character was awarded 1 point. To avoid fatigue effects, there was a standardized 1-hour interval between tests with different background colors. After completing all the tests, participants received a small gift as compensation. The task procedure is illustrated in Figure 2a，2b，2c，2d.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eData Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 software, with repeated measures ANOVA used to explore the relationships among the data. The Greenhouse-Geisser correction method was applied to adjust \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values, and the Bonferroni method was used for multiple comparisons to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"},{"header":"Research Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the completion of the experiment, all collected Chinese character recall answer sheets were independently scored and coded by two trained raters according to pre-established scoring criteria. The scoring process strictly adhered to the principles of double-blind review to minimize subjective bias and ensure objectivity and consistency in scoring. The scoring criteria are as follows：\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1）Correctly Recalled Chinese Characters: The recalled characters match the target characters exactly, including the shape, structure, and layout of the characters. Each correctly recalled character is awarded 1 point. 2）Incomplete or Erroneous Chinese Characters: Characters with missing strokes, incorrect characters (e.g., visually or phonetically similar characters), or obvious structural errors are not awarded points. 3）Other Cases: Illegible or unrecognizable writing is not scored and is recorded under the category of \"Not Recalled\" (NR).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe maximum score under each background color condition is 20 points (corresponding to the 20 target characters presented during the experiment). All scoring results were entered into Excel by a designated data entry specialist. The memory scores of each participant under the different background color conditions were sequentially recorded in the table, resulting in an original dataset that includes participant ID, background color conditions (white, red, blue, green), and the corresponding recall scores for the Chinese characters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the analysis of the recall and writing performance of Chinese characters under four different background colors (white, red, blue, green) by CSL learners, descriptive statistics were conducted, as shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. The mean (M) represents the arithmetic average of all scores, reflecting the overall performance of participants in terms of Chinese character memory under each background color condition. The highest M was observed under the red background condition, with a value of 12.37, indicating that the recall effect of Chinese characters was significantly better than that of other background colors under this condition. The lowest M was found under the blue background condition, with a value of 7.13, suggesting that the recall effect was relatively poor under this condition. The M values under the white and green backgrounds were between those of the red and blue backgrounds, being 9.63 and 9.43, respectively, indicating that the effects of these two background colors on Chinese character memory were similar. The standard deviation (SD) was used to assess the consistency of participants' memory performance under different background conditions. In this experiment, the SD for the red background was 1.30, indicating that although the average score was high, the participants' performance under this background was relatively consistent. In contrast, the SD for the blue background was 0.82, showing that the performance of participants under this condition was more concentrated, suggesting that this background color had a relatively stable impact on memory performance. The standard error (SE) provided an evaluation of the reliability of the sample mean. In this experiment, the SE for the red background was 0.24, indicating that the sample mean under this condition was an accurate estimate of the population mean, demonstrating the reliability of the result that memory performance was the best under the red background. The SE for the blue background was 0.15, also indicating that the sample mean under this condition had high reliability. The 95% confidence interval (95% CI) calculated in this study provided important statistical support for the sample mean. The 95% CI for the red background was [11.90, 12.83], indicating that this condition significantly promoted Chinese character memory. In contrast, the 95% CI for the blue background was [6.84, 7.43], reflecting that the memory effect was relatively low but still statistically credible. The 95% CIs for the white and green backgrounds were [9.26, 10.00] and [8.96, 9.91], respectively, showing that the effects of these two conditions on memory were similar, both having a certain degree of statistical support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo further investigate the impact of different background colors (white, red, blue, green) on Chinese character memory performance among CSL learners, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted. The analysis results indicated a significant effect of background color on Chinese character memory performance, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 87) = 62.68, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, with a large effect size, η² = 0.347. This suggests that background color is an important factor influencing Chinese character memory performance. To identify the specific background colors that showed significant differences, post hoc comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments were performed to examine the mean differences between groups. Specific comparisons included red background vs. blue, white, and green backgrounds, as well as blue background vs. white and green backgrounds. The results showed that Chinese character memory performance under the red background was significantly higher than that under the blue (M difference = 5.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), white (M difference = 2.74, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), and green backgrounds (M difference = 2.94, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). This indicates that the red background had a significant positive effect on improving Chinese character memory performance. Conversely, the memory performance under the blue background was significantly lower than that under the white (M difference = -2.50, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) and green backgrounds (M difference = -2.30, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). This implies that the blue background might have a negative impact on Chinese character memory. Moreover, the difference in memory performance between the white and green backgrounds was relatively small (M difference = 0.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt; 0.05) and did not reach a significant level. This suggests that the participants' memory performance under these two background colors was similar, indicating that white and green backgrounds may have a neutral effect on Chinese character memory and are relatively weaker in effect compared to other colors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the results of this study demonstrate that the red background outperforms other colors (blue, white, green) in promoting Chinese character memory. The red background shows a significant advantage in enhancing memory performance, while the blue background may have a suppressive effect on memory. The influence of white and green backgrounds is relatively weak, and no significant difference was found between them.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMemory Enhancement Effect of the Red Background\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study found that the background color of learning materials had a significant impact on Chinese character memory (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Participants achieved the highest memory scores under the red background condition (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.37, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.30) and the lowest scores under the blue background condition (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.13, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82), while no significant difference was observed between the white and green background conditions (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.63, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.03; M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.43, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.33), both of which were at a moderate level. The results indicate that the red background is more conducive to solving memory test tasks, exhibiting a certain memory enhancement effect. This may be related to the following factors:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, the stimulating characteristics of red are more likely to elicit positive emotions. As a warm color, red represents vitality, enthusiasm, and health, making it more stimulating and more capable of evoking pleasure and excitement compared to cool tones (Wolfson \u0026amp; Case, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Clarke \u0026amp; Costall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Plass et al., 2013). Positive emotions can enhance learners' motivation, reduce the perceived difficulty of tasks, increase subjective confidence in recalling emotional experiences, and elevate learners' psychological effort, satisfaction, or positive perception of learning, thereby improving memory performance (Um et al., 2011). In the context of the relatively challenging task of recalling and writing Chinese characters, participants need to process information quickly within a limited time, which demands substantial cognitive resources. Under such conditions of high cognitive load, using warm colors such as red can create a positive and motivating learning environment (Plass et al., 2013), encouraging participants to invest more cognitive resources to complete the experimental task.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the high arousal state induced by the red background is more beneficial for focusing learners' attention. Red often conveys psychological meanings such as power, aggression, and anger. Cross-regional and cross-cultural comparisons show that this unique association demonstrates cross-cultural consistency, indicating that red seems to possess symbolic meanings of aggression and dominance (Aslam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, red is commonly associated with emotional states of tension and alertness. Such high levels of physiological arousal can enhance attention arousal (Chai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), lead to faster reaction times (Wexner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e), and improve brain efficiency and arousal levels during information processing (Hsieh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), thereby facilitating deeper encoding of Chinese characters. Deep encoding is a source of memory enhancement (Leventon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In this experiment, the Chinese characters were presented at a fast pace, and there was a subsequent recall task requirement, necessitating high levels of participant attention. The high arousal state induced by the red background may offer unique advantages in this regard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, red can trigger a prevention-focused orientation, which helps in completing tasks that require focused thinking. Different colors can activate different self-regulation strategies, which are important variables in predicting learning outcomes (Shi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). According to regulatory focus theory, individuals typically adopt two types of self-regulation strategies: promotion focus and prevention focus. The former represents the desired end state as aspirations and accomplishment, focusing more on positive outcomes, while the latter represents it as responsibilities and security, focusing more on negative outcomes (Yao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Red is often associated with negative information such as warnings and errors, evoking associations with danger, mistakes, or failure (Jadhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Moller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Rutchick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), reminding individuals to prevent the occurrence of negative outcomes. This may activate a prevention-focused orientation, making individuals more vigilant and risk-averse (Greene et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). The memory test tasks in this experiment required precise answers, and participants were concerned about making mistakes. Therefore, the prevention focus induced by red matched the requirements of the memory test tasks, which facilitated task completion. This result is also consistent with previous studies (Mehta \u0026amp; Zhu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Friedman \u0026amp; F\u0026ouml;rster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Smeesters \u0026amp; Liu, 2011; Sun \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMemory Suppression Effect of the Blue Background\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the memory performance of non-native Chinese speakers under the blue background condition was poor, displaying a certain degree of memory inhibition effect. This may be explained by the following reasons. On the one hand, the low-arousal state induced by the blue background is not conducive to attention concentration and maintenance. As a cool tone, blue is associated with emotions such as tranquility, rationality, and serenity, as well as comfort, relaxation, calmness, and harmony (Spielberger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e). Although blue can reduce levels of stress and anxiety (Clarke \u0026amp; Costall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), this relaxing effect might become an impediment in tasks that require quick recall and efficient memory performance. Such a low-arousal state may reduce participants\u0026rsquo; cognitive activation levels during the memory process, leading to insufficient attention and ultimately affecting recall performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, blue tends to activate a promotion-focused orientation, which is more beneficial for solving creative problems and conflicts with the focused thinking mode required for the Chinese character memory tasks in this experiment. Blue is often associated with freedom and openness, and it can evoke a promotion focus, which refers to a mindset inclined to pursue positive outcomes and achieve goals. In this state, individuals are more likely to exhibit divergent thinking\u0026mdash;a type of unrestricted thinking style suited for exploring multiple possibilities and generating novel ideas. Divergent thinking is particularly critical when solving creative problems, which usually do not have a single correct answer but require individuals to propose multiple solutions or ideas, emphasizing flexibility and innovation rather than precision. In a study by Mehta \u0026amp; Zhu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), participants were asked to come up with as many creative uses for a brick as possible within one minute, while in Sun \u0026amp; Liu\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) study, native Chinese speakers were instructed to write down as many uses for a newspaper as possible within 90 seconds. Results from both studies showed that participants in the blue background group performed significantly better on creative tasks than those in the red background group, with shorter task completion times. Because blue can activate a promotion-focused mindset that aligns with the thinking mode needed for creative tasks, it facilitates the resolution of such problems. The Chinese character memory test in this study is a focused task, and the blue background may have induced divergent thinking in the participants, thereby causing a certain degree of memory inhibition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the above, we speculate that for non-native Chinese speakers, the blue background may exhibit a memory inhibition effect in focused Chinese character memory tasks but could enhance memory performance in creative Chinese character tasks, such as creative writing tasks using given characters. However, this conclusion requires further empirical research for validation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting that some studies have found that the extraneous cognitive load induced by red is generally higher than that induced by blue. Paas, Tuovinen, van Merri\u0026euml;nboer, \u0026amp; Darabi (2005) found that the more positive learners\u0026rsquo; emotions were, the more cognitive resources they were willing to invest, leading to higher cognitive load. Similarly, Fraser et al. (2012) found that there is a close relationship between emotions and cognitive load: cognitive load tends to be lower when individuals are calm, and higher when individuals are excited or emotionally aroused. Sun \u0026amp; Liu\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) study indicated that when task difficulty and cognitive load are both relatively low, the physical learning environment, such as the background color of learning materials, has a significant impact on cognitive load, with warm tones (e.g., red) inducing a higher cognitive load than cool tones (e.g., blue). Sweller et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that reducing extraneous cognitive load (e.g., through segmented learning or removing redundant information) can significantly improve learning outcomes because it allows learners to focus their cognitive resources on processing information related to learning objectives, thereby enhancing memory performance. Therefore, red may induce a higher extraneous cognitive load compared to blue, which could be detrimental to Chinese character memory, seemingly contradicting our research findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn essence, lower cognitive load is not always better; instead, it should be optimized and matched to the task demands. The Chinese character memory task is an activity that requires high levels of attention. Although red induces a relatively high extraneous cognitive load, it provides a form of \u0026ldquo;moderate pressure\u0026rdquo; in memory tasks, keeping learners in a state of high alertness and efficient functioning, thereby stimulating greater engagement and motivation. This high activation state may even lead learners to unconsciously invest more cognitive resources in the memory task, potentially offsetting some of the adverse effects of the extraneous load. Conversely, the calm state induced by the blue background may reduce extraneous load but also diminish participants\u0026rsquo; attention concentration and cognitive resource investment, resulting in a lack of necessary motivation and urgency during the memory task, which could, in turn, hinder memory performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTeaching Recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the context of teaching Chinese characters, the choice of background color for learning materials is a critical factor that can significantly impact learning outcomes. Teachers should flexibly select background colors based on the nature of the task to maximize learners\u0026rsquo; memory performance and creativity. Research indicates that a red background performs well in tasks requiring high attention and precise recall. Red not only elicits positive emotions but also enhances learners\u0026rsquo; attentional arousal and prevention-focused thinking mode, thereby improving the accuracy of Chinese character memory. This is because red is typically associated with emotions like vigilance and tension, which can accelerate brain information processing. For example, when preparing for Chinese character tests or engaging in complex character recall and writing tasks, teachers can use a red background to present learning materials. This color setting can improve students' focus, motivate their learning, and reduce errors during the character writing and recall process, especially in the critical stages of exam review. Additionally, red backgrounds can be used for in-class immediate recall exercises, such as quick tests conducted after students learn new characters or vocabulary. This approach can ensure that students maintain optimal cognitive performance in high-pressure environments, thereby enhancing their exam preparedness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, when the teaching task requires creative thinking or aims to reduce students\u0026rsquo; stress and anxiety, a blue background may be more suitable. Blue is associated with calmness, relaxation, and tranquility, which can create a more relaxed learning atmosphere for students. For instance, blue backgrounds can be used during warm-up activities at the beginning of class or relaxation sessions at the end of class to help students transition from high-intensity learning states, achieving the effects of emotion regulation and stress reduction. Moreover, during free writing exercises or brainstorming activities that require students to use the characters they have learned, teachers can also opt for a blue background. This setting can stimulate students\u0026rsquo; divergent thinking, allowing them to explore multiple possibilities and generate more innovative ideas within an open-thinking framework. However, although blue backgrounds can facilitate creative thinking, their low-arousal nature may reduce students' attentional focus in memory tasks that require precise recall. Therefore, teachers should be cautious when using blue backgrounds in focused memory and quick recall tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitation and Future Research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this study addressed some of the issues in existing research, making the study of the impact of learning material background colors on memory performance more comprehensive and in-depth, there are still some areas worth further exploration. Regarding Experimental Materials: This experiment was based on the RGB color model, selecting only four representative colors: red, green, blue, and white. This indicates that there is still ample room for exploration of other colors. Future research can expand the variety of colors to fully understand the psychological and behavioral impacts of colors. Regarding Research Methods and Techniques: This study primarily adopted a behavioral experimental approach based on psychology. To gain a deeper understanding, future research can consider using electroencephalography (EEG) or eye-tracking technology to obtain more detailed physiological and cognitive data, thereby further validating and analyzing the research findings. Regarding Experimental Tasks: This study utilized a focused Chinese character memory test task. Future research can focus on creative Chinese character memory tasks to more precisely understand the impact of colors on Chinese character memory performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing background colors of learning materials in the physical learning environment as an example, this study examined the effects of four colors\u0026mdash;white, red, blue, and green\u0026mdash;on the learning and memory of Chinese characters among second language learners. The results indicate that background color of learning materials can significantly influence Chinese character memory performance. Red can elicit positive emotions, stimulate the concentration and maintenance of attention, and activate a prevention-focused orientation, thus facilitating the completion of focused memory tasks and showing a strong memory-enhancing effect. In contrast, the low arousal induced by blue and its tendency to activate a promotion-focused orientation may be more suitable for creative tasks, and it exhibited a certain degree of memory suppression effect in focused memory tests. Additionally, white and green backgrounds had similar effects on Chinese character memory, with results falling between those of red and blue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings partially validate the revised cognitive load structure model proposed by Choi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), while also revealing that color, as a relatively independent factor affecting learners' learning outcomes, should not be ignored. This study enriches the theoretical understanding of background colors. Based on the above findings, this paper recommends that in the context of teaching Chinese characters, teachers should flexibly choose the background color of learning materials according to the nature of the tasks to maximize learners' memory performance and creativity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Data will be provided in a de-identified format to ensure participant confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst author contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, literature review, data collection, analysis, and writing of the manuscript. Corresponding author assisted in the conceptualization, methodology, and revision of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research reported in this article was conducted following the ethical guidelines of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. There was no specific approval number attached to the approval. All procedures performed in the study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were fully informed about the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, and their rights to withdraw at any time without penalty. Consent was obtained through written forms, and participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlpizar, D., Adesope, O. O., \u0026amp; Wong, R. M. (2020). A meta-analysis of signaling principle in multimedia learning environments. 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Acta Psychologica Sinica, (03), 229-243.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Background Color, CSL Acquisition, Intermediate-level International Students, Chinese Character Memory, Teaching Recommendations","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn teaching practice, color is a common and significant stimulus that can influence learners' cognitive load and learning outcomes through the mediating effects of attention and emotion. Given the challenges faced by CSL learners in mastering and memorizing Chinese characters, this study explores the impact of the background color of learning materials\u0026mdash;one aspect of the physical learning environment\u0026mdash;on the memory retention of Chinese characters among CSL learners. The study employs four background colors (white, red, blue, and green) and adopts a combination of E-Prime psychological experimentation, questionnaire surveys, and semi-structured interviews to examine the recall performance of 30 participants with similar working memory capacity and no particular color preference. The participants' ability to recall Chinese characters was assessed through written recall tasks under the four different background colors. The collected data were then analyzed using SPSS 26.0, with the \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser method and multiple comparisons corrected using the Bonferroni method. The results indicate that the background color of the learning materials has a significant effect on the memorization of Chinese characters. Specifically, the red background was found to facilitate the completion of focused memory tasks and demonstrated a robust memory enhancement effect. In contrast, the blue background may be more suitable for creative tasks, as it exhibited a certain degree of memory suppression effect in focused memory tests. Moreover, the effects of white and green backgrounds on character recall were similar, falling between the effects observed for red and blue backgrounds. These findings partially validate the revised cognitive load model proposed by Choi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and highlight that color, as an independent factor, plays a crucial role in influencing learning outcomes. This study thus contributes to the theoretical understanding of background color and its implications for enhancing the efficacy of learning materials.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Effect of Background Colors of Learning Materials on Memory:evidence from Chinese Characters","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-16 15:46:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5266192/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"446790c5-c523-4693-9de9-3c2e8e150743","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":40182391,"name":"Humanities/Language and linguistics"},{"id":40182392,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":40182393,"name":"Social science/Language and linguistics"},{"id":40182394,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-01T16:08:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-16 15:46:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5266192","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5266192","identity":"rs-5266192","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}