DNA Damage, Transposable Element Expression and Their Associated Factors in Aging

Aging is a gradual and irreversible physiological process that leads to declines in tissue and cell functions, along with an increased risk of developing various age-related diseases. The primary driving force associated with aging is the accumulation of damaged genetic material in the cell, such as DNA. DNA damage can be caused by endogenous and exogenous factors, which leads to genome instability, mitochondrial dysfunction, epigenetic modifications, and proteostatic disturb. Another driving force associated with aging is the disruption of cellular metabolism. This disruption is closely linked to alterations in the function of metabolic pathways, including insulin/IGF-1 and mTOR, which regulate crucial cellular processes like cell growth, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. The activation of the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway highly promotes cell growth and proliferation, while also inhibits autophagy and increasing ROS production. This ultimately leads to accelerated aging. Another crucial signaling pathway is the mTOR signaling pathway. It is responsible for detecting nutrient availability and controlling cell growth and metabolism. The dysregulation of mTOR function can lead to the development of neurodegenerative diseases, which are characterized by the aggregation of protein. Activation of transposable elements is the other driving force of aging, caused by changes in DNA methylation and the loss of heterochromatin. As a result, this leads to DNA damage, genomic instability, and inflammation. The aim of this review is to elucidate the consequence of DNA damage and other associated factors drive aging.