Indoor environmental quality through the migrant pathway, in Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland New Zealand.

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Phoebe Taptiklis, Kim Dirks, Andrea Edwards, Naomi Simon-Kumar, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013389/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract New migrants are often economically and socially disadvantaged, leading to difficulty in securing safe and healthy living environments. Maintaining a high level of thermal comfort while ensuring adequate ventilation is especially challenging when occupancy levels are high, finances are constrained and the quality of the building is poor, conditions disproportionately faced by new migrants. This paper examines the implications of visa status on the indoor environmental conditions experienced. In this study, 17 apartments in a region of concentrated migrant residency, all located in Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland, New Zealand, were monitored for temperature, carbon dioxide and noise levels over a two-week period over the winter and spring months of 2023. A survey including details of house/household characteristics and heating and ventilation behaviour was also completed. The monitoring data revealed that indoor temperatures were generally low across all groups, except for in the apartments of the most recent migrants (those on temporary work visas), who experienced average temperatures above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended levels of 18°C for those living in temperate countries. However, they experienced the highest exposure to carbon dioxide and night-time noise. These effects may be driven by a lack of acclimatisation, which drives new migrants to heat more than those who have been in the country longer. While for those with residency, the acceptance of colder indoor temperatures may be encouraged by high energy costs. Supporting new migrants into better quality housing would likely contribute to reducing the burden of communicable illness within this population. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1 Introduction Many developed nations, including New Zealand, rely on migrants to fill labour market gaps (1,2) and facilitate knowledge transfer (3). Over the past two decades, New Zealand has had a relatively high proportion of the labour force who are migrants (between 16 and 27%) (4,5) compared with the OECD average (15% in 2021) (2). Migrants are often drawn to central city locations for increased access to services (6) and the opportunity to connect with other migrants from their own country of origin (5) and tend to congregate in specific areas, or enclaves, within cities (7). In New Zealand, migrants, particularly those of Asian and Pacific origin (4), are disproportionately drawn to Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city (5). This clustering leads to the potential for environmental racialisation, for example, areas with a concentration of ethnic minorities disproportionately experiencing poor environmental conditions and high levels of pollution compared with other areas (8,9). In New Zealand, most migrants arrive in the country with a temporary work visa. Within the limited period of that visa, many apply for a residency visa, and eventually citizenship. All of these increase the security of their status but take time to acquire. The widely established ‘Healthy Migrant Effect’ postulates that it is more difficult for migrants with poor health to migrate (10). Stringent immigration processes also favour those with continuous employment and good health. Thus migrants, as a group, tend to be relatively healthy compared with the non-migrant population. Despite this, evidence suggests after an initial period post-migration, there is a decline in health status, often attributable to the erosion of socio-economic conditions (11). Recently, studies have mapped processes of environmental racialisation in New Zealand impacting on the quality of migrant neighbourhoods and housing (12,13). The current paper extends these earlier findings to focus on indoor environmental conditions within the inner city, investigating in particular the association between migration status and indoor living conditions. It is plausible that environmental inequities may also exist within migrant populations, with differences according to how long migrants have resided in the country. In New Zealand, migrants have been found to be at increased risk of developing serious communicable illnesses, including rheumatic fever (14) and tuberculosis (15,16). Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be diagnosed at a rate of around 300 cases per year (15), with most cases occurring in Asian and Pacifica migrants, migrating from areas considered high with respect to the transmission of TB (17). Most of the cases of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) occur in Pacifica peoples (13), and overcrowding and poor ventilation are risk factors for the transmission of both ARF and TB (18). Moreover migrant children residing in New Zealand have been found to experience six times the likelihood of hospitalisation (all causes) compared to non-migrant children, when the outdoor daily average temperature falls to below 5°C (19). Residential areas with high migrant populations in OECD nations have also been shown to experience higher levels of noise exposure (2,20). Exposure to noise has been shown to be associated with an increase in the rate of diabetes (21) and cardiovascular illness, including ischaemic heart disease and heart attacks (21), depression (22) and possibly even dementia (23,24) among exposed populations. Vulnerable populations with pre-existing conditions or those from lower socio-economic backgrounds are considered to be at increased risk, or at risk from lower levels of noise exposure, due to the compounding effect of other stressors which act on similar pathways (23). Furthermore, recent research points to potential synergistic outcomes for the co-exposure of noise and PM2.5 which particularly impact those living in the city centre, or living close to motorways (25). Given the importance of housing and the quality of the indoor environment on health and wellbeing, the aim of this study was to better understand the indoor environmental living conditions of migrants in Auckland, New Zealand, and identify any differences between people from different migrant categories (whether a new migrant, university student on a study visa, a permanent resident or a citizen). Specifically we ask: (1) What are the indoor environmental conditions experienced by Auckland-based migrants living in inner-city apartments, in terms of temperature, carbon dioxide and noise levels? (2) What characteristics of apartments and households explain these conditions? And finally, (3) Are there observable differences in environmental conditions by visa category (as a proxy measure for precarity and economic security)? 2 Methods Indoor environmental monitoring was conducted in seventeen migrant apartments. Participants were recruited from a broader survey which in turn is part of a larger study programme “Working to End Racial Oppression” (WERO), exploring institutional, social and economic racism in New Zealand (see other papers reporting on this data using other methods (12,26)). Ethical approval was gained from the Auckland Health Research Ethics Committee, approval number AHPEC24940 . Survey respondents were recruited by means of invitation posters, with a direct digital link to the survey, which were strategically located in residential areas close to the Auckland City centre. This included in some apartment foyers and areas where concentrations of migrant residents had been identified through informal discussions with local government bodies and community groups with knowledge of the area. The survey included details about their household and apartment characteristics, the number of occupants, the apartment level, floor area, and the nature of their window glazing (double or single) etc. Monitoring was conducted from August to December 2023 (the late winter- late spring season in the Southern Hemisphere). Each apartment of the consenting participants was equipped with low-cost environmental sensors, measuring temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide using a Kea device (www.keastudios.co.nz) and noise using a Sound Level Meter (Jaycar Pro Sound Level Meter with Calibrator), at an averaging time of one minute over a two-week period. The sensors were placed in the main living area of each apartment away from direct light, off the ground and away from any significant sources of heating, etc. Associations between self-reported house and household characteristics and monitoring outcomes were assessed using linear regression. The survey data were analysed for differences between visa status groups (Citizens, Residents, International Students and Temporary Migrants) using mean associations (t-tests). Regression analysis was used to graphically present monitoring outcomes by hour of the day for each subcategory of one other variable (i.e. visa status or heating frequency). This was carried out using interaction effects to produce a coefficient for each hour of the day, e.g. hour of the day was interacted with visa status in a linear regression with temperature, carbon dioxide concentration or noise level as the outcome variable. These coefficients were further adjusted for characteristics (e.g. the number of occupants) when they were found to be statistically significantly associated with the outcome measure in earlier univariate linear regressions. Adjusted coefficients were then plotted onto a graph including 95% confidence intervals. Variables used to adjust regressions are reported in the results for the relevant figures. For temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations, analyses were assessed over 24 hours, while for noise levels, the analysis was restricted to the midnight to 5am period to minimise the impact of any indoor generated noises, while maximising the real exposure experienced by residents during this time given their likelihood of being at home and resting or sleeping. 3 Results 3.1 Survey results from the monitored sample According to the survey results, those on temporary work visas (henceforth Temporary Migrants) and student visas (henceforth International Students) were found to live in the smallest apartments on average relative of all of the groups, and also had the smallest floor area-to-occupant ratio (see Table 1). International Students were found to live, on average, on the highest level in apartment buildings (mean level 8.3) and Temporary Migrants lived on the lowest (mean level 1)(see Table 1). Temporary Migrants were found to be the least likely to be concerned about noise levels, while Residents and Citizens were the most likely amongst all of the groups. Central heating was most commonly reported as being available in the apartments of International Students (two out of three apartments), and when asked about ventilation, participants residing in all of the apartments reporting the presence of central heating responded that they did not use doors and windows to ventilate, potentially pointing to a lack of doors or windows opening to the outside in those apartments. This may be the case where whole-building systems provide centralised heating and ventilation. Such systems are atypical in apartment buildings in New Zealand, individual apartment heating and ventilation being the norm. However, where they do exist, such as in hotels and student accommodation, windows may be fixed to increase energy efficiency. Survey responses for the monitored sample were similar to those of a linked broader survey of 119 respondents, which also included apartments which were not monitored (see supplementary table S1). Table 1. Monitored apartment characteristics by visa status NZ citizens Residents International Students Temporary Migrants Floor Area (mean) 54.4 74.45 34.5 44 Apartment level (mean) 5.4 6 8.3 1 Number of occupants (mean) 1.9 3 2 2 Floor area per occupant (mean) 32 24 17 22 Mean temperature ( °C) 16.2 15.3 16.8 19.3 Mean carbon dioxide midnight to 5am (ppm) 933 899 1082 1118 Mean relative humidity (%) 45 43 45 41 Mean noise midnight to 5am (dBA) 43.5 43.9 42.4 47.1 Mean traffic noise concern (0-4) 2.4 2.8 1.3 1.3 Mean excessive noise concern (0-4) 2.3 1.8 1.8 0.7 Monitored apartments 6 4* 4 3 *Noise data missing for one Resident apartment 3.2 Temperature Only three apartments maintained average temperatures within the World Health Organisation (WHO), health-based recommended levels of18°C or above for winter in temperate countries (such as New Zealand). Some of the apartments barely reached 18°C for any period of time throughout the monitoring period (see Figure 1(a)). Apartments with respondents reporting the least frequent use of heating also experienced the warmest daily indoor temperatures (Figure 1(b)). Apartments reporting no heater use had the widest variation in indoor temperatures, while those using heat pumps had the coolest average temperatures (Figure 1(c)). When considering indoor temperature by visa status, a very different diurnal pattern of indoor temperature was observed in the apartments of the Temporary Migrants compared with the other groups; they experienced the highest temperatures overall, and had higher temperatures overnight, whereas the other groups experienced their highest temperatures during the day and evening (Figure 1(d)). Note that Figures 1(b) and 1(d) have been adjusted for date to minimise the impact of seasonal shift over the monitoring period. 3.3 Carbon dioxide Around half of the apartments were found to have overnight carbon dioxide levels in the healthy range most of the night. However, for those apartments outside of that range, the levels were found to be very high, with one apartment remaining over 1000ppm throughout the whole of the night-time period (Figure 2(a)). The dwelling’s floor area was found to be significantly associated with carbon dioxide levels, with each additional square metre of floor area associated with a 7 ppm lower night-time carbon dioxide concentration, on average (Figure 2 (b)). Carbon dioxide was also associated with type of heater, with heat pumps and no heater associated with higher overnight levels (Figure 2(c)). Temporary Migrants were found to experience the highest overnight carbon dioxide levels on average (Figure 2(d)). 3.4 Night-time noise The apartments in our study were spread across approximately one square kilometre of the city centre (see Figure S.1. in the supplementary materials for the apartment locations map). Comparing the noise levels measured in the apartments with WHO health-based harm levels, it can be seen that at least half of the apartments experienced average night-time noise above the recommended levels for comfortable sleeping of ≤ 40 dBA (27). Several apartments experienced average noise levels in the range associated adverse health conditions such as increased risk for cardiovascular illness (> 55 dBA)(Figure 3(a)) (28). Apartment level (floor) and glazing type (single or double) were both associated with noise levels in apartments, with apartments at a higher floor level associated with lower levels of noise, and double-glazed windows associated with lower levels of noise compared with single-glazed windows (data not shown). Figure 3(b) presents the results of hourly regression after adjusting for glazing type. The relationship between measured noise levels and traffic noise concern was found to be linear and positive based on a scale ranging from ‘ A little’ to ‘ An extreme amount’ with respect to the question “How concerned are you about traffic noise?”. However, those who responded ‘ Not at all ’ concerned did not fit this pattern. In fact, those who responded that they were ‘ Not at all’ concerned were experiencing the highest median noise levels (Figure3(c)). Again, Temporary Migrants were found to be the outliers with significantly higher measured night-time noise levels experienced compared with all other study participants on other visa types (Figure 3(d)). 4 Discussion 4.1 Temperature Overall, the indoor temperatures of all of the apartments monitored were low. However, the most recent migrants in our sample, those on temporary and student visas, were found to be living in smaller apartments with higher mean temperatures and carbon dioxide levels, compared with the Residents and Citizens in the sample, suggesting they prioritised thermal comfort over ventilation. Temporary Migrants also had a different heating behaviour pattern - with the warmest indoor temperatures overnight - compared to all other groups with the warmest temperatures during the day and evening. This may relate to a lack of acclimatisation to New Zealand’s winter (when the monitoring occurred). Work by Lai et al. (2024), analysing hospitalisation data in New Zealand between 2013 and 2019, showed that non-resident children’s risk of hospitalisation for all causes during conditions when the outside temperature fell below 5°C (with a time-lag of up to 21 days) was three times higher than for resident children. This suggests that acclimatisation issues are not simply a matter of preference, but that there is a greater physiological impact of cold conditions on recent migrants arriving in New Zealand from warmer countries. Recent migrants may also be unaware of the full costs of heating their homes to a warm temperature, due both to the poor quality of New Zealand houses and New Zealand’s relatively high energy costs. This may also explain, along with acclimatisation, why migrants who have been in the country longer, as indicated by a residency visa, experienced the lowest indoor temperatures amongst those in our monitored sample. Moving to larger apartments is also an important factor driving these colder temperatures, as few New Zealand apartments have central heating, typically relying on individual apartment heating systems, and making larger apartments more expensive to heat. No other studies reporting monitoring data from occupied apartments in New Zealand were found. However, these temperatures are consistent with those reported in a study of detached housing in Auckland, a dwelling type that is much more common across New Zealand (29). Another study measuring temperatures in Auckland bedrooms of detached houses reported temperatures in the range of 7.5 - 25.3°C with a mean temperature of 16.3°C between June and August of 2016 (30). These levels are very similar to the results found in the current study carried out at a slightly later time in the year (from August to November), this time in 2023. Our monitoring suggests that all apartments, except for the three occupied by those on temporary migrant visas, had mean temperatures that fell below WHO recommendations (minimum of 18°C in cold months), indicating that most of the participants were living in conditions which do not sufficiently protect them from the risk of harmful respiratory and cardiovascular health effects (30). The fact that heating behaviour was a poor predictor of indoor temperatures points toward intrinsic apartment characteristics such as the number of north-facing windows, allowing sunlight into the apartment (insolation), and also insulation (R-value) as being more significant drivers of indoor temperature than heating behaviour. This finding is somewhat surprising as there is an assumption that apartments, on average, are typically easier to heat than houses, due to the reduced area of external walls and the smaller volume. However, this was not borne out in this sample. Many of the monitored apartments were found to experience indoor temperatures closely tracking those of outdoor temperatures (data not shown), demonstrating poor thermal performance and significant variability in the impact of insolation on indoor temperatures. Some of the residents reporting apartments with no heating experienced the warmest temperatures, while residents reporting apartments that were heated every day experienced the lowest temperatures. The consideration of insolation (amount of sunlight entering the apartment) when designing the heating systems for apartments could reduce the effect of living on the cold side of the building with additional insulation and better heating, by matching the heating and insulation for each apartment more specifically to that apartment’s thermal properties. 4.2 Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is not in itself considered a toxic pollutant, albeit there is some evidence of an association between exposure and reduced cognitive function (i.e. concentration), and possibly “sick building syndrome” (31). As the primary source of carbon dioxide in indoor air is human exhalation, it is typically monitored in order to assess the effectiveness of ventilation systems, and to monitor air quality in terms of ‘human effluent’ (31). Since Covid-19, attention has also been paid to carbon dioxide as an important indicator for understanding the risk of the spread of infectious diseases in indoor spaces (32,33). Both International Students and Temporary Migrants were found to experience mean night-time carbon dioxide concentrations of over 1000ppm, a level established as the most common health-relevant maximum recommended exposure level (32). Temporary Migrants experienced significantly higher night-time carbon dioxide levels than International Students, despite students having much smaller floor areas in their dwellings. It is not entirely clear why this was the case, but there are several possible explanations. Firstly, the students reported central heating (in two of three apartments) which, as discussed previously, may point to whole-building automated heating and ventilation systems which provide better environmental conditions in these apartments. It is also possible that the Temporary Migrant respondents had underreported their occupancy rates. Cases of severe overcrowding in Temporary Migrant dwellings have been reported several times in recent years (34,35), reflecting the existence of exploitation by work brokers, but may also be self-driven in an attempt to reduce housing costs. Finally, carbon dioxide is also a component of traffic fumes, and this may mean that ventilation at lower apartment levels is less effective, due to higher outdoor levels. Temporary Migrants were in the lowest level of apartment buildings, on average, compared to other groups. Over-crowding (as indicated by high carbon dioxide) and living on the lower level in apartment buildings (associated with higher PM2.5) have both been previously associated with increased risk of Tuberculosis (17,36). The Temporary Migrants in our sample were observed to have co-exposure to both of these housing-related tuberculosis risk factors. Most new Tuberculosis cases reported in New Zealand are thought to be related to migrants entering the country with a latent form of the illness which is difficult to screen for (17). However, this co-exposure of risk factors deserves more attention, and replication. 4.3 Noise Noise measurements to assess the health risks to residents are often recommended to be taken outside, at the face of the building (37). However, this type of measurement may differ from indoor exposures (38). In this study, noise monitoring was conducted indoors, in the kitchens or in the living rooms of the apartments. Thus, it is not possible to disaggregate exposure to external sources, from noise generated indoors by the residents themselves. To account for this factor, analysis was restricted to the hours between midnight and 5am, minimising the impact of sound generated by the occupants, and focusing on noise which could cause sleep disturbance. Fewer than half of the monitored apartments in our study were found to experience night-time noise levels below the threshold for sleep disturbance, and potential health harm (Figure 3(a)). Our results were similar to those reported in other studies from large cities which also measured noise levels indoors (20,39,40), although none of these studies reported disaggregated overnight levels. In our monitoring, the mean night-time noise attenuated with apartment level, with those residing in apartments on lower floors experiencing higher night-time average noise levels, and vice-versa. However, there was some complexity in this relationship; those on the floors between Level 6 and Level 10 experienced the highest noise levels around midnight, dropping to the lowest noise levels by 5am (see Figure 3(b)). While noise attenuation with increasing height has been considered to be a rule-of-thumb in noise exposure modelling for urban areas (41), recent research has suggested a more complex relationship between noise and apartment level, with a number of recent studies reporting non-linear relationships (42), sometimes with the loudest (24-hour) noise levels measured in mid-level apartments (20,41), or even with the loudest (daytime) noise levels measured in the highest apartments (43). One study, as with ours, found that apartments from Levels 6 to 10 had the greatest variability in measured noise levels. This same study also reported that noise measurements in lower-level apartments were characterised by a greater proportion of low-frequency sounds which have been shown to produce increased annoyance compared to higher frequency sounds (43). This suggests that perhaps distance to the source of sound is the primary contributor to these differences, as lower frequency noises do not travel as far as higher frequency noises. Taken together, the evidence suggests that noise annoyance may be greater on the lower floors, even when sound pressure measurements (dB(A)) are lower, due to proportionately more low-frequency sounds. Furthermore, apartments located in the mid-level floors may be impacted by both nearby and noise sources located further away, while those higher up may be affected mostly by noise from further away, and those below mostly affected by nearby noises. Importantly, the association with increased noise annoyance at lower levels may mean that this higher noise exposure is corelated with higher traffic pollution exposure such as PM 2.5. A recent review and meta-analysis reported a potential synergistic effect of these coinciding exposures, particularly with respect to cognitive impairment in older adults (24). Amongst the respondents, Temporary Migrants were found to be the least concerned about noise, despite being on the lowest floor levels and experiencing the highest measured noise levels amongst any of the groups, and the difference compared to other groups was significant. It may be that these participants have migrated from even louder environments, or perhaps, their more temporary situation impacts the effect of the noise levels. Night-time noise exposure is known to increase the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic illnesses, mediated through stress pathways which interfere with immune function and increase oxidative stress responses (25). Overall, our monitored sample shows that night-time noise levels in these apartments are concerning, and more attention is needed to understand this important health-related exposure in New Zealand cities. 5 Limitations The small sample size and cross-sectional design of this study mean these findings are best interpreted as hypothesis-generating. We did not measure health outcomes directly; rather, we identified environmental risk factors previously linked to adverse health outcomes in the literature. Additionally, potential confounders such as building characteristics (e.g., building age and insulation quality) were not fully accounted for in our analysis. Despite these limitations, the findings provide important preliminary insights into environmental inequities within migrant populations resident in New Zealand, particularly highlighting how the most precarious migrants may be at risk of experiencing compounding environmental stressors. 6 Conclusions In New Zealand, migrants, especially recent migrants, have previously been shown to have an increased likelihood of both hospitalisation for (cold) temperature-related health effects, and also for tuberculosis diagnosis. Based on the monitoring data collected in this study, known environmental risk factors for these adverse health conditions were present at the highest levels in the apartments of Temporary Migrants, including overcrowding (reflected in high overnight carbon dioxide levels) and living on the lowest levels in apartment buildings (associated with more traffic-related pollution experienced indoors). The data from this small sample suggests that, over time, migrants tend move to the higher levels in apartment buildings leading to improved air quality. However, the thermal environment was also found to deteriorate, specifically, colder dwellings in the colder months, perhaps associated with an increased awareness of the high cost of heating over time. Thus, apartment selection by those who have been in the country longer appears to be influenced by a desire for improved air quality and noise levels, meaning that a premium (monetised or not) is associated with apartments located on higher levels where the indoor environments are better. Once migrants have been resident in the country sufficiently long that they have secure visa status, there is continued tolerance of cold indoor living environments, as is common across New Zealand generally. This is a likely testament to New Zealand’s poor housing quality and high energy costs, not just for detached houses but for apartment as well. 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Immigration New Zealand launches investigation into migrant worker exploitation. Radio New Zealand [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 July 21]; Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/indonz/496022/immigration-new-zealand-launches-investigation-into-migrant-worker-exploitation Stuff News. “Blatant exploitation”: Migrant workers packed in freezing, damp rooms for $150 a week. Stuff.co.nz [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2025 July 21]; Available from: https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/129496019/blatant-exploitation-migrant-workers-packed-in-freezing-damp-rooms-for-150-a-week Lai PC, Low CT, Tse WSC, Tsui CK, Lee H, Hui PK. Risk of tuberculosis in high-rise and high density dwellings: An exploratory spatial analysis. Environmental Pollution. 2013 Dec;183:40–5. EPA V. A Guide to the Measurement and Analysis of Noise. EPA Publications [Internet]. 1991;280. Available from: http://www.epa.vic.gov.au Andargie MS, Touchie M, O’Brien W, Müller-Trapet M. Assessment of indoor exposure to outdoor environmental noise and effects on occupant comfort in multi-unit residential buildings. Building Acoustics. 2023 Sept;30(3):293–313. Bloemsma LD, Wijga AH, Klompmaker JO, Hoek G, Janssen NAH, Lebret E, et al. Green space, air pollution, traffic noise and mental wellbeing throughout adolescence: Findings from the PIAMA study. Environment International. 2022 May;163:107197. Mueller W, Steinle S, Pärkkä J, Parmes E, Liedes H, Kuijpers E, et al. Urban greenspace and the indoor environment: Pathways to health via indoor particulate matter, noise, and road noise annoyance. Environmental Research. 2020 Jan;180:108850. Huang B, Pan Z, Liu Z, Hou G, Yang H. Acoustic amenity analysis for high-rise building along urban expressway: Modeling traffic noise vertical propagation using neural networks. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2017 June;53:63–77. Wen H, Gui Z, Zhang L, Hui ECM. An empirical study of the impact of vehicular traffic and floor level on property price. Habitat International. 2020 Mar;97:102132. Benocci R, Bisceglie A, Angelini F, Zambon G. Influence of traffic noise from local and surrounding areas on high-rise buildings. Applied Acoustics. 2020 Sept;166:107362. Supplementary Files Supplementarytablesandfigures.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8013389","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":539394490,"identity":"c9b910d2-1281-47f3-97ff-a9af6484addf","order_by":0,"name":"Phoebe 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09:54:57","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":256756,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCarbon dioxide by apartment, floor area, heating type*, and visa status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*adjusted for floor area and number of occupants\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013389/v1/e60265865423cefad9744bde.png"},{"id":95816927,"identity":"f4aa1e65-59d9-4f3b-96d7-489f5118211d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 09:54:57","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186971,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNight-time noise (midnight to 5am) by apartment, apartment level*, noise concern and visa status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Adjusted for glazing type (single vs double)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013389/v1/96ee2b139b7cca89cd1b3417.png"},{"id":96366055,"identity":"cd749d4f-35b1-4010-a8f3-42783f402586","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 10:11:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1192873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013389/v1/1f756108-52b5-47ed-9ada-55befc17ffbd.pdf"},{"id":95816943,"identity":"4e0389dc-d210-4b13-8b27-0bd83aaa923b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 09:54:58","extension":"docx","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1066824,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytablesandfigures.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013389/v1/0522e88f05c6a4d56009f0e4.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Indoor environmental quality through the migrant pathway, in Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland New Zealand.","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMany developed nations, including New Zealand, rely on migrants to fill labour market gaps (1,2) and facilitate knowledge transfer (3). Over the past two decades, New Zealand has had a relatively high proportion of the labour force who are migrants (between 16 and 27%) (4,5) compared with the OECD average (15% in 2021) (2). Migrants are often drawn to central city locations for increased access to services (6) and the opportunity to connect with other migrants from their own country of origin (5) and tend to congregate in specific areas, or enclaves, within cities (7). In New Zealand, migrants, particularly those of Asian and Pacific origin (4), are disproportionately drawn to Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland, New Zealand’s largest city (5). This clustering leads to the potential for environmental racialisation, for example, areas with a concentration of ethnic minorities disproportionately \u0026nbsp;experiencing poor environmental conditions and high levels of pollution compared with other areas (8,9).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn New Zealand, most migrants arrive in the country with a temporary work visa. Within the limited period of that visa, many apply for a residency visa, and eventually citizenship. All of these increase the security of their status but take time to acquire. The widely established ‘Healthy Migrant Effect’ postulates that \u0026nbsp;it is more difficult for migrants with poor health to migrate (10). Stringent immigration processes also favour those with continuous employment and good health. Thus migrants, as a group, tend to be relatively healthy compared with the non-migrant population. Despite this, evidence suggests after an initial period post-migration, there is a decline in health status, often attributable to the erosion of socio-economic conditions (11).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecently, studies have mapped processes of environmental racialisation in New Zealand impacting on the quality of migrant neighbourhoods and housing (12,13). The current paper extends these earlier findings to focus on indoor environmental conditions within the inner city, investigating in particular the association between migration status and indoor living conditions. It is plausible that environmental inequities may also exist within migrant populations, with differences according to how long migrants have resided in the country.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn New Zealand, migrants have been found to be at increased risk of developing serious communicable illnesses, including rheumatic fever (14) and tuberculosis (15,16). Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be diagnosed at a rate of around 300 cases per year (15), with most cases occurring in Asian and Pacifica migrants, migrating from areas considered high with respect to the transmission of TB (17). Most of the cases of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) occur in Pacifica peoples (13), and overcrowding and poor ventilation are risk factors for the transmission of both ARF and TB (18). Moreover migrant children residing in New Zealand have been found to experience six times the likelihood of hospitalisation (all causes) compared to non-migrant children, when the outdoor daily average temperature falls to below 5°C (19). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResidential areas with high migrant populations in OECD nations have also been shown to experience higher levels of noise exposure (2,20). Exposure to noise has been shown to be associated with an increase in the rate of diabetes (21) and cardiovascular illness, including ischaemic heart disease and heart attacks (21), depression (22) and possibly even dementia (23,24) among exposed populations. Vulnerable populations with pre-existing conditions or those from lower socio-economic backgrounds are considered to be at increased risk, or at risk from lower levels of noise exposure, due to the compounding effect of other stressors which act on similar pathways (23). Furthermore, recent research points to potential synergistic outcomes for the co-exposure of noise and PM2.5 which particularly impact those living in the city centre, or living close to motorways (25).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the importance of housing and the quality of the indoor environment on health and wellbeing, the aim of this study was to better understand the indoor environmental living conditions of migrants in Auckland, New Zealand, and identify any differences between people from different migrant categories (whether a new migrant, university student on a study visa, a permanent resident or a citizen).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecifically we ask: (1) What are the indoor environmental conditions experienced by Auckland-based migrants living in inner-city apartments, in terms of temperature, carbon dioxide and noise levels? (2) What characteristics of apartments and households explain these conditions? And finally, (3) Are there observable differences in environmental conditions by visa category (as a proxy measure for precarity and economic security)?\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eIndoor environmental monitoring was conducted in seventeen migrant apartments. Participants were recruited from a broader survey which in turn is part of a larger study programme “Working to End Racial Oppression” (WERO), exploring institutional, social and economic racism in New Zealand (see other papers reporting on this data using other methods (12,26)). Ethical approval was gained from the Auckland Health Research Ethics Committee, approval number \u003cstrong\u003eAHPEC24940\u003c/strong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSurvey respondents were recruited by means of invitation posters, with a direct digital link to the survey, which were strategically located in residential areas close to the Auckland City centre. This included in some apartment foyers and areas where concentrations of migrant residents had been identified through informal discussions with local government bodies and community groups with knowledge of the area. The survey included details about their household and apartment characteristics, the number of occupants, the apartment level, floor area, and the nature of their window glazing (double or single) etc. Monitoring was conducted from August to December 2023 (the late winter- late spring season in the Southern Hemisphere). Each apartment of the consenting participants was equipped with low-cost environmental sensors, measuring temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide using a Kea device (www.keastudios.co.nz) and noise using a Sound Level Meter (Jaycar Pro Sound Level Meter with Calibrator), at an averaging time of one minute over a two-week period. \u0026nbsp;The sensors were placed in the main living area of each apartment away from direct light, off the ground and away from any significant sources of heating, etc.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAssociations between self-reported house and household characteristics and monitoring outcomes were assessed using linear regression. The survey data were analysed for differences between visa status groups (Citizens, Residents, International Students and Temporary Migrants) using mean associations (t-tests). Regression analysis was used to graphically present monitoring outcomes by hour of the day for each subcategory of one other variable (i.e. visa status or heating frequency). This was carried out using interaction effects to produce a coefficient for each hour of the day, e.g. hour of the day was interacted with visa status in a linear regression with temperature, carbon dioxide concentration or noise level as the outcome variable. These coefficients were further adjusted for characteristics (e.g. the number of occupants) when they were found to be statistically significantly associated with the outcome measure in earlier univariate linear regressions. Adjusted coefficients were then plotted onto a graph including 95% confidence intervals. Variables used to adjust regressions are reported in the results for the relevant figures. For temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations, analyses were assessed over 24 hours, while for noise levels, the analysis was restricted to the midnight to 5am period to minimise the impact of any indoor generated noises, while maximising the real exposure experienced by residents during this time given their likelihood of being at home and resting or sleeping.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Survey results from the monitored sample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the survey results, those on temporary work visas (henceforth Temporary Migrants) and student visas (henceforth International Students) were found to live in the smallest apartments on average relative of all of the groups, and also had the smallest floor area-to-occupant ratio (see Table 1). International Students were found to live, on average, on the highest level in apartment buildings (mean level 8.3) and Temporary Migrants lived on the lowest (mean level 1)(see Table 1). Temporary Migrants were found to be the least likely to be concerned about noise levels, while Residents and Citizens were the most likely amongst all of the groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCentral heating was most commonly reported as being available in the apartments of International Students (two out of three apartments), and when asked about ventilation, participants residing in all of the apartments reporting the presence of central heating responded that they did not use doors and windows to ventilate, potentially pointing to a lack of doors or windows opening to the outside in those apartments. This may be the case where whole-building systems provide centralised heating and ventilation. Such systems are atypical in apartment buildings in New Zealand, individual apartment heating and ventilation being the norm. However, where they do exist, such as in hotels and student accommodation, windows may be fixed to increase energy efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSurvey responses for the monitored sample were similar to those of a linked broader survey of 119 respondents, which also included apartments which were not monitored (see supplementary table \u0026nbsp;S1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Monitored apartment characteristics by visa status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"625\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNZ citizens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eResidents\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInternational Students\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTemporary Migrants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFloor Area (mean)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eApartment level (mean)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNumber of occupants (mean)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFloor area per occupant (mean)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean temperature (\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026deg;C)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean carbon dioxide midnight to 5am (ppm)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e933\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e899\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean relative humidity (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean noise midnight to 5am (dBA)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean traffic noise concern (0-4)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean excessive noise concern (0-4)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 42.9712%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMonitored apartments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 14.377%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.738%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.016%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 13.8978%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Noise data missing for one Resident apartment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Temperature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOnly three apartments maintained average temperatures within the World Health Organisation (WHO), health-based recommended levels of18\u0026deg;C or above for winter in temperate countries (such as New Zealand). Some of the apartments barely reached 18\u0026deg;C for any period of time throughout the monitoring period (see Figure 1(a)). Apartments with respondents reporting the least frequent use of heating also experienced the warmest daily indoor temperatures (Figure 1(b)). Apartments reporting no heater use had the widest variation in indoor temperatures, while those using heat pumps had the coolest average temperatures (Figure 1(c)). When considering indoor temperature by visa status, a very different diurnal pattern of indoor temperature was observed in the apartments of the Temporary Migrants compared with the other groups; they experienced the highest temperatures overall, and had higher temperatures overnight, whereas the other groups experienced their highest temperatures during the day and evening (Figure 1(d)). Note that Figures 1(b) and 1(d) have been adjusted for \u0026nbsp;date to minimise the impact of seasonal shift over the monitoring period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Carbon dioxide\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAround half of the apartments were found to have overnight carbon dioxide levels in the healthy range most of the night. However, for those apartments outside of that range, the levels were found to be very high, with one apartment remaining over 1000ppm throughout the whole of the night-time period (Figure 2(a)). The dwelling\u0026rsquo;s floor area was found to be significantly associated with carbon dioxide levels, with each additional square metre of floor area associated with a 7 ppm lower night-time carbon dioxide concentration, on average (Figure 2 (b)). Carbon dioxide was also associated with type of heater, with heat pumps and no heater associated with higher overnight levels (Figure 2(c)). Temporary Migrants were found to experience the highest overnight carbon dioxide levels on average (Figure 2(d)).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Night-time noise\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe apartments in our study were spread across approximately one square kilometre of the city centre (see Figure S.1. in the supplementary materials for the apartment locations map). Comparing the noise levels measured in the apartments with WHO health-based harm levels, it can be seen that at least half of the apartments experienced average night-time noise above the recommended levels for comfortable sleeping of \u0026le; 40 dBA (27). Several apartments experienced average noise levels in the range associated adverse health conditions such as increased risk for cardiovascular illness (\u0026gt; 55 dBA)(Figure 3(a)) (28).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApartment level (floor) and glazing type (single or double) were both associated with noise levels in apartments, with apartments at a higher floor level associated with lower levels of noise, and double-glazed windows associated with lower levels of noise compared with single-glazed windows (data not shown). Figure 3(b) presents the results of hourly regression after adjusting for glazing type.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between measured noise levels and traffic noise concern was found to be linear and positive based on a scale ranging from \u0026nbsp;\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eA little\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e to \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eAn extreme amount\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewith respect to the question \u0026ldquo;How concerned are you about traffic noise?\u0026rdquo;. However, those who responded \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eNot at all\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; concerned did not fit this pattern. In fact, those who responded that they were \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eNot at all\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003econcerned were experiencing the highest median noise levels (Figure3(c)). Again, Temporary Migrants were found to be the outliers with significantly higher measured night-time noise levels experienced compared with all other study participants on other visa types (Figure 3(d)).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Temperature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the indoor temperatures of all of the apartments monitored were low. However, the most recent migrants in our sample, those on temporary and student visas, were found to be living in smaller apartments with higher mean temperatures and carbon dioxide levels, compared with the Residents and Citizens in the sample, suggesting they prioritised thermal comfort over ventilation. Temporary Migrants also had a different heating behaviour pattern - with the warmest indoor temperatures overnight - compared to all other groups with the warmest temperatures during the day and evening. This may relate to a lack of acclimatisation to New Zealand\u0026rsquo;s winter (when the monitoring occurred). Work by Lai et al. (2024), analysing hospitalisation data in New Zealand between 2013 and 2019, showed that non-resident children\u0026rsquo;s risk of hospitalisation for all causes during conditions when the outside temperature fell below 5\u0026deg;C (with a time-lag of up to 21 days) was three times higher than for resident children. This suggests that acclimatisation issues are not simply a matter of preference, but that there is a greater physiological impact of cold conditions on recent migrants arriving in New Zealand from warmer countries.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent migrants may also be unaware of the full costs of heating their homes to a warm temperature, due both to the poor quality of New Zealand houses and New Zealand\u0026rsquo;s relatively high energy costs. This may also explain, along with acclimatisation, why migrants who have been in the country longer, as indicated by a residency visa, experienced the lowest indoor temperatures amongst those in our monitored sample. Moving to larger apartments is also an important factor driving these colder temperatures, as few New Zealand apartments have central heating, typically relying on individual apartment heating systems, and making larger apartments more expensive to heat.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo other studies reporting monitoring data from occupied apartments in New Zealand were found. However, these temperatures are consistent with those reported in a study of detached housing in Auckland, a dwelling type that is much more common across New Zealand (29). Another study measuring temperatures in Auckland bedrooms of detached houses reported temperatures in the range of 7.5 - 25.3\u0026deg;C with a mean temperature of 16.3\u0026deg;C between June and August of 2016 (30). These levels are very similar to the results found in the current study carried out at a slightly later time in the year (from August to November), this time in 2023. Our monitoring suggests that all apartments, except for the three occupied by those on temporary migrant visas, had mean temperatures that fell below WHO recommendations (minimum of 18\u0026deg;C in cold months), indicating that most of the participants were living in conditions which do not sufficiently protect them from the risk of harmful respiratory and cardiovascular health effects (30).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fact that heating behaviour was a poor predictor of indoor temperatures points toward intrinsic apartment characteristics such as the number of north-facing windows, allowing sunlight into the apartment (insolation), and also insulation (R-value) as being more significant drivers of indoor temperature than heating behaviour. This finding is somewhat surprising as there is an assumption that apartments, on average, are typically easier to heat than houses, due to the reduced area of external walls and the smaller volume. However, this was not borne out in this sample.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany of the monitored apartments were found to experience indoor temperatures closely tracking those of outdoor temperatures (data not shown), demonstrating poor thermal performance and significant variability in the impact of insolation on indoor temperatures. Some of the residents reporting apartments with no heating experienced the warmest temperatures, while residents reporting apartments that were heated every day experienced the lowest temperatures. The consideration of insolation (amount of sunlight entering the apartment) when designing the heating systems for apartments could reduce the effect of living on the cold side of the building with additional insulation and better heating, by matching the heating and insulation for each apartment more specifically to that apartment\u0026rsquo;s thermal properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Carbon Dioxide\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarbon dioxide is not in itself considered a toxic pollutant, albeit there is some evidence of an association between exposure and reduced cognitive function (i.e. concentration), and possibly \u0026ldquo;sick building syndrome\u0026rdquo; (31). As the primary source of carbon dioxide in indoor air is human exhalation, it is typically monitored in order to assess the effectiveness of ventilation systems, and to monitor air quality in terms of \u0026lsquo;human effluent\u0026rsquo; (31). Since Covid-19, attention has also been paid to carbon dioxide as an important indicator for understanding the risk of the spread of infectious diseases in indoor spaces (32,33).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth International Students and Temporary Migrants were found to experience mean night-time carbon dioxide concentrations of over 1000ppm, a level established as the most common health-relevant maximum recommended exposure level (32). \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemporary Migrants experienced significantly higher night-time carbon dioxide levels than International Students, despite students having much smaller floor areas in their dwellings. It is not entirely clear why this was the case, but there are several possible explanations. Firstly, the students reported central heating (in two of three apartments) which, as discussed previously, may point to whole-building automated heating and ventilation systems which provide better environmental conditions in these apartments. It is also possible that the Temporary Migrant respondents had underreported their occupancy rates. Cases of severe overcrowding in Temporary Migrant dwellings have been reported several times in recent years (34,35), reflecting the existence of exploitation by work brokers, but may also be self-driven in an attempt to reduce housing costs. Finally, carbon dioxide is also a component of traffic fumes, and this may mean that ventilation at lower apartment levels is less effective, due to higher outdoor levels.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemporary Migrants were in the lowest level of apartment buildings, on average, compared to other groups. Over-crowding (as indicated by high carbon dioxide) and living on the lower level in apartment buildings (associated with higher PM2.5) have both been previously associated with increased risk of Tuberculosis (17,36). The Temporary Migrants in our sample were observed to have co-exposure to both of these housing-related tuberculosis risk factors. Most new Tuberculosis cases reported in New Zealand are thought to be related to migrants entering the country with a latent form of the illness which is difficult to screen for (17). However, this co-exposure of risk factors deserves more attention, and replication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Noise\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNoise measurements to assess the health risks to residents are often recommended to be taken outside, at the face of the building (37). However, this type of measurement may differ from indoor exposures (38). In this study, noise monitoring was conducted indoors, in the kitchens or in the living rooms of the apartments. Thus, it is not possible to disaggregate exposure to external sources, from noise generated indoors by the residents themselves. To account for this factor, analysis was restricted to the hours between midnight and 5am, minimising the impact of sound generated by the occupants, and focusing on noise which could cause sleep disturbance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFewer than half of the monitored apartments in our study were found to experience night-time noise levels below the threshold for sleep disturbance, and potential health harm (Figure 3(a)). Our results were similar to those reported in other studies from large cities which also measured noise levels indoors (20,39,40), although none of these studies reported disaggregated overnight levels.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our monitoring, the mean night-time noise attenuated with apartment level, with those residing in apartments on lower floors experiencing higher night-time average noise levels, and vice-versa. However, there was some complexity in this relationship; those on the floors between Level 6 and Level 10 experienced the highest noise levels around midnight, dropping to the lowest noise levels by 5am (see Figure 3(b)). While noise attenuation with increasing height has been considered to be a rule-of-thumb in noise exposure modelling for urban areas (41), recent research has suggested a more complex relationship between noise and apartment level, with a number of recent studies reporting non-linear relationships (42), sometimes with the loudest (24-hour) noise levels measured in mid-level apartments (20,41), or even with the loudest (daytime) noise levels measured in the highest apartments (43). One study, as with ours, found that apartments from Levels 6 to 10 had the greatest variability in measured noise levels. This same study also reported that noise measurements in lower-level apartments were characterised by a greater proportion of low-frequency sounds which have been shown to produce increased annoyance compared to higher frequency sounds (43). This suggests that perhaps distance to the source of sound is the primary contributor to these differences, as lower frequency noises do not travel as far as higher frequency noises. Taken together, the evidence suggests that noise annoyance may be greater on the lower floors, even when sound pressure measurements (dB(A)) are lower, due to proportionately more low-frequency sounds. Furthermore, apartments located in the mid-level floors may be impacted by both nearby and noise sources located further away, while those higher up may be affected mostly by noise from further away, and those below mostly affected by nearby noises.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImportantly, the association with increased noise annoyance at lower levels may mean that this higher noise exposure is corelated with higher traffic pollution exposure such as PM 2.5. A recent review and meta-analysis reported a potential synergistic effect of these coinciding exposures, particularly with respect to cognitive impairment in older adults (24).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmongst the respondents, Temporary Migrants were found to be the least concerned about noise, despite being on the lowest floor levels and experiencing the highest measured noise levels amongst any of the groups, and the difference compared to other groups was significant. It may be that these participants have migrated from even louder environments, or perhaps, their more temporary situation impacts the effect of the noise levels.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNight-time noise exposure is known to increase the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic illnesses, mediated through stress pathways which interfere with immune function and increase oxidative stress responses (25). Overall, our monitored sample shows that night-time noise levels in these apartments are concerning, and more attention is needed to understand this important health-related exposure in New Zealand cities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe small sample size and cross-sectional design of this study mean these findings are best interpreted as hypothesis-generating. We did not measure health outcomes directly; rather, we identified environmental risk factors previously linked to adverse health outcomes in the literature. Additionally, potential confounders such as building characteristics (e.g., building age and insulation quality) were not fully accounted for in our analysis. Despite these limitations, the findings provide important preliminary insights into environmental inequities within migrant populations resident in New Zealand, particularly highlighting how the most precarious migrants may be at risk of experiencing compounding environmental stressors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6\tConclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn New Zealand, migrants, especially recent migrants, have previously been shown to have an increased likelihood of both hospitalisation for (cold) temperature-related health effects, and also for tuberculosis diagnosis. Based on the monitoring data collected in this study, known environmental risk factors for these adverse health conditions were present at the highest levels in the apartments of Temporary Migrants, including overcrowding (reflected in high overnight carbon dioxide levels) and living on the lowest levels in apartment buildings (associated with more traffic-related pollution experienced indoors).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data from this small sample suggests that, over time, migrants tend move to the higher levels in apartment buildings leading to improved air quality. However, the thermal environment was also found to deteriorate, specifically, colder dwellings in the colder months, perhaps associated with an increased awareness of the high cost of heating over time.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThus, apartment selection by those who have been in the country longer appears to be influenced by a desire for improved air quality and noise levels, meaning that a premium (monetised or not) is associated with apartments located on higher levels where the indoor environments are better. Once migrants have been resident in the country sufficiently long that they have secure visa status, there is continued tolerance of cold indoor living environments, as is common across New Zealand generally. This is a likely testament to New Zealand’s poor housing quality and high energy costs, not just for detached houses but for apartment as well.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupporting new migrants into better quality housing would likely contribute to reducing the burden of communicable illness within this population. \u0026nbsp;This research can support local government to understand some of the housing-related challenges faced by migrants living in their city. A larger study is warranted to further validate the findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNZ Productivity Commission. Impacts of immigration on the labour market and productivity [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2025 July 22]. Available from: https://www.treasury.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2024-05/pc-wp-impacts-of-immigration-on-the-labour-market-and-productivity.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOECD. International Migration Outlook 2021 [Internet]. 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Available from: http://www.epa.vic.gov.au\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAndargie MS, Touchie M, O\u0026rsquo;Brien W, M\u0026uuml;ller-Trapet M. Assessment of indoor exposure to outdoor environmental noise and effects on occupant comfort in multi-unit residential buildings. Building Acoustics. 2023 Sept;30(3):293\u0026ndash;313.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBloemsma LD, Wijga AH, Klompmaker JO, Hoek G, Janssen NAH, Lebret E, et al. Green space, air pollution, traffic noise and mental wellbeing throughout adolescence: Findings from the PIAMA study. Environment International. 2022 May;163:107197.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMueller W, Steinle S, P\u0026auml;rkk\u0026auml; J, Parmes E, Liedes H, Kuijpers E, et al. Urban greenspace and the indoor environment: Pathways to health via indoor particulate matter, noise, and road noise annoyance. Environmental Research. 2020 Jan;180:108850.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHuang B, Pan Z, Liu Z, Hou G, Yang H. 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Applied Acoustics. 2020 Sept;166:107362.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013389/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013389/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"New migrants are often economically and socially disadvantaged, leading to difficulty in securing safe and healthy living environments. Maintaining a high level of thermal comfort while ensuring adequate ventilation is especially challenging when occupancy levels are high, finances are constrained and the quality of the building is poor, conditions disproportionately faced by new migrants. This paper examines the implications of visa status on the indoor environmental conditions experienced. In this study, 17 apartments in a region of concentrated migrant residency, all located in Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland, New Zealand, were monitored for temperature, carbon dioxide and noise levels over a two-week period over the winter and spring months of 2023. A survey including details of house/household characteristics and heating and ventilation behaviour was also completed. The monitoring data revealed that indoor temperatures were generally low across all groups, except for in the apartments of the most recent migrants (those on temporary work visas), who experienced average temperatures above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended levels of 18°C for those living in temperate countries. However, they experienced the highest exposure to carbon dioxide and night-time noise. These effects may be driven by a lack of acclimatisation, which drives new migrants to heat more than those who have been in the country longer. While for those with residency, the acceptance of colder indoor temperatures may be encouraged by high energy costs. Supporting new migrants into better quality housing would likely contribute to reducing the burden of communicable illness within this population.","manuscriptTitle":"Indoor environmental quality through the migrant pathway, in Tāmaki-Makaurau, Auckland New Zealand.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-13 09:54:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013389/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"73719b9b-00ec-4eb0-939a-979b32c8d5d2","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-19T16:15:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-13 09:54:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8013389","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8013389","identity":"rs-8013389","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}