Forensic Investigations of Clandestine Burials Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Forensic Investigations of Clandestine Burials Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Forensic Investigations of Clandestine Burials Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Antoinette Adjoa Quashie, Akwasi Acheampong Aning, Felix Charles Mills-Robertson, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Locating clandestine graves is a challenging task for forensic science and criminal investigations. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a commonly used technique for this purpose, but its effectiveness for detecting graves deeper than 0.9 m has not been extensively studied. This research investigates the capability of GPR in detecting graves over 0.9 m in depth by burying six pig carcasses in various covering states at depths of 1.0 m and 1.3 m. Data was collected using two antenna frequencies (500 MHz and 800 MHz) for three months. The findings revealed that plastic-wrapped pigs produced strong responses in both 1.0 and 1.3 m graves throughout the study period with both antenna frequencies. Uncovered pigs produced discernible peaks for the first two months and taint peaks in the third month. The analysis of the reflection profiles indicated that 500 MHz antenna frequency produced distinct responses for all burial scenarios, particularly the graves with plastic- and cloth-wrapped pigs. Furthermore, graves of 1.3 m depth can be detected using GPR with 500 MHz and 800 MHz antenna frequencies. This study suggests that GPR is a promising tool for locating clandestine graves, but its effectiveness is influenced by burial-specific factors especially the clothing or covering of the body. Clandestine Graves Ground Penetrating Radar Antenna Frequencies Specific Burial Scenarios Geophysical Techniques Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Highlights • First forensic study in Ghana to assess GPR applicability for deeper clandestine graves, contributing to vital region-specific data on subsurface detection techniques. • Clandestine graves containing plastic- and cloth-wrapped pig carcasses generated stronger and more distinct GPR signals, indicating that burial coverings influence detection efficiency. • The study established that GPR can be a non-invasive and effective forensic tool for law enforcement in Ghana, supporting the identification and location of clandestine burials without disturbing potential evidence. INTRODUCTION The increase in crime in Ghana has surged over recent years for various reasons such as the increasing cost of living and others [ 1 ]. These crimes include petty theft, armed robbery, kidnapping, and murder. Notably, the total number of murder cases reported to the Ghana Police Service nationwide in 2016 was 549, an increase of 24 cases (4.6%) compared to 2015, highlighting the critical nature of murder as a growing concern in the country. Murder in criminal law is the killing of one person by another that is not legally justified, usually distinguished from the crime of manslaughter by the element of malice aforethought [ 2 ]. The crime scene of a murder that occurred in the heat of the moment could contain some incriminating evidence as compared to a premeditated murder. Murder is said to be premeditated when the perpetrator plans the act and carries it out willfully and, in such instances, locating evidence could prove relatively difficult [ 3 ]. This could be due to the perpetrator hiding incriminating evidence and the corpse. In many jurisdictions around the world, a murder cannot be said to have been committed unless there is a body to prove that the actual act of taking one’s life has occurred. When murder is committed, the offender tends to dispose of the corpse via dismemberment, dumping it in secluded areas, setting it ablaze, or dissolving it using corrosive chemicals. In some of these cases, the body may be extremely destroyed, disfigured, and decomposed to the extent that identification based on physical features is impossible. Bodies may also be concealed in the ground in burials known as clandestine graves [ 4 ]. Determining the location of a clandestine grave is a paramount stage in an investigation. Eyewitnesses play a significant role in providing essential details such as the identity of the culprits, the nature of the crime, and most importantly, the specific location where additional evidence can be gathered for further analysis [ 5 ]. In current clandestine grave detection, law enforcement agencies employ various scientific methods, including observational, invasive and non-invasive techniques [ 6 ]. Observational methods of clandestine grave detection mainly include monitoring plant growth, soil disturbance, wildlife, and insect activity in the area [ 7 , 8 ]. However, visual observation of disturbed ground and foliage growth alone is inadequate in definitively identifying the location of human remains. Invasive methods involving excavations tend to rely on information provided by eyewitnesses [ 9 ]. However, in the absence of precise knowledge regarding the location or depth of the site, excavation carries the risk of damaging the delicate remains and rendering additional evidence potentially useless in a court case [ 10 , 11 ]. Non-invasive methods used to locate human remains without disturbing the soil surface which involve cadaver sniffer dogs, air and soil chemical tests can confirm the presence of a body nearby, but cannot determine the depth at which the body is buried, posing a risk of damage during excavation [ 5 , 12 ]. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has emerged as a unique geophysical alternative for locating hidden burials, as it can be used in all types of terrains, including ice, water and desert zones [ 13 ]. GPR uses radio waves to capture images below the ground in a non-invasive way and has been successful in construction and surveying, geological investigations, and archaeological expeditions. This powerful technique provides an exceptional view of the subterranean environment, making it particularly effective for detecting clandestine burials. One of the key advantages of GPR is its ability to pinpoint the location of underground objects without disturbing the surrounding ground, preserving any evidence in the area. The detectability of a body by GPR depends on its level of decomposition. Various factors including body size, ambient temperature, burial depth and mode, soil moisture, presence of scavengers and burial covering influence the decomposition process, collectively referred to as a specific burial scenario [ 14 ]. Locating bodies buried in clandestine graves presents a challenge for law enforcement agencies [ 1 ]. Studies have shown that the use of GPR for single grave detection has been limited to shallow depths of 0.2 m to 0.9 m [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Although clandestine graves are mostly shallow, there have been situations where isolated bodies have been discovered in greater depths of over 1.0 m such as sinkholes and quarry sites [ 19 ]. In such instances, the bodies were found during excavations and sinkhole repairs which caused damage to the remains. Without appropriate knowledge of the use and efficiency of GPR to detect the presence of a body at such depths, it risks the integrity of the remains and any evidence buried with the body. Thus, there is a need to examine the effectiveness of GPR in detecting clandestine graves at depths greater than 0.9 m. This study sought to determine the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) in detecting various scenarios of clandestine burials at depths greater than 0.9 m. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Site The field site used for this research project was on the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology’s campus in Kumasi, Ashanti region. The site was specifically located within the Animal Science Department. The site ground was relatively flat and a portion with proximity to some trees was mowed, weeded and maintained to create a permanent research plot of 10 m by 5 m. Study Design Field research involving the burial of six pigs was conducted for three months. GPR was employed to determine carcass and grave responses in the various burial scenarios throughout the experiment. Responses generated were then analyzed to determine the viability of GPR in the detection of clandestine graves with various burial scenarios. Due to legal restrictions and budget limitations, pig carcasses were used as substitutes to simulate the various burial scenarios. A total of eight 1.0 m by 0.5 m graves were constructed in two rows within the study site (Fig. 1 ). Four with a depth of 1.3 m and the other four with a depth of 1.0 m with two controls, one for each depth. The controls were dug out and backfilled with no pig specimen placed to test the geophysical response of only the disturbed soil. Testing responses from the control graves were used to ascertain distinctions between a grave with a buried component (the pig carcasses) and simple disturbed soil. The other six graves contained a pig carcass each in varying scenarios as depicted in Table 1 . Two pigs were wrapped in black plastic, two in cotton fabric and the other two were left bare. These coverings were selected to mimic real-life instances where bodies have been found with similar wrappings. One of each plastic- and cloth- wrapped (and unwrapped) pig was placed in 1.0 m depth graves and the others were placed in the 1.3 m depth graves and immediately backfilled (Fig. 2 ). The pigs were placed on their left side with their heads facing North. Figure 3 shows a diagram of the burial scenarios. Table 1 Detailed grave information for each of the burial scenarios Grid Location / Code Burial Date (DD/MM/YYYY) Depth (m) Scenario B4F 31/07/2023 1.3 Pig wrapped in fabric B6P 31/07/2023 1.3 Pig wrapped in plastic A3P 31/07/2023 1.0 Pig wrapped in plastic A1F 31/07/2023 1.0 Pig wrapped in fabric Con A 31/07/2023 1.3 Control (Empty) B5B 31/07/2023 1.3 Bare pig A2B 31/07/2023 1.0 Bare pig Con B 31/07/2023 1.0 Control (Empty) GPR Data Acquisition The GPR unit generally consists of three main components: the antenna, the control unit and the monitor. The antenna transmits and receives electromagnetic radiation (radio waves), the control unit processes the signal for various parameters to be set to enable interpretation of responses and the monitor provides real-time display of the profiles. The GPR unit used was a MALÅ™ ProEx System with a 12” survey wheel and antenna frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz. These frequencies were selected based on various studies [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 7 , 23 , 24 ]. Wooden markers were placed at the head of each grave depicting burial code and depth and marking tape was used to mark the path of the GPR machine for exact positioning during data collection (Fig. 4 ). Grid data collection was performed every day for the first week after burial and once every week afterwards. A grid pattern was selected for greater detail and procedures which have been used in various studies were also used [ 25 ]. A total of eight lines were collected, four in the south-north direction (along) and four in the west-east direction (across) (Fig. 5 ). Surveys were conducted for each antenna frequency with a transect spacing of 0.2 m in both south-north and west-east directions. The survey parameters for this work were set as follows; Velocity: 100 m/µs, Acquisition mode: Time triggering, Maximum time window: medium, Time interval: 1.0 s, Sampling frequency: 989.92 MHz, time window 34.3 ns (1.99 m, 64 smp). Data Processing and Analysis In GPR surveys, data processing is essential for effective interpretation of results. Processing the data aims to eliminate associated ‘noise’, to improve visibility and possibly remove unnecessary artefacts which may affect the quality of the interpretation. The data were processed using ReflexW (Version 8.5). This processing provided data in two dimensions: depth and distance. Consistent parameters and filters were applied to all reflection profiles in order to optimize interpretation and analysis. The processing steps included subtracting DC shift, subtracting mean/dewow, static correction, bandpass butterworth, background removal, and gain function. The processing procedure that differed was the regulation of plot scale. Each profile was thoroughly checked to ensure uniformity in the processing parameters. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION GPR Data of All Burial Scenarios at 1.3 m with Antenna Frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz In the control burial site, distinct hyperbolic responses can be detected throughout the study with some changes observed in months one (1), two (2) and three (3) for all lines (Figs. 6 A, B and C). The controls showed hyperbolic responses for the first days of month one (1) as that was when it was freshly disturbed (backfilled). The following weeks showed a decrease in the clarity of reflections till the final month of data collection where it can be detected that hyperbolic responses are not discernible (Fig. 6 C). The 800 MHz antenna frequency produced distinct hyperbolic reflections in the first month of data collection (Fig. 7 A). Month two (2) onward all lines have little to no distinct reflections (Fig. 7 B and C). The bare pig carcasses produced distinct reflections with the 500 MHz antenna throughout the study. The red arrows in Fig. 6 depict that for all months, hyperbolic responses were detected. However, certain changes can be seen in month three (3) where the first line shows the reflections becoming less discernible. Hyperbolic reflections for the bare pig carcasses using the 800 MHz antenna were detectable for the entire study. Throughout this study, the data collected with the 500 MHz antenna frequency for the plastic-wrapped and cloth-wrapped pig carcasses remained similar, in that, a hyperbolic-shaped response from the graves was detected for all the data. For the 800 MHz antenna frequency, the hyperbolic signals became less discernible for the data across but noticeable for those along the graves from the second month (Fig. 7 B). The data collected across lines 1 and 2 for an antenna frequency of 500 MHz depict clear geographical responses at the near-surface less than 0.6 m and evidence of bodies beneath 0.6 m from the shapes of the hyperbolae for the period of study (Fig. 6 ). The graves can be distinctly detected from month one (1) however there is little distinction in the depth differences in the initial readings compared to the final days of data collection. It can also be noted that there is some difference in the size and shape of the hyperbolic responses. This can be attributed to the various wrappings of the carcasses (cloth and plastic) as shown in Fig. 6 and how that affects the decay and the responses. Differences in shape and size of the hyperbolic responses and similarities between plastic-wrapped and cloth-wrapped carcasses’ responses can be detected in the second month (Fig. 6 B). Across lines 1 and 2, the 800 MHz antenna shows distinct responses from the plastic- and cloth-covered pigs’ graves for most of the data collected (Fig. 7 ). However, a difference is detected from month two (2) across line 1, where no discernible hyperbolic responses are noticed. The hyperbolic shapes were not as defined as in the first month across line 2 for the 800 MHz antennae. It can also be noted that the plastic-wrapped carcasses produce distinct peaks compared to the bare carcasses. Speculations such as the type of plastic coupled with the soil moisture content have been made as to the reason for this occurrence, but nothing is certain. It is a known fact, though, that fabrics degrade differently from a carcass thus affecting GPR readings, hence a possible reason for this discrepancy. GPR Data of All Burial Scenarios at 1.0 m with Antenna Frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz At 1.0 m, distinct hyperbolic responses were observed for all graves in the first month using both antenna frequencies (Figs. 8 A and 9 A). The control grave produced discernible responses in months one (1) and two (2) and showed diminished and indiscernible peaks in month three (3) with the 500 MHz antenna (Fig. 8 ). Similarly, the grave with the bare carcass showed distinct peaks in months one (1) and two (2) and depicted less discernible peaks in months three (3) (Fig. 8 ). The graves of the plastic- and cloth-covered carcasses showed strong hyperbolic responses throughout the study with the 500 MHz antenna (Fig. 8 ). During the second month, the empty grave shows a spike in the hyperbolic responses for 500 MHz antenna frequency (Fig. 6 B). The reason for this discrepancy is unknown but a possibility could be the presence of unknown objects in the subsurface such as roots. Data obtained with the 800 MHz antenna produced discernible reflections for the control grave in the first month. The second and third months produced less discernible reflections as observed across line 2 and along the lines of Fig. 9 B and C. Reflections of the bare pig grave showed distinct peaks in the first and third months and faint peaks in the second month. Strong responses were produced from the graves of the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses. Distinct hyperbolic reflections are seen in Fig. 9 for months one (1), two (2) and three (3) of the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses. During initial decay (month 1), the carcass still appeared fresh at a glance but bacteria began to digest the stomach and intestines. Additionally, the body’s digestive enzymes began to spread through the body to start the decomposition process. As a result, distinct hyperbolic responses were visible for both cloth- and plastic-wrapped carcasses for both depths (Figs. 6 A – 9 A). This response can be attributed to the fact that the carcasses are fresh and fluid-filled hence there is a greater reflection at the point of the covering of the body [ 16 ]. Putrefaction also occurs in month one (1) and in this stage of decomposition, the breakdown of tissues and cells in the body occurs, releasing fluids. Various gases such as hydrogen sulphide and methane are produced during this stage. This creates pressure buildup in the body leading to bloating [ 26 ]. This occurrence can intensify and the body inflates relatively quickly without ideal circulation and aeration which can be depicted with the plastic-wrapped carcasses in their broader and flatter hyperbolic responses compared to the cloth-wrapped one [ 26 ]. The plastic concentrates the heat and fluids emerging from the body, enhancing the rate and degree of bloat [ 27 ]. For cloth, the material is highly porous and breathable as such, bloat occurs at a normal rate which can be inferred from the reflective profiles of the cloth-wrapped carcasses having sharp, short peaks [ 27 ]. In the second month, butyric fermentation of the carcasses occurs. Most of the remaining flesh is removed during this stage and occasionally gets covered with mold as the body ferments. The body is dried up but the coverings are still intact. Plastic being non-degradable, still produced hyperbolic responses although visibly different than earlier peaks [ 28 ]. It can be inferred that the shape of the carcass has indeed changed due to the decomposition process though the reflection from the plastic can still indicate the presence of a body. The cloth-wrapped carcass also produces peaks but in variation to earlier peaks. The body’s decomposition and the gradual disintegration of the fabric used explain this. Although the cloth is biodegradable, it takes relatively longer than a cadaver hence, it would still be visible during this stage [ 16 ]. Dry decay occurs after month three (3) and involves the remaining flesh being removed by insect activity and the skeleton being revealed. Observing the hyperbolic responses for month three (3) postmortem depicts visible peaks for plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses at 1.0 m and weak signals at 1.3 m for 800 MHz (Figs. 7 C and 9 C). Similar research by Kelly et al. , [ 29 ], revealed that the level of skeletonization of buried carcasses appears to have a significant effect on whether the hyperbolic responses would be distinct or not. This could explain the weak peaks observed for the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses in both depths at month three (3) (Figs. 7 C and 9 C). As the bodies decompose, the dielectric permittivity of the carcasses begins to shift to that of the surrounding soil possibly affecting the hyperbolic responses generated. However, with the presence of the coverings of the carcasses, responses would be viewed for relatively longer periods compared to the bare carcasses. This can be observed in Figs. 8 C and 9 C with peaks occurring throughout the study for cloth- and plastic-covered carcasses. The 500 MHz antenna detected the wrapped carcasses for the duration of the study per research performed by Knaub [ 30 ] and Pringle et al. [ 31 ] who detected strong GPR reflections of a wrapped cadaver for six years post-burial. Although using wrappings (cloth and/or plastic) might aid in the concealment of the body, it makes detection using GPR relatively easy as proven by this study and various others [ 16 , 31 ]. Schultz [ 32 ] studied the burial of pig carcasses for thirty (30) months with a 500 MHz antenna frequency and noted that for the graves with fabric-covered pig carcasses (blanket), reflective responses stopped being detected after the eighth (8th) month and was only strongly visible for three (3) out of the thirty (30) months of research. This study produced visible reflective responses of the cloth-wrapped carcass for the entire duration of the study with the 500 MHz at both depths (Figs. 6 and 8 ). Granted, his research was for a longer period and with larger pig carcasses, although scaling down to smaller sizes and shorter periods, should not have caused this disparity. This difference may be due to the soil type, moisture content and possibly the type of fabric used to cover the carcass. Widodo et al. [ 28 ] also performed a study on GPR to detect bodies buried under landslides or earthquake avalanches in Indonesia with a GPR antenna frequency of 800 MHz. Their readings produced clear hyperbolic responses, similar to this research. In this study, the 800 MHz antenna produced strong reflective responses for the cloth-wrapped body at 1.3 m depth and produced low reflections for the 1.0 m depth grave (Figs. 7 and 9 ). Similar to studies performed by Pringle et al. [ 31 ], the wrapped carcass was visible for the entire study using both 500 MHz and 800 MHz (Figs. 8 and 9 ). The wrapping of the carcass tends to slow down the rate of decomposition allowing for longer visibility using the GPR. Consequently, the presence of the wrap (fabric), having its decomposition process, aids in providing stronger hyperbolic responses for longer periods [ 31 ]. Although limited to large bare pig carcasses, Salsarola et al. [ 33 ] buried eleven (11) pig carcasses over 30 months and determined that the carcasses can be viewed by a 500 MHz antenna for up to thirteen (13) months post-burial. After that point, the pig carcasses were found to be skeletonized during an excavation. This study corroborates the research performed by Salsarola and his team [ 33 ] as the bare pig carcasses produced distinct reflections in month three (3) post-burial for 500 MHz and 800 MHz antennae and both depths (Figs. 6 C – 9 C). Molina et al . [ 6 ] also buried human bodies and used a GPR antenna frequency of 800 MHz. At the end of their research, it was determined that the GPR was able to detect the bodies up to seven (7) months post-burial but was largely unable to detect the skeletonized and burned bodies also buried. This was believed to be attributed to the high moisture content of the soil which tends to affect GPR responses. The empty graves, being the controls, were dug out and backfilled to provide a reference for the survey to distinguish between a grave with a body and just disturbed soil (ground). For both antenna frequencies, the disturbed soil provided distinct reflections. Nonetheless, after a week, these responses were similar to the undisturbed ground of the grave borders. Similarly to research by Lowe [ 21 ], both antenna frequencies were able to detect the disturbed soil for the first days of data collection and no other days. This is due to the soil being compressed over time removing the gaps in the soil leading to a homogenous mass. Additionally, research performed by Knaub [ 30 ] where control of disturbed soil with no remains was used detected no anomalies on the GPR data as well as two other detection methods (resistivity and gradiometer). Control graves (empty, back-filled graves) in some research tend to produce similar responses as detected and seen in Figs. 6 to 9 . Schultz [ 32 ] determined that the shallow control grave produced no hyperbolic responses for the entire duration of the study while the deep control grave produced relatively more visible responses than the shallow one, yet had five (5) out of thirty (30) months visibility detected using a 500 MHz antenna frequency. Similarly, Knaub [ 30 ], using an antenna frequency of 400 MHz, detected little to no anomalies for her control graves (disturbed soil). The 800 MHz antenna produced reflections for both grave depths which corroborates research by Widodo et al. [ 28 ] who theorized that an antenna frequency of 800 MHz can map the subsurface without anomalies until a depth of 2.5 m. CONCLUSION This study highlights the efficacy of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in detecting clandestine graves at depths between 1.0 m and 1.3 m. GPR offers a rapid and non-invasive method for forensic investigations, enabling targeted surveys in likely burial locations and reducing search times. The research also demonstrates that burial scenarios, such as bare, cloth-wrapped, or plastic-wrapped bodies, produce distinct geophysical responses, with hyperbolic reflections detectable throughout decomposition stages. However, not all reflections indicate graves, as they may result from backfilled holes. Preliminary observations, such as vegetative and animal activity, remain essential for guiding GPR surveys. Ultimately, this study suggests that GPR is a promising tool for locating clandestine graves, though burial-specific factors especially the clothing or covering of the body influence its effectiveness. Declarations Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Consent to Publish Declaration Not applicable Consent to Participate Declaration Not applicable Declaration of Interest Statement The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Clinical Trial Not applicable Ethics Statement The study has been approved by a research ethics committee at the institution at which the research was conducted. Pigs were euthanized with no pain in accordance with the Animal Research Ethics Committee of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Ghana (Ethical Clearance Certificate Number 0051). Funding sources This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution A.A.Q performed the investigation, methodology and wrote the first draft on the main manuscript text. A.A.A worked on the methodology, provided supervision, validation, formal analysis of the data, and reviewed and edited the main manuscript. F.C.M-R conceptualized and supervised the work, and reviewed and edited the main manuscript T.D Aided in methodology. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We extend our gratitude to the Biochemistry and Biotechnology Department, the Physics Department, and the Animal Science Department at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) for their support and services throughout this project. Data Availability Data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available, due to privacy reasons. References Somma, R., Sutton, L., and Byrd, J. H. (2023). Forensic geology applied to the search for homicide graves. Atti della Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti-Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali , 101 (S1), 5. Anscombe, G. E. M. (2017). War and murder. 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F., Syaifullah, K., Mahya, M. J., and Hidayat, M. (2016). Detecting buried human bodies using ground-penetrating radar. Earth Science Research , 5 (2), 59. Kelly, T. B., Angel, M. N., O’Connor, D. E., Huff, C. C., Morris, L. E., & Wach, G. D. (2021). A novel approach to 3D modelling ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data–a case study of a cemetery and applications for criminal investigation. Forensic Science International, 325, 110882. Knaub, M. M. (2019). Mass Grave Detection with the use of Geophysics. The University of Tennessee, Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects, Knoxville. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/2302 Pringle, J. K., Stimpson, G., Wisniewski, K. D., Heaton, V., Davenward, B., Mirosch, N., Spencer, F., and Jervis, J. R. (2020). Geophysical monitoring of simulated homicide burials for forensic investigations. Scientific Reports , 10 (1), 7544 Schultz, J. J., Leucci, G., Grasmueck, M., Muztaza, N. M., Saidin, M. M., Azwin, I. N., Weger, R., Saad, R., and Kofun, H. (2012). Detecting Buried Remains Using Ground-Penetrating Radar. Journal of Archaeological Science , 36 , 235. Salsarola, D., Poppa, P., Amadasi, A., Mazzarelli, D., Gibelli, D., Zanotti, E., Porta, D. and Cattaneo, C. (2015). The utility of ground-penetrating radar and its time-dependence in the discovery of clandestine burials. Forensic science international , 253 , 119-124. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6472685","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":468431543,"identity":"670009d5-0e75-46f4-82dd-5336ba2029dc","order_by":0,"name":"Antoinette Adjoa Quashie","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABE0lEQVRIie3QMUvDQBTA8RcO4nKl6009P8LrUof2m7jkCKRL6VIIccsUF3Gu3yJTcbzj1thbMzgoAV0cIgVxEbyG6JSmHQXvD3ccBz/ucQAu11/NS+1GiLR70F75drEeovbkzA9ANoScSoYUTyPDa/1Svd/PlqjpbldDtERjJNSxBn6ZdhJWRBeoimiFerBhEhYrLEPw1lsN40fZ/YwMJkxlWuSW2MESkZcEyCCzZB10Cm5eP1pCq7ohRgP56iFYLn5eobAfTOQyBOJZwlk3GZdvMXvIInGn/Qkr0B7KENXNdk7xABmZ+YZdZTNxa3RVJ0loD+r56TOejviBwX47l82c7Z/YRVH2C+Dp8RuXy+X6p30DKEBsV4ox1TcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Antoinette","middleName":"Adjoa","lastName":"Quashie","suffix":""},{"id":468431544,"identity":"f0fb07a8-9a86-4385-aa42-ca216209496b","order_by":1,"name":"Akwasi Acheampong Aning","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Akwasi","middleName":"Acheampong","lastName":"Aning","suffix":""},{"id":468431545,"identity":"f97e7f21-adf6-4890-b4ca-c5e31e994079","order_by":2,"name":"Felix Charles Mills-Robertson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Felix","middleName":"Charles","lastName":"Mills-Robertson","suffix":""},{"id":468431546,"identity":"e2b2617a-2783-42ba-8def-60d91a2a6edf","order_by":3,"name":"Thomas Dwomoh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thomas","middleName":"","lastName":"Dwomoh","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-17 14:38:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84369792,"identity":"8651cce0-d991-416b-8205-b4c26b00c5c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":144205,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEight graves prior to pigs being placed and backfilled\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/456121a2d23cc6df43fcc0d7.jpg"},{"id":84370062,"identity":"7eda3246-41ef-4e92-803b-e966c4d76c2b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 07:03:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":152868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraves with pigs wrapped in cloth (A and D); pigs wrapped in plastic (B and C); pigs left bare (F and G) and the empty graves as controls (E and H)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/d684b79a0119dcd162df5100.jpg"},{"id":84369793,"identity":"fc2c43f1-1366-4371-94ec-b74bb96b1ac8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43206,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic diagram of the research site with eight graves arranged in two rows\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/c21869a60d7b8ea8a1d10bc9.jpg"},{"id":84369795,"identity":"5cd2ca2b-ab02-4198-8c63-e54d7e4ec9d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":148956,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBackfilled graves with wooden markers depicting code and depth and tape marking the path of the GPR equipment\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/aa829127f80ea1ca7f244fa5.jpg"},{"id":84369794,"identity":"a3fb817c-5d46-4bdd-a394-e06386375b33","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":129246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMarking tapes showing the movement of the GPR from West to East and South to North\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/56465f8d843612f69c274b13.jpg"},{"id":84369797,"identity":"b08fdee6-e9fe-4009-92b4-0b93d6fc7339","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":216117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGPR Data at a depth of 1.3 m with antenna frequency of 500 MHz for A) Month 1 B) Month 2 and C) Month 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003eRed arrows point to individual discernible peaks at each grave\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/b34ac53581ceb1575ef94d84.jpg"},{"id":84369802,"identity":"ff214fab-dc7f-4d41-a696-b2f179b986a3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203094,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGPR Data at a depth of 1.3 m with an antenna frequency of 800 MHz for A) Month 1 B) Month 2 and C) Month 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003eRed arrows point to individual discernible peaks at each grave\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/a86a27f9d6b826940c612e19.jpg"},{"id":84369805,"identity":"c7b9b242-86fa-429b-8053-4f295c147b03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":206442,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGPR Data at a depth of 1.0 m with an antenna frequency of 500 MHz for A) Month 1 B) Month 2 and C) Month 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003eRed arrows point to individual discernible peaks at each grave\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/621996ebe0926b086e25decf.jpg"},{"id":84369806,"identity":"864c5266-2f25-4a51-b7b3-9d9e031878f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-11 06:55:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":194273,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGPR Data at a depth of 1.0 m with an antenna frequency of 800 MHz for A) Month 1 B) Month 2 and C) Month 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003eRed arrows point to individual discernible peaks at each grave\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/e5f43e16901faa559e815182.jpg"},{"id":92093009,"identity":"b8c83b64-f5d7-42fa-9535-89f8f9c62563","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-24 14:02:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2097564,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6472685/v1/a17808d0-225f-48d0-b429-f07ddde3f19b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Forensic Investigations of Clandestine Burials Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; First forensic study in Ghana to assess GPR applicability for deeper clandestine graves, contributing to vital region-specific data on subsurface detection techniques.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Clandestine graves containing plastic- and cloth-wrapped pig carcasses generated stronger and more distinct GPR signals, indicating that burial coverings influence detection efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; The study established that GPR can be a non-invasive and effective forensic tool for law enforcement in Ghana, supporting the identification and location of clandestine burials without disturbing potential evidence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe increase in crime in Ghana has surged over recent years for various reasons such as the increasing cost of living and others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. These crimes include petty theft, armed robbery, kidnapping, and murder. Notably, the total number of murder cases reported to the Ghana Police Service nationwide in 2016 was 549, an increase of 24 cases (4.6%) compared to 2015, highlighting the critical nature of murder as a growing concern in the country. Murder in criminal law is the killing of one person by another that is not legally justified, usually distinguished from the crime of manslaughter by the element of malice aforethought [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The crime scene of a murder that occurred in the heat of the moment could contain some incriminating evidence as compared to a premeditated murder. Murder is said to be premeditated when the perpetrator plans the act and carries it out willfully and, in such instances, locating evidence could prove relatively difficult [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. This could be due to the perpetrator hiding incriminating evidence and the corpse. In many jurisdictions around the world, a murder cannot be said to have been committed unless there is a body to prove that the actual act of taking one\u0026rsquo;s life has occurred. When murder is committed, the offender tends to dispose of the corpse via dismemberment, dumping it in secluded areas, setting it ablaze, or dissolving it using corrosive chemicals. In some of these cases, the body may be extremely destroyed, disfigured, and decomposed to the extent that identification based on physical features is impossible. Bodies may also be concealed in the ground in burials known as clandestine graves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Determining the location of a clandestine grave is a paramount stage in an investigation. Eyewitnesses play a significant role in providing essential details such as the identity of the culprits, the nature of the crime, and most importantly, the specific location where additional evidence can be gathered for further analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn current clandestine grave detection, law enforcement agencies employ various scientific methods, including observational, invasive and non-invasive techniques [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Observational methods of clandestine grave detection mainly include monitoring plant growth, soil disturbance, wildlife, and insect activity in the area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. However, visual observation of disturbed ground and foliage growth alone is inadequate in definitively identifying the location of human remains. Invasive methods involving excavations tend to rely on information provided by eyewitnesses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. However, in the absence of precise knowledge regarding the location or depth of the site, excavation carries the risk of damaging the delicate remains and rendering additional evidence potentially useless in a court case [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Non-invasive methods used to locate human remains without disturbing the soil surface which involve cadaver sniffer dogs, air and soil chemical tests can confirm the presence of a body nearby, but cannot determine the depth at which the body is buried, posing a risk of damage during excavation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has emerged as a unique geophysical alternative for locating hidden burials, as it can be used in all types of terrains, including ice, water and desert zones [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. GPR uses radio waves to capture images below the ground in a non-invasive way and has been successful in construction and surveying, geological investigations, and archaeological expeditions. This powerful technique provides an exceptional view of the subterranean environment, making it particularly effective for detecting clandestine burials. One of the key advantages of GPR is its ability to pinpoint the location of underground objects without disturbing the surrounding ground, preserving any evidence in the area. The detectability of a body by GPR depends on its level of decomposition. Various factors including body size, ambient temperature, burial depth and mode, soil moisture, presence of scavengers and burial covering influence the decomposition process, collectively referred to as a specific burial scenario [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocating bodies buried in clandestine graves presents a challenge for law enforcement agencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies have shown that the use of GPR for single grave detection has been limited to shallow depths of 0.2 m to 0.9 m [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Although clandestine graves are mostly shallow, there have been situations where isolated bodies have been discovered in greater depths of over 1.0 m such as sinkholes and quarry sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In such instances, the bodies were found during excavations and sinkhole repairs which caused damage to the remains. Without appropriate knowledge of the use and efficiency of GPR to detect the presence of a body at such depths, it risks the integrity of the remains and any evidence buried with the body. Thus, there is a need to examine the effectiveness of GPR in detecting clandestine graves at depths greater than 0.9 m. This study sought to determine the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) in detecting various scenarios of clandestine burials at depths greater than 0.9 m.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Site\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe field site used for this research project was on the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology\u0026rsquo;s campus in Kumasi, Ashanti region. The site was specifically located within the Animal Science Department.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe site ground was relatively flat and a portion with proximity to some trees was mowed, weeded and maintained to create a permanent research plot of 10 m by 5 m.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eField research involving the burial of six pigs was conducted for three months. GPR was employed to determine carcass and grave responses in the various burial scenarios throughout the experiment. Responses generated were then analyzed to determine the viability of GPR in the detection of clandestine graves with various burial scenarios. Due to legal restrictions and budget limitations, pig carcasses were used as substitutes to simulate the various burial scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of eight 1.0 m by 0.5 m graves were constructed in two rows within the study site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Four with a depth of 1.3 m and the other four with a depth of 1.0 m with two controls, one for each depth. The controls were dug out and backfilled with no pig specimen placed to test the geophysical response of only the disturbed soil. Testing responses from the control graves were used to ascertain distinctions between a grave with a buried component (the pig carcasses) and simple disturbed soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe other six graves contained a pig carcass each in varying scenarios as depicted in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Two pigs were wrapped in black plastic, two in cotton fabric and the other two were left bare. These coverings were selected to mimic real-life instances where bodies have been found with similar wrappings. One of each plastic- and cloth- wrapped (and unwrapped) pig was placed in 1.0 m depth graves and the others were placed in the 1.3 m depth graves and immediately backfilled (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The pigs were placed on their left side with their heads facing North. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows a diagram of the burial scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetailed grave information for each of the burial scenarios\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrid Location / Code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurial Date (DD/MM/YYYY)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScenario\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB4F\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePig wrapped in fabric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB6P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePig wrapped in plastic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA3P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePig wrapped in plastic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA1F\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePig wrapped in fabric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCon A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl (Empty)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB5B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBare pig\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA2B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBare pig\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCon B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31/07/2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl (Empty)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGPR Data Acquisition\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe GPR unit generally consists of three main components: the antenna, the control unit and the monitor. The antenna transmits and receives electromagnetic radiation (radio waves), the control unit processes the signal for various parameters to be set to enable interpretation of responses and the monitor provides real-time display of the profiles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe GPR unit used was a MAL\u0026Aring;\u0026trade; ProEx System with a 12\u0026rdquo; survey wheel and antenna frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz. These frequencies were selected based on various studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWooden markers were placed at the head of each grave depicting burial code and depth and marking tape was used to mark the path of the GPR machine for exact positioning during data collection (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrid data collection was performed every day for the first week after burial and once every week afterwards. A grid pattern was selected for greater detail and procedures which have been used in various studies were also used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. A total of eight lines were collected, four in the south-north direction (along) and four in the west-east direction (across) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Surveys were conducted for each antenna frequency with a transect spacing of 0.2 m in both south-north and west-east directions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey parameters for this work were set as follows; Velocity: 100 m/\u0026micro;s, Acquisition mode: Time triggering, Maximum time window: medium, Time interval: 1.0 s, Sampling frequency: 989.92 MHz, time window 34.3 ns (1.99 m, 64 smp).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Processing and Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn GPR surveys, data processing is essential for effective interpretation of results. Processing the data aims to eliminate associated \u0026lsquo;noise\u0026rsquo;, to improve visibility and possibly remove unnecessary artefacts which may affect the quality of the interpretation. The data were processed using ReflexW (Version 8.5). This processing provided data in two dimensions: depth and distance. Consistent parameters and filters were applied to all reflection profiles in order to optimize interpretation and analysis. The processing steps included subtracting DC shift, subtracting mean/dewow, static correction, bandpass butterworth, background removal, and gain function. The processing procedure that differed was the regulation of plot scale. Each profile was thoroughly checked to ensure uniformity in the processing parameters.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGPR Data of All Burial Scenarios at 1.3 m with Antenna Frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the control burial site, distinct hyperbolic responses can be detected throughout the study with some changes observed in months one (1), two (2) and three (3) for all lines (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA, B and C). The controls showed hyperbolic responses for the first days of month one (1) as that was when it was freshly disturbed (backfilled). The following weeks showed a decrease in the clarity of reflections till the final month of data collection where it can be detected that hyperbolic responses are not discernible (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 800 MHz antenna frequency produced distinct hyperbolic reflections in the first month of data collection (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA). Month two (2) onward all lines have little to no distinct reflections (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB and C).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bare pig carcasses produced distinct reflections with the 500 MHz antenna throughout the study. The red arrows in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e depict that for all months, hyperbolic responses were detected. However, certain changes can be seen in month three (3) where the first line shows the reflections becoming less discernible. Hyperbolic reflections for the bare pig carcasses using the 800 MHz antenna were detectable for the entire study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout this study, the data collected with the 500 MHz antenna frequency for the plastic-wrapped and cloth-wrapped pig carcasses remained similar, in that, a hyperbolic-shaped response from the graves was detected for all the data. For the 800 MHz antenna frequency, the hyperbolic signals became less discernible for the data across but noticeable for those along the graves from the second month (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data collected across lines 1 and 2 for an antenna frequency of 500 MHz depict clear geographical responses at the near-surface less than 0.6 m and evidence of bodies beneath 0.6 m from the shapes of the hyperbolae for the period of study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The graves can be distinctly detected from month one (1) however there is little distinction in the depth differences in the initial readings compared to the final days of data collection. It can also be noted that there is some difference in the size and shape of the hyperbolic responses. This can be attributed to the various wrappings of the carcasses (cloth and plastic) as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and how that affects the decay and the responses. Differences in shape and size of the hyperbolic responses and similarities between plastic-wrapped and cloth-wrapped carcasses\u0026rsquo; responses can be detected in the second month (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross lines 1 and 2, the 800 MHz antenna shows distinct responses from the plastic- and cloth-covered pigs\u0026rsquo; graves for most of the data collected (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). However, a difference is detected from month two (2) across line 1, where no discernible hyperbolic responses are noticed. The hyperbolic shapes were not as defined as in the first month across line 2 for the 800 MHz antennae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can also be noted that the plastic-wrapped carcasses produce distinct peaks compared to the bare carcasses. Speculations such as the type of plastic coupled with the soil moisture content have been made as to the reason for this occurrence, but nothing is certain. It is a known fact, though, that fabrics degrade differently from a carcass thus affecting GPR readings, hence a possible reason for this discrepancy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGPR Data of All Burial Scenarios at 1.0 m with Antenna Frequencies of 500 MHz and 800 MHz\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt 1.0 m, distinct hyperbolic responses were observed for all graves in the first month using both antenna frequencies (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eA and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eA). The control grave produced discernible responses in months one (1) and two (2) and showed diminished and indiscernible peaks in month three (3) with the 500 MHz antenna (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the grave with the bare carcass showed distinct peaks in months one (1) and two (2) and depicted less discernible peaks in months three (3) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The graves of the plastic- and cloth-covered carcasses showed strong hyperbolic responses throughout the study with the 500 MHz antenna (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). During the second month, the empty grave shows a spike in the hyperbolic responses for 500 MHz antenna frequency (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eB). The reason for this discrepancy is unknown but a possibility could be the presence of unknown objects in the subsurface such as roots.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData obtained with the 800 MHz antenna produced discernible reflections for the control grave in the first month. The second and third months produced less discernible reflections as observed across line 2 and along the lines of Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eB and C. Reflections of the bare pig grave showed distinct peaks in the first and third months and faint peaks in the second month. Strong responses were produced from the graves of the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses. Distinct hyperbolic reflections are seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e for months one (1), two (2) and three (3) of the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring initial decay (month 1), the carcass still appeared fresh at a glance but bacteria began to digest the stomach and intestines. Additionally, the body\u0026rsquo;s digestive enzymes began to spread through the body to start the decomposition process. As a result, distinct hyperbolic responses were visible for both cloth- and plastic-wrapped carcasses for both depths (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA \u0026ndash; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eA). This response can be attributed to the fact that the carcasses are fresh and fluid-filled hence there is a greater reflection at the point of the covering of the body [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePutrefaction also occurs in month one (1) and in this stage of decomposition, the breakdown of tissues and cells in the body occurs, releasing fluids. Various gases such as hydrogen sulphide and methane are produced during this stage. This creates pressure buildup in the body leading to bloating [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. This occurrence can intensify and the body inflates relatively quickly without ideal circulation and aeration which can be depicted with the plastic-wrapped carcasses in their broader and flatter hyperbolic responses compared to the cloth-wrapped one [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The plastic concentrates the heat and fluids emerging from the body, enhancing the rate and degree of bloat [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. For cloth, the material is highly porous and breathable as such, bloat occurs at a normal rate which can be inferred from the reflective profiles of the cloth-wrapped carcasses having sharp, short peaks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the second month, butyric fermentation of the carcasses occurs. Most of the remaining flesh is removed during this stage and occasionally gets covered with mold as the body ferments. The body is dried up but the coverings are still intact. Plastic being non-degradable, still produced hyperbolic responses although visibly different than earlier peaks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. It can be inferred that the shape of the carcass has indeed changed due to the decomposition process though the reflection from the plastic can still indicate the presence of a body. The cloth-wrapped carcass also produces peaks but in variation to earlier peaks. The body\u0026rsquo;s decomposition and the gradual disintegration of the fabric used explain this. Although the cloth is biodegradable, it takes relatively longer than a cadaver hence, it would still be visible during this stage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry decay occurs after month three (3) and involves the remaining flesh being removed by insect activity and the skeleton being revealed. Observing the hyperbolic responses for month three (3) postmortem depicts visible peaks for plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses at 1.0 m and weak signals at 1.3 m for 800 MHz (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eC). Similar research by Kelly \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], revealed that the level of skeletonization of buried carcasses appears to have a significant effect on whether the hyperbolic responses would be distinct or not. This could explain the weak peaks observed for the plastic- and cloth-wrapped carcasses in both depths at month three (3) (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the bodies decompose, the dielectric permittivity of the carcasses begins to shift to that of the surrounding soil possibly affecting the hyperbolic responses generated. However, with the presence of the coverings of the carcasses, responses would be viewed for relatively longer periods compared to the bare carcasses. This can be observed in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eC and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eC with peaks occurring throughout the study for cloth- and plastic-covered carcasses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 500 MHz antenna detected the wrapped carcasses for the duration of the study per research performed by Knaub [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] and Pringle \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] who detected strong GPR reflections of a wrapped cadaver for six years post-burial. Although using wrappings (cloth and/or plastic) might aid in the concealment of the body, it makes detection using GPR relatively easy as proven by this study and various others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchultz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] studied the burial of pig carcasses for thirty (30) months with a 500 MHz antenna frequency and noted that for the graves with fabric-covered pig carcasses (blanket), reflective responses stopped being detected after the eighth (8th) month and was only strongly visible for three (3) out of the thirty (30) months of research. This study produced visible reflective responses of the cloth-wrapped carcass for the entire duration of the study with the 500 MHz at both depths (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Granted, his research was for a longer period and with larger pig carcasses, although scaling down to smaller sizes and shorter periods, should not have caused this disparity. This difference may be due to the soil type, moisture content and possibly the type of fabric used to cover the carcass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidodo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] also performed a study on GPR to detect bodies buried under landslides or earthquake avalanches in Indonesia with a GPR antenna frequency of 800 MHz. Their readings produced clear hyperbolic responses, similar to this research. In this study, the 800 MHz antenna produced strong reflective responses for the cloth-wrapped body at 1.3 m depth and produced low reflections for the 1.0 m depth grave (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar to studies performed by Pringle \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], the wrapped carcass was visible for the entire study using both 500 MHz and 800 MHz (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). The wrapping of the carcass tends to slow down the rate of decomposition allowing for longer visibility using the GPR. Consequently, the presence of the wrap (fabric), having its decomposition process, aids in providing stronger hyperbolic responses for longer periods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough limited to large bare pig carcasses, Salsarola \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] buried eleven (11) pig carcasses over 30 months and determined that the carcasses can be viewed by a 500 MHz antenna for up to thirteen (13) months post-burial. After that point, the pig carcasses were found to be skeletonized during an excavation. This study corroborates the research performed by Salsarola and his team [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] as the bare pig carcasses produced distinct reflections in month three (3) post-burial for 500 MHz and 800 MHz antennae and both depths (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC \u0026ndash; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eC). Molina \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] also buried human bodies and used a GPR antenna frequency of 800 MHz. At the end of their research, it was determined that the GPR was able to detect the bodies up to seven (7) months post-burial but was largely unable to detect the skeletonized and burned bodies also buried. This was believed to be attributed to the high moisture content of the soil which tends to affect GPR responses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe empty graves, being the controls, were dug out and backfilled to provide a reference for the survey to distinguish between a grave with a body and just disturbed soil (ground). For both antenna frequencies, the disturbed soil provided distinct reflections. Nonetheless, after a week, these responses were similar to the undisturbed ground of the grave borders. Similarly to research by Lowe [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], both antenna frequencies were able to detect the disturbed soil for the first days of data collection and no other days. This is due to the soil being compressed over time removing the gaps in the soil leading to a homogenous mass. Additionally, research performed by Knaub [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] where control of disturbed soil with no remains was used detected no anomalies on the GPR data as well as two other detection methods (resistivity and gradiometer).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl graves (empty, back-filled graves) in some research tend to produce similar responses as detected and seen in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. Schultz [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] determined that the shallow control grave produced no hyperbolic responses for the entire duration of the study while the deep control grave produced relatively more visible responses than the shallow one, yet had five (5) out of thirty (30) months visibility detected using a 500 MHz antenna frequency. Similarly, Knaub [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], using an antenna frequency of 400 MHz, detected little to no anomalies for her control graves (disturbed soil).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 800 MHz antenna produced reflections for both grave depths which corroborates research by Widodo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] who theorized that an antenna frequency of 800 MHz can map the subsurface without anomalies until a depth of 2.5 m.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the efficacy of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in detecting clandestine graves at depths between 1.0 m and 1.3 m. GPR offers a rapid and non-invasive method for forensic investigations, enabling targeted surveys in likely burial locations and reducing search times. The research also demonstrates that burial scenarios, such as bare, cloth-wrapped, or plastic-wrapped bodies, produce distinct geophysical responses, with hyperbolic reflections detectable throughout decomposition stages. However, not all reflections indicate graves, as they may result from backfilled holes. Preliminary observations, such as vegetative and animal activity, remain essential for guiding GPR surveys. Ultimately, this study suggests that GPR is a promising tool for locating clandestine graves, though burial-specific factors especially the clothing or covering of the body influence its effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Interest Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClinical Trial\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Statement\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study has been approved by a research ethics committee at the institution at which the research was conducted. Pigs were euthanized with no pain in accordance with the Animal Research Ethics Committee of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Ghana (Ethical Clearance Certificate Number 0051).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding sources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA.A.Q performed the investigation, methodology and wrote the first draft on the main manuscript text. A.A.A worked on the methodology, provided supervision, validation, formal analysis of the data, and reviewed and edited the main manuscript. F.C.M-R conceptualized and supervised the work, and reviewed and edited the main manuscript T.D Aided in methodology. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe extend our gratitude to the Biochemistry and Biotechnology Department, the Physics Department, and the Animal Science Department at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) for their support and services throughout this project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Availability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available, due to privacy reasons.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSomma, R., Sutton, L., and Byrd, J. H. (2023). Forensic geology applied to the search for homicide graves. \u003cem\u003eAtti della Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti-Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e101\u003c/em\u003e(S1), 5.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnscombe, G. E. M. (2017). 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(2023). \u003cem\u003eHonolulu police investigate after body found in sinkhole.\u003c/em\u003e 9News. https://www.9news.com.au/world/honolulu-police-investigate-after-body-found-in-sinkhole/8148b54b-93ae-4cda-aa48-ad5900a4d15b (Accessed on July 7, 2024)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParsekian, A. D., Singha, K., Minsley, B. J., Holbrook, W. S., and Slater, L. (2015). Multiscale geophysical imaging of the critical zone. \u003cem\u003eReviews of Geophysics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e53\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1-26.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLowe, A. C. (2010). A geophysical and biochemical investigation of buried remains in contrasting soil textures in southern Ontario (Doctoral dissertation).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAziz, A. S., Stewart, R. R., Green, S. L., and Flores, J. B. (2016). 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The University of Tennessee, Chancellor\u0026rsquo;s Honors Program Projects, Knoxville. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/2302\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePringle, J. K., Stimpson, G., Wisniewski, K. D., Heaton, V., Davenward, B., Mirosch, N., Spencer, F., and Jervis, J. R. (2020). Geophysical monitoring of simulated homicide burials for forensic investigations. \u003cem\u003eScientific Reports\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1), 7544\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchultz, J. J., Leucci, G., Grasmueck, M., Muztaza, N. M., Saidin, M. M., Azwin, I. N., Weger, R., Saad, R., and Kofun, H. (2012). Detecting Buried Remains Using Ground-Penetrating Radar. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Archaeological Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e36\u003c/em\u003e, 235.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalsarola, D., Poppa, P., Amadasi, A., Mazzarelli, D., Gibelli, D., Zanotti, E., Porta, D. and Cattaneo, C. (2015). The utility of ground-penetrating radar and its time-dependence in the discovery of clandestine burials. \u003cem\u003eForensic science international\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e253\u003c/em\u003e, 119-124.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Clandestine Graves, Ground Penetrating Radar, Antenna Frequencies, Specific Burial Scenarios, Geophysical Techniques","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLocating clandestine graves is a challenging task for forensic science and criminal investigations. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a commonly used technique for this purpose, but its effectiveness for detecting graves deeper than 0.9 m has not been extensively studied. This research investigates the capability of GPR in detecting graves over 0.9 m in depth by burying six pig carcasses in various covering states at depths of 1.0 m and 1.3 m. Data was collected using two antenna frequencies (500 MHz and 800 MHz) for three months. The findings revealed that plastic-wrapped pigs produced strong responses in both 1.0 and 1.3 m graves throughout the study period with both antenna frequencies. Uncovered pigs produced discernible peaks for the first two months and taint peaks in the third month. The analysis of the reflection profiles indicated that 500 MHz antenna frequency produced distinct responses for all burial scenarios, particularly the graves with plastic- and cloth-wrapped pigs. Furthermore, graves of 1.3 m depth can be detected using GPR with 500 MHz and 800 MHz antenna frequencies. This study suggests that GPR is a promising tool for locating clandestine graves, but its effectiveness is influenced by burial-specific factors especially the clothing or covering of the body.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Forensic Investigations of Clandestine Burials Using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-11 06:55:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6472685/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b279120f-be4d-49f9-82dc-36eaac8b8bf5","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-24T13:54:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-11 06:55:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6472685","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6472685","identity":"rs-6472685","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}