Friends “Make You Feel Way Better”: Illuminating the Perspectives of Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Silva, Kyle D. Bennett, Emily A. Dare This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 07 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can struggle with developing and maintaining meaningful friendships. In this qualitative study, we explored their real-life friendship experiences by focusing on the following questions: (a) How do adolescents with ASD conceptualize friendship? and (b) What perceptions do adolescents with ASD have regarding their friendship quality and their level of social engagement with their friends? Participants were eight adolescents aged between 12–17 years, diagnosed with ASD. Semi-structured interviews explored their experiences with their current friendships and social engagement. The data collected were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. We developed Personal Experiential Themes (PETs) for each participant. A cross-case analysis of PETs resulted in four Group Experiential Themes (GETs): (a) We Expect Friends to “Make You Feel Way Better,” (b) “I Like My Friends,” (c) Friendship Isn’t Easy, “I Don’t Really Do Anything Wrong,” and (d) “I Feel Like I Could Use more Friends, Yeah”. Participants’ experiences were not all the same; yet, there was a clear distinction between those who were content with their friendships and those who were not. The four GETs illuminated the participants’ friendship expectations, quality of current friendships and social experiences, difficulties encountered when engaging with peers, and desire for meaningful friendships. Implications for future research are discussed. friendship social engagement autism adolescents phenomenology Introduction For individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), their teenage years can bring new social opportunities and challenges. Understanding the friendship development and social experiences of adolescents with ASD is not a simple undertaking since ASD is characterized by a wide variation and severity of traits. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; 2022) described ASD as a neurological condition that impacts (a) how someone interacts and communicates with others, (b) their behaviors, and (c) how they learn. Individuals with ASD typically display impairment in social skills, which may impact their ability to form and maintain friendships. These social challenges may cause difficulty navigating back-and-forth conversation, understanding another person’s point of view, communicating with peers and adults, and adapting to social situations (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022; NIMH, 2022). Previous research has suggested the possibility that although friendships of youth with ASD are different from typically developing (TD) youth, they may meet the needs (e.g., companionship and shared interests) of individuals with ASD (Petrina et al., 2014 ). According to the NIMH (2022), adolescents with ASD may exhibit subtle communication differences such as problems understanding variations in voice intonations, facial expressions, and figurative language. These subtle differences, among others noted earlier, may negatively affect friendship development and social experiences. Donaldson and colleagues ( 2018 ) acknowledged the differences in the quality of friendships between individuals with ASD and their TD peers and suggested a need to investigate the definitions of friendship and the perspectives of youth with ASD by seeking information directly from this population. Adolescence is a critical time for friendship development and social engagement. Leibowitz ( 2018 ) describes friendship as a mutual relationship between two or more individuals in which they value each other such that the relationship brings happiness to each person involved. Zeedyk et al. ( 2014 ) explained that friendships offer support in various ways such as emotional security, opportunities for candid disclosure, and validation within social circles. Considering the impact that social difficulties may have on the lives of individuals with ASD, researchers have sought to understand the social lives of this population, typically through parent and self-reports on standardized assessments (e.g., Friendship Quality Scale and Social Responsiveness Scale-2). In a review of previous studies that relied on sociometric evaluations, Bauminger-Zviely ( 2013 ) reported that the friendships of youth with ASD typically consisted of tenuous connections with one or two friends. This description of superficial friendships reflected the work of O’Hagan and Hebron (2017) and Platos and Pisula (2021), whose studies included the examination of the definitions of friendships of adolescents with ASD. Their findings revealed that participants with ASD less often referred to defining characteristics of friendships (e.g., affection and intimacy) compared to their TD peers (O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017; Platos & Pisula, 2021). Nevertheless, O’Hagan and Hebron reported that adolescents’ with ASD described desirable attributes of friendship such as being nice to each other and reciprocal support. Previous studies, such as O’Hagan and Hebron, have indicated that individuals with ASD possess surface-level friendships; however, they have the capability of distinguishing characteristics they desire in a friend. When examining friendship characteristics, it is also prudent to consider social engagement and participation. Friendships can form around shared interests (Leibowitz, 2018 ), which is a common connection among adolescents with ASD (O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017). Work conducted by Bohnert et al. ( 2019 ) and Kuo et al. ( 2013 ) highlighted the social activities in which adolescents participated. Bohnert et al. examined adolescents’ participation in organized activities such as sports and religious groups that can help facilitate social engagement. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the relations between the Friendship Quality Questionnaire-Abbreviated Edition and an Organized Activity Inventory (Bohnert et al., 2019 ). While there was not a significant correlation between organized activities and friendship quality, Bohnert and colleagues recognized that the organized activity that adolescents with ASD participated in the most was sports. Further, these findings revealed that higher levels of involvement in organized activities were linked to lower levels of loneliness (e.g., having someone to talk to; Bohnert et al., 2019 ). Through mail-based surveys completed by adolescents with ASD, Kuo et al.’s ( 2013 ) study identified several activities that adolescents with ASD participated in and contributed to their positive social experiences. For example, 20–40% of the participants reported spending time with friends by engaging in physical activities, watching television, playing (e.g., video games, board games, and sports), and having conversations. In particular, males with ASD reported frequently playing video games with friends, while females reported partaking in conversations with friends (Kuo et al., 2013 ). The majority of adolescents with ASD also reported having friends of the same gender (Kuo et al., 2013 ). The friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD looks different across individuals in this unique population, and their social experiences can positively or negatively impact their lives. It is necessary to learn more about their friendship experiences and how they may affect their quality of life. Measuring the quality of friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD is an undertaking that requires substantial consideration. To explore the intricacies of these friendships, the present study goes beyond the standard practice of analyzing quantitative data from surveys and questionnaires (Cribb et al., 2019 ) and the heavy reliance on parent interpretations and perceptions about their adolescent’s social lives (e.g., Sedgewick et al., 2018 ). Current studies rarely ask adolescents with ASD about their friendships qualitatively (e.g., Sedgewick et al., 2018 ), with one of the few exceptions being the work by O’Hagan and Hebron (2017). We anticipated that adolescents with ASD would have unique insights into their own friendships and social engagements, which others (e.g., parents, teachers) would not be able to share. To capture the essence of friendship and the quality of social engagement of adolescents with ASD through a phenomenological lens, this study aimed to answer the following two questions: (a) How do adolescents with ASD conceptualize friendship? and (b) What perceptions do adolescents with ASD have regarding their friendship quality and their level of social engagement with their friends? Methods Design We rooted this study in the three core foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography (Smith et al., 2022 ). Interpretive phenomenological analysis centers on individuals’ interpretations of their experiences; involves a double hermeneutic in which both participants and researchers make meaning of those experiences; and emphasizes a detailed, individual analysis of each participant’s lived reality (Nizza et al., 2021 ; Smith et al., 2022 ). Through IPA, this study was constructed to understand the subjective perspectives of adolescents with ASD through a first-person lens (Smith et al., 2022 ). Researchers using IPA approach a research topic with three priorities: (a) understanding the essence of an experience for phenomenon of interest, (b) focusing on each individual’s experience—even among a group of research participants, and (c) examining how both participants and researchers engage in meaning-making and interpretation about the experience (Smith et al., 2022 ). For this work, the phenomena of study were the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD. Using IPA, we completed an in-depth, case-by-case analysis of participants’ experiences. Finally, we conducted a secondary cross-case analysis of our participant group to identify commonalities or differences among their individual experiences (Smith et al., 2022 ). Positionality of the Researchers At the time of this study, Author 1 was a specialist supporting individuals with ASD and related disabilities in South Florida. Her lived experiences as a mother of a child with ASD, special education teacher, and researcher shape her commitment to centering the voices of individuals with disabilities to inform effective support services. Author 2 is an Associate Professor of Special Education with experience serving students with ASD and other developmental disabilities in a variety of roles (i.e., paraprofessional, teacher, related service provider, and program administrator). Author 3, Associate Professor of Science and STEM Education, focuses her research on preparing science teachers and supporting diverse students in STEM, using primarily qualitative, phenomenological methods. Together, their varied perspectives shaped the research approach, with a shared commitment to centering participant voice and conducting inquiry that challenges deficit-based assumptions. Participants This study was approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board. To be included in this study, participants had to be English-speaking adolescents between the ages 12–17 years, which is the age of adolescence identified by the CDC (2021). Participants must have previously received a community diagnosis of ASD by a medical professional or qualify for services under the eligibility category of ASD defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004). Moreover, based on the parental report, potential participants had to be able to engage in an interview discussion with us. We used purposive sampling—which is common in IPA studies (Smith et al., 2022 )—to recruit adolescents who fit the boundaries of this study’s focus. Recruitment flyers were sent via email through a regional autism support center located in the southeast region of the United States. The first author met with 10 parents to ascertain their child’s eligibility for the study. Eight adolescents assented to participate; their parents provided consent. Participant demographics are presented in Table 1 (see Table 1 ). Note that smaller sample sizes (i.e., 6–10 interviews) are typical of IPA studies to allow for in depth idiographic analysis of participants’ experiences (Smith et al., 2022 ), with recent examples of IPA studies with small sample sizes in the peer-reviewed literature on topics related to ASD (e.g., Au Yeung et al., in press). Table 1 Participant Demographics Name Age Gender Grade Peter 16 M 11th Lemmy 13 M 7th Gus 13 M 7th Ryota 12 F 7th Daniel 12 M 6th Pedro 13 M 7th Lexi 12 F 6th Mark 17 M 11th Data Collection For each participant, data collection consisted of a one-time semi-structured interview and one follow-up meeting for a member check. We developed interview questions (see Appendix A) so that participants could share characteristics of their current friendships and describe activities they usually engaged in with their friends (Smith et al., 2022 ). The interview protocol was created by the first and second author and subsequently piloted with two individuals not associated with the study. The final interview protocol consisted of 12 positively phrased, open-ended questions to prevent making assumptions about participants’ experiences and to minimize the risk of distress or discomfort of the participants (O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017; Smith et al., 2022 ). Nine of the questions had two to four pre-identified prompts to assist the participants in the event they had difficulty responding to the question (interview protocol available upon request from the first author; Smith et al., 2022 ). The first author conducted all interviews and follow-up meetings. The interviews were conducted and recorded via the Zoom platform. The waiting room feature of Zoom was enabled to prevent unauthorized access to the interview meeting. Moreover, the first author locked the meeting once the interview started. In alignment with the idiographic nature of IPA (Smith et al., 2022 ) and our commitment to centering the lived experiences of our participants, we implemented several disability affordances to ensure the interview setting was respectful of participants’ needs (Kerschbaum & Price, 2017 ). For example, participants were given the option to have their cameras on or off to ameliorate any possibility of uncomfortable eye contact felt by the participants, which is a common difficulty among individuals with ASD (Ahlers et al., 2017 ; Trevisan et al., 2017 ). Additionally, participants had the option to have their parents present during the interview and follow-up meeting (for those parents that were present, the first author asked that the parent allow the child to share their own experience without providing commentary). Before starting the recording, the first author engaged in polite conversation with the participant to establish rapport. The interviews ranged from 11–26 minutes, with an average interview time of 15 minutes. During the follow-up meetings, Peter and Ryota met with the first author as part of a member checking measure (Thomas, 2017 ) by reviewing the entire interview transcript. The researcher posed clarifying questions and requested elaborations on previous responses from each participant. These meetings took place on Zoom but were not recorded. Response rates for member checks are typically low in qualitative research (Thomas, 2017 ), which was the case in this study as only two out of the eight participants elected to participate in a follow-up meeting. During— and immediately following—interviews and follow-up meetings, the first author wrote down impressions in an interview journal. Data Analysis We engaged in IPA to develop a set of themes of the lived friendship and social experiences of the adolescents with ASD in our study. Video recordings were transcribed verbatim using Sonix.ai (an artificial intelligence transcription program) and checked by the first author to correct the transcript and make notations (e.g., non-verbal utterances, significant pauses; Smith et al., 2022 ). Interview transcripts were uploaded to ATLAS.ti for Mac (version 24), a qualitative data analysis software package. Participant interviews were analyzed by the first author, who utilized several tools within ATLAS.ti (e.g., document quotations with comments, coding tools, and networks). The first author individually analyzed all of the transcripts by engaging in the IPA phases as described by Smith et al. ( 2022 ), including: (a) repeated readings of transcripts and exploratory noting; (b) developing experiential statements (ESs); (c) developing preliminary Personal Experiential Themes (PETs); (d) interrogating the data to refine and finalize the PETs with sub-themes; and (e) exploring the convergence and divergence of participants’ experiences across all cases to develop Group Experiential Themes (GETs) with subthemes. To organize the data, we created a table template in Microsoft Word to visualize the final PETs and uploaded it into ATLAS.ti. Each participant’s final PETs were organized within the table in ATLAS.ti, and the first author included their ESs with their corresponding response number from the transcript and quote. Moreover, the first author engaged in code mapping throughout the analysis to review PETs, ESs, interview transcripts, and video recordings (Anfara et al., 2002 ). This recursive process allowed the first author to interpret personal accounts of friendships and social engagement shared by the participants. After all interviews were individually analyzed, the first author conducted a cross-case analysis (the final step in an IPA study) to search for convergence and divergence among participants’ experiences (Smith et al., 2022 ). Throughout the analysis process, the first author wrote in an analytic journal noting impressions and ideas for analysis. Finally, following the example of Cridland et al.’s ( 2014 ) IPA, the second author reviewed the transcripts and engaged in a consultative process with the first author to review and refine the final PETs and GETs. This data interrogation resulted in developing four GETs among the eight participants. Quality and Trustworthiness In addition to the journaling, code mapping, and consultation between the first and second authors noted in the previous subsections, the first author engaged in a critical self-reflection process by writing in a reflexive journal throughout the entire investigation to keep potential bias in check (Howard et al., 2019 ). Moreover, our analysis incorporated Nizza et al.’s ( 2021 ) four markers of high-quality IPA (i.e., developing a convincing narrative, establishing a robust experiential description, in-depth reading of participants’ interview transcripts, and detailing the ways in which participants’ experiences converge and diverge). Through the in-depth and systematic analysis of interview transcripts, the first author examined the experiential significance of what our participants were reporting about their friendships and social engagement and focused on the meaning-making they engaged in about their experiences (Nizza et al., 2021 ). The first and second authors also met throughout the analysis phase to review, discuss, and analyze the PETs and GETs. Additionally, the authors conducted negative case analysis to present authentic examples of participant experiences, not only positive ones (Yin, 2016 ). Lastly, an audit was conducted by the second author (Smith et al., 2022 ). Although this audit was not conducted by someone independent of the study, the process lends some degree of credibility to findings. Results Through IPA of participant experiences, we developed four GETs: (a) We Expect Friends to “Make You Feel Way Better,” (b) “I Like My Friends,” (c) Friendship Isn’t Easy, “I Don’t Really Do Anything Wrong,” and (d) “I Feel Like I Could Use More Friends, Yeah” . Table 2 depicts the four GETs, along with seven corresponding sub-themes and pertinent participant quotes that support each theme (Smith et al., 2022 ), demonstrating transparency of our code mapping as recommended by Anfara et al. ( 2002 ). To protect the privacy of our participants, pseudonyms that were either assigned by the first author or chosen by the participant are used. We did not edit participants’ quotes that are included in this section so that we could represent their experiences as told to us. Moreover, quotes within each GET name was the wording by participants. Table 2 Overview of Group Experiential Themes (GET) and Selected Examples of Code Mapping GET Name Sub-themes and Corresponding Experiential Statements 1. WE EXPECT FRIENDS TO “MAKE YOU FEEL WAY BETTER” Sub-theme 1: Friendships are helpful relationships. ● Friends help each other through hard times. ● Believes friendships are important to help you. ● Friendships provide companionship. ● Friendships offer emotional support. Sub-theme 2: Friends should be good to you. ● Friends are people who are nice and kind to you. ● Friends respect each other. ● Friends are people you decide to trust. 2. “I LIKE MY FRIENDS” Sub-theme 1: I am content with my friendships. ● Participant is happy/content with their friendships. ● Being around friends makes him happy. ● Friends are there for you when you need them. Sub-theme 2: We laugh together. ● Friends laugh and joke around with each other. ● Friends can bond over laughter and humor. Sub-theme 3: We do fun things together. ● Enjoys spending time with friends. ● Engages with friends outside of school. ● Has made friends through community/social clubs. ● Engages in shared common interest activities with friends. GET Name Sub-themes and Corresponding Experiential Statements 3. FRIENDSHIP ISN’T EASY, “I DON’T REALLY DO ANYTHING WRONG” ● Friendship development has not been easy. ● Thinks some peers at school don’t like her. ● Engaging with peers requires effort. ● Prefers closer friendships over superficial friendships. ● Has experienced arguments and/or disagreements with friends. 4. “I FEEL LIKE I COULD USE MORE FRIENDS, YEAH” Sub-theme 1: Lacking meaningful friendship experiences. ● Only interacts with friends/peers in school. ● Does not engage with friends outside of school. ● Lacks friendships. ● Does not communicate with friends/peers outside of school. Sub-theme 2: Desires to have more friends. ● Unhappy about lack of friendships. ● Has limited friendships. ● Desires to have more friends. ● Does not shy away from making new friends. GET 1: We Expect Friends to “Make You Feel Way Better” The first theme captures the essence of how our participants conceptualized friendships and their expectations of friendship. Participants were asked to share qualities and characteristics of a friend. Most of our participants listed attributes that they expected a friend to have. These attributes comprised our sub-themes, which include that friendships can be helpful and that friends should be good to you. Sub-theme 1: Friendships are helpful relationships. The expectation of friendships being helpful and supportive relationships (e.g., provide companionship, help practice social skills, or offer emotional support) was a universal thread across this group of adolescents with ASD. Some participants shared the helpful nature of how friends can rely on each other in times of need or distress. For example, when asked how friendships could be helpful and why they were important, Daniel shared how friends help each other stating, “We work together. We help each other. We help each other to overcome problems.” Lemmy explained how having friends could help with social skills development, “It’s pretty good cause it, um, social skills is something that that you will need later on in life. And having friends will help with that.” Similarly, in Peter’s follow-up meeting, he discussed how having friends could support social development by providing experience talking to others and more opportunities in social settings. Daniel, Lemmy, and Peter expected friendships to be beneficial relationships. In another response on how friendships could be beneficial, Gus expressed how having friends could, “Make you feel way better. Make you not feel lonely.” In this response, Gus acknowledged the loneliness and despair he felt, which has been a sentiment noted by other adolescents with ASD (Sumiya et al., 2018 ). Recognizing that his lack of friendships made him feel very lonely, Gus viewed the possibility of having friends as an opportunity to feel wanted and liked by peers. Daniel shared the similar opinion that friends could relieve feelings of loneliness, “So you don’t feel lonely.” Lexi presupposed, “they show that someone has a lot in common with me and that, that they like to chat with me and that someone is just there for me.” Our participants acknowledged how friendships could be helpful in different ways, and a commonality among this group was that friendships were beneficial in some way. Sub-theme 2: Friends should be good to you. The second sub-theme was the understanding that friendships should be positive experiences. The repetition of the desirable attribute ‘nice’ reverberated across all eight interviews. For instance, Lemmy stated, “usually, um this is how what makes a friend, be nice.” Likewise, Lexi expressed, “I want them [friends] to be nice.” Participants had an expectation of how they should be treated by someone they consider to be a friend. They expected amiable friendships with individuals who are nice to them and have good intentions. Mark explained that friends should, “keep it to 100 and like all time and like umm not being disrespectful or anything like that or being rude.” The colloquialism, “keep it to 100,” denotes the authenticity of a person or a situation. These ideations of niceness exemplify our participants’ belief that friends should be good to you. Some participants also shared how trustworthiness was another indication of how friends should be good to you. Ryota explained the importance of trust in friendship: Um, mainly it’s trust. So if like, let’s say like, um, something happens and I trust, like I say, please don’t tell anybody about this, and then like they don’t, then I consider that trustful. Like it’s like a secret, I tell them. And if they go and tell other people, then it’s not like, they’re not your friend. Intimate disclosures, such as sharing secrets, is a dimension of friendship that signifies a deeper bond with someone else (O'Hagan & Hebron, 2017 ), and as such, Ryota expected her friends to honor their word. Her comment articulated the viewpoint of other participants who believed that friends should be trustful. Similarly, Mark expected friends to be honest and treat each other with respect, “I’d like to say this a lot in this kind of good, like loyalty and respect.” Our participants demonstrated an understanding of positive friendships and an awareness of how they expected friends to treat each other. Responses provided by Peter emphasized his expectation of friendships that offered emotional support. When asked about good qualities in a friend, Peter stated, “Someone who will check up on you and you’ll check up on them if they’re feeling down or whatnot…Someone to help you get through hard times and you do the same.” His responses indicated his desire for meaningful friendships that consisted of interpersonal connections. This first GET reflected the expectations and ideal friendship characteristics of our participants. Although some of our participants did not possess these types of friendships (discussed in the third and fourth GETs), they were able to envision what healthy relationships between peers should look like. GET 2: “I Like My Friends” While the first GET focused on the participants’ expectations of friendships, this second GET centered on their lived experiences with their friends (for those that had them). Four of the interview questions specifically asked participants about their interactions with friends (e.g., Can you describe your friends at school and what are some things you do with your friends at school?). Their responses to these interview questions highlighted various friendship experiences. We developed three sub-themes within this GET that conveyed experiences where participants were content with their friendships, enjoyed laughing and joking with their friends, and had fun interactions with friends. Sub-theme 1: I am content with my friendships. Six of the eight participants expressed content when talking about their friendship experiences. Pedro emphatically shared, “I like my friends.” Daniel described two of his friends at school and stated, “Friendships benefit me to be happy. Like, I’ll be happy.” The social engagement activities (e.g., playing basketball, playing video games) that Daniel and Pedro enjoyed with their friends, like others, satisfied their needs and brought them happiness. Lexi, one of two females in our participant group, expressed the joy she felt from having friends she could depend on when she stated, “The most important thing about them is that you have someone that’s there for you and someone to chat with you, and also someone that you can rely on to have your back.” She engaged in typical teenage behavior, “we also like to talk about the drama that happened at our school.” Ryota expressed a similar closeness with her friends and explained the emotional support that these deep relationships provide when she stated, “a couple of my friends have like a couple of personal problems so like, I let them talk to me about it.” In the follow-up meeting with Ryota, she expanded on her in-school friendships. Her comments reflected these were chosen friendships that were built organically. The friendships experienced by Lexi and Ryota met their intrinsic needs by having dependable friends with close bonds. However, these significant interactions between friends were not often experienced by the majority of our participants. Three of our participants (Ryota, Lexi, and Lemmy) described the close connections that they shared with their friends consisting of trust, companionship, and affection. Of the other five participants, Daniel, Mark, and Pedro described simpler aspects of friendships (i.e., playing together, helping each other), with which they were happy. Only one participant voiced having a best friend. Lemmy talked about his strong connection with his best friend and shared some of the things they have in common such as their love for tennis and having the same favorite color. He spent a lot of time with his best friend outside of school engaging in shared interest activities. He highlighted the strength of their friendship bond when he shared, “Yeah, especially to my best friend, because he’s probably the one I only trust. I trust a lot.” He trusts his best friend with secrets and knows he can rely on him, which signifies a high degree of comfort with this friend. This group of adolescents with ASD had variations in their friendships; some had aspects of friendship that consisted of trust and affection, while others seem to have consisted of surface-level experiences. Nevertheless, most participants were genuinely content with their friendships. Sub-theme 2: We laugh together. Shared laughter and humor were common occurrences among the friendships of our participants. Jocular exchanges between friends can help bring people together and create a relaxing interaction. It is not uncommon for adolescents with ASD to report playful and jovial experiences with friends (Sedgewick et al., 2016 ). Lemmy recognized humor as a positive attribute in friendship and illuminated the perspectives of participants with his responses, “I think humor is a pretty big part of being a friend, because it because the more fun you are, it makes your friend get to, like, get attracted to you more,” and “Yeah, it just creates, like, a good, you know, bond in the friendship.” Mark further highlighted this point when describing one of his friends, He's funny. Funny way he. Funny way he is in very, um, creative of jokes like that. I don't know how. I don't know about the jokes, but I laugh at them sometimes. It's just funny to me to laugh at. Lemmy’s and Mark’s comments indicated the silly interchanges enjoyed with their friends. Similar interactions were reported by Lexi and Daniel. Through her text communication with friends, Lexi shared, “sometimes we just send each other like a bunch of funny like, like images and memes.” She enjoyed exchanging humorous images and laughing with friends. Daniel gave a description of one of his school friends, “he’s funny to talk, and I like him” and explained, “we joke around.” Furthermore, he shared that hanging out and joking around with his friends made him feel comfortable. Sub-theme 3: We do fun things together. This group of adolescents with ASD expressed their enjoyment when engaging in fun, shared interests with their friends. It is not uncommon for individuals with ASD to gravitate more towards individuals who have similar interests (Cridland et al., 2014 ; O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017). Engagement in preferred activities can lead to the development of friendships based on common interests. Ryota remarked, “Um, well, we mainly, like, talk about our favorite things…We mainly also like, draw together, like I make comics with my two friends.” Likewise, Pedro commented that he and his friends, “Talk about basketball, basketball, and Minecraft.” Communicating about common interests serves as a starting point to make connections with others. Several participants communicated a fondness for spending time with their friends. Distinctive statements such as, “I love hanging out with my friends” (Lemmy) and “It's fun to hang out” (Mark) represented the satisfaction felt by our participants. Social interactions with friends improved the lives of participants. They talked about engaging in fun activities with peers inside and outside of school. In school, Lexi described how she engages with her friends, “We mostly chat and whenever and whenever, um, the teacher gives us free time, we normally just like, look up stuff that we like on the computer. Mostly Hello Kitty stuff.” Outside of school, Pedro cheerfully mentioned spending time with his friends at a community pool, “Playing. Playing there, playing in the pool, in their pool when we have a playdate or sleepover.” Mark further amplified this groups’ contentment with spending time with their friends when he detailed an experience with his friend: Yeah. I hang out with this. Um, um, my friend out of school is, I go to the gym to, um, Thursdays and Fridays, and his name is [Victor], and yeah we, we have a good bond to each other. Our friendship bond. We bond a lot in gym. Mark recognized that spending time with friends outside of school helps to develop an interpersonal bond that goes beyond the casual friendships with peers at school. Some participants also participated in social clubs and events outside of school that helped to facilitate their friendship development. For instance, some participants attended groups geared towards adolescents with ASD. Access to these social opportunities were clearly positive for participants like Mark, who stated, “Oh, yeah. Yeah, I make friends in [ASD teen social club] as well. Yeah, I have friends in [ASD teen social club]. A lot of them I recognize.” Others attended groups, interacted with group members, but had limited interaction with the group members outside of the group setting. For example, Peter stated, “I’m also a part of another group that was, it was also for um, um, more kids on the spectrum like me…but I don’t really communicate with them or anybody from the group.” Not all participants were content with their social engagement and some reported not participating in any social groups or activities with friends outside of school. As an example, Gus did not participate in any social groups but he mentioned playing on a soccer team and reported not having any friends on the team. Overall, multiple participants in our study were content with their friendship experiences, both outside of and within structured groups or activities. These participants provided details of the fun times they share with their friends. Yet, other participants struggled to have friendship experiences outside of structured groups. These experiential variations shed light on the participants’ positive and negative friendship experiences, even when social opportunities were available. GET 3: Friendship Isn’t Easy, “I Don’t Really Do Anything Wrong” Developing and maintaining friendships during adolescence can be troublesome for many individuals with ASD (Mamas et al., 2021 ). For individuals who have not received explicit social skills training, friendship development can be quite challenging (Otero et al., 2015 ). Additionally, navigating social situations such as conversations, disagreements, and arguments may cause some adolescents with ASD to retreat and seek less social engagement (Sumiya et al. 2018 , Vine Foggo & Webster, 2017 ). Our participants' experiential accounts offered insights that enhanced our understanding that friendship is not easy for them, which led to the development of our third theme. Several participants described the difficulties they faced when attempting to socialize, such as Lexi’s comment, when she stated, “Well, I pretty much only have like one or two because I just can’t really make friends with that school for some reason” and Gus’ comment, when he expressed, “They don’t agree so much with me.” These comments alluded to their feelings of despair and frustration. Furthermore, Lexi and Ryota articulated their beliefs as to why friendship development has not been easy. Lexi’s experience with obstacles related to friendship development exemplified that of other participants: I don't know. Some of them like, like to say that like, I'm annoying for some reason during class when I don't really do nothing. I don't really do anything wrong. And, um, and then some think I talk a lot, which I don't really because I'm a shy person and, and I only talk when I want to. Lexi felt as if her peers did not like her and to no avail, she tried to rationalize the possible reasons why. Similarly, Ryota believed that her “really dramatic personality” was to blame for negatively impacting her friendship development. She also noted that, “I don’t really match my personality” with peers. These female adolescents shared sentiments of feeling unwanted and misunderstood by their peers, as did three of our male participants. Seven of the eight participants disclosed situations when disagreements and arguments with peers or friends made them uncomfortable. These problematic and often hurtful situations led to feelings of mistrust and sadness. For example, Ryota shared, “In the past, I’ve had friends, like, turn on me.” Daniel commented, “Just fight and, and they won’t listen what I’m saying.” It was evident that these experiences made friendship development difficult. Some participants felt uneasy in situations of conflict. Lexi detailed an incident between her friends that ultimately led to cyberbullying. She described an instance, “where one of my friends talked behind my back” and then “she started texting more mean things to me.” This incident carried over into other virtual settings (e.g., Roblox) and caused turmoil between Lexi and her friends. Dealing with typical teenage complex social situations, such as those described by Lexi, can be hard for adolescents in general, but especially those with ASD (Ahlers et al., 2017 ). Although many participants endured stressful situations with friends, most reported that they were able to resolve their issues amicably. For instance, Mark shared, “But then our friendship came back with a sorry letter. I gave it to him. And no, actually not to him, but to a teacher. And then the teacher gave it to him. So yeah, that fixed our friendship.” In another occurrence, after a challenging tennis game dispute with a friend, Lemmy stated, “We get over it.” Throughout participant interviews, the lasting effects of friendship challenges were palpable. A few of the participants struggled with trusting others, “Like, really sad. And then, like, it's hard for me to not trust someone now,” Ryota stated. Likewise, Daniel shared how a past friendship dilemma left him confused and upset, “Well, my friends make me sad is when I wasn’t doing anything and they just blame on me for no reasons.” Although the uneasiness of friendships differentiated across the participants, they undoubtedly left a lasting imprint on how they approached future social interactions. For Peter, his past experiences left him less interested in casual friendships and in search of “real friends.” He admitted, “my biggest problem is just trusting somebody” and that engaging with peers required effort such that, “if I need to do it with other people, then I’ll uh, I’ll, I’ll manage.” Peter’s use of the word “manage” depicted the way he felt about engaging with others, as if it was an arduous task. This group of adolescents with ASD found it difficult to navigate the complex intricacies of teenage friendships, which sometimes left them lacking meaningful social experiences. GET 4: “I Feel Like I Could Use More Friends, Yeah” The final theme we developed was that these adolescents with ASD yearned for more friendships. Although several participants in this group expressed their satisfaction with their current friendships, there were three participants (Peter, Gus, and Lexi) who greatly desired enjoyable relationships with peers and more substantive friendships. We developed two sub-themes to explain these findings in more detail. Sub-theme 1: Lacking meaningful friendship experiences. Through discussions with our participants, it was apparent that they lacked meaningful friendship experiences. Some of them described tenuous relationships with friends at school, “we only see each other in, like, the classes that we have…See, this is why I don't like, consider them real, real friends. Because I only see them like once in five times a week,” Peter recalled. Peter’s interview responses demonstrated his distinction between ‘real friends’ and casual acquaintances at school were highlighted. Furthermore, during the follow-up meeting with Peter, he described how people may act differently inside and outside of school, which is why he believed that to be considered a ‘real friend’, you need to know someone in both spaces. These were experiences he lacked. Gus stated that he enjoyed hanging out with friends outside of school; yet, when asked to provide examples of activities he engages in with friends he admittedly responded, “Uh uh, well, I don't really. I'm not sure. I mean, like. Because I don't really have any friends right now, but I just have my neighbors.” Unlike most of the participants in this group who shared some things they do with friends or school peers, Gus could not provide many details about his friendship experiences because he was lacking them. Along with social interactions at school, involvement in afterschool activities (e.g., sports, groups, clubs) provided opportunities to interact with peers and bond over similar interests. All but one of our participants reported participation in afterschool activities; however, their participation did not always result in friendship attainment. For instance, Gus enjoyed playing with the kids on his soccer team, but acknowledged that, “They don't talk to me that much. I just don't, but, I mean they don't talk to me at all, actually.” While sharing about his experience, Gus came to the realization that his teammates do not talk to him and concluded that, “I never had friends in any soccer teams.” Another example of the lack of meaningful friendship experiences within this group was illustrated by Peter’s description of his after school activities. He participated in a social group for adolescents with ASD and in a fantasy role-playing club; however, when asked to provide examples of things he talks about with his friends he responded, “I'm not sure, its cause I don't really have, I don't really have many other friends outside of those groups, so. And I and I, uh, seldom meet them.” Participants were not lacking access to social engagement opportunities as some attended support groups, others attended after school activities, and others engaged in sports. Despite these opportunities for social engagement and possible friendships, some participants struggled with developing friendships. Sub-theme 2: Desires to have more friends. Our participants appreciated social connections and most were generally content with the friendships they had; yet, some desired more connections with peers and companionship. Throughout our interview with Gus, his desire for friends was evident. When prompted to share details about his friends or classmates at school, Gus responded, “I don’t have any.” Gus conveyed his sadness about his desire to have more friends, “Because I don’t really have any friends right now” and described actions he aspired to do someday with friends when he commented that he and friends could, “Hang out and uh maybe go to my house and play.” Like other participants, Gus longed for more companionship. Seven of our participants talked about the friends they had at school, although two (i.e., Daniel and Gus) acknowledged that they do not engage with peers or friends outside of school. For instance, Daniel stated, “Uh. I don't have friends outside the school. Sorry.” Daniel shared details about some of the friends he had at school yet admitted that he does not communicate with any of them outside of school. One participant, Peter, expressed his desire for friends and also wanted a more substantive connection with a friend. Although he maintained a neutral stance on friendship throughout his interview, Peter admitted, “Um. I feel like I could use more friends, yeah.” He also explained some parameters of a real friendship, “I feel like if you feel like you want to call them like a real friend, you have to know them in, in just about every environment.” He desired a friend that he could personally connect with. These friendships are undemanding and reflect value for one another (Löschke, 2017 ). In their quest for friendships, some participants were eager to socialize and did not shy away from making new friends. Despite previous uncomfortable encounters with peers, Mark proudly shared, “I’m making a lot of new friends in school.” In her similar search for more friendships, Lexi illustrated how some of her friendships have developed by stating, “Sometimes people ask me to be their friend. Or sometimes I ask them and they say, sure, and maybe sometimes we end up really liking the way we act with each other, so that can also make us friends.” These genuine social interactions have supported our participants’ desire for more friends and their need for increased social connections. Discussion We conducted this study to explore the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD by listening to their voices and illuminating their perspectives. Through semi-structured interviews, each participant shared their conceptualization of friendships and their personal experiences with friends. Our interpretative synthesis of the data collected resulted in the development of four main GETs, with associated sub-themes. The insight gained from the disclosure of their experiences highlighted the variations of friendships among this group of adolescents. Participants shared their expectations for the kind of relationships they wanted to have with friends. Most of our participants expected friendships to be positive and beneficial relationships. They envisioned helpful relationships with peers that would provide companionship and emotional support. Consistent with Kuo et al.’s ( 2013 ) findings, our participants mainly thought that friends would have similar interests and would hang out with them in and out of school. Some of our participants also described several hallmarks of friendship, such as being nice to each other and the shared support they desired in their friendships, which aligned with previous work by O’Hagan and Hebron (2017). Some participants’ perceptions of friendship were more straightforward than others. However, findings from this study indicated that contrary to previous research by Petrina et al. ( 2014 ), this group possessed a conceptual understanding of what friendship means to them. Interestingly, these participants’ ideals of friendship may have differed from societal expectations of what friendship should be. Previous research has outlined some defining characteristics of friendships, such as mutual emotional vulnerability (Löschke, 2017 ) and interconnected emotional interactions (Bauminger et al., 2008 ). As participants described attributes of friendship, it was evident that their definitions did not always represent their current experiences with friends. For example, our participants noted the mutual support within friendships; however, none of our participants expressed an overt exchange of emotions with their friends. As participants shared details about their current experiences with friendship, they described instances of affection and empathetic understanding within their friendships, which previous studies have reported was uncommon in adolescents with ASD (O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017; Platos & Pisula, 2021). In 2014, Petrina and colleagues published a literature review that noted lower quality in certain aspects of friendship (e.g., companionship, closeness) in children and adolescents with ASD. However, our findings revealed that several participants were satisfied with their friendships and social engagement. These findings align with previous investigations that concluded that adolescents with ASD could understand friendships, yet some continued to experience challenges with forming and maintaining friendships (e.g., O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017). Our participants enjoyed hanging out and laughing with friends, which is consistent with the work of Sedgewick et al. ( 2016 ). Laughter brings people together and can be a great way to engage in friendship development and attainment. Six participants engaged in typical teenage social out-of-school activities such as attending clubs and/or playing sports. Half the participants interacted via phone with friends outside of school (i.e., calls and text messages). These findings contrast with previous reports stating that adolescents with ASD infrequently socialize outside of school (e.g., Donaldson et al., 2018 ; Petrina et al., 2014 ). It was clear that for many of our participants, their existing friendships met their needs, even if they were not representative of an “ideal” friendship. Another important finding was the acknowledgment that developing and maintaining friendships has not been easy for this group of adolescents with ASD. Some may have insufficient social skills (e.g., recognizing the feelings of others, conflict resolution) needed to help understand and handle conflict with peers and friends. Oftentimes they become anxious or discomfited, perpetuating barriers to developing and maintaining friendships. As highlighted by Ahlers et al. ( 2017 ), individuals with ASD struggle with socialization and managing complex social emotional issues, which was true for most of our participants (i.e., Daniel, Gus, Ryota, Lexi, Mark, and Peter). Disagreements and arguments with friends often left participants feeling unhappy. Given the extensive research on the social skills difficulties of adolescents with ASD (NIMH, 2022), it is reasonable to associate these difficulties with hindering their ability to handle uncomfortable social situations and being hesitant to approach future social opportunities. A final takeaway from this work is that the adolescents with ASD in our study often lacked substantive friendship experiences, leading to feelings of loneliness and a deep desire for more friendships. Friendships are valuable experiences in life that add to one’s overall quality of life (Leibowitz, 2018 ). Lacking these experiences can have negative impacts on adolescents with ASD. Friendships are developed through interactions between two or more individuals; how they behave during those interactions can impact the likelihood of friendship formation (Dryburgh et al., 2022 ). The limited social skills that are inherently characteristic among individuals with ASD impacts their ability to socialize with others. Possessing prosocial behaviors (e.g., sharing, kindness, and helping) have been linked to developing and maintaining high-quality friendships (Dryburgh et al., 2022 ). Difficulty with conversational skills, acknowledgement of social cues, and perspective taking (CDC, 2022; NIMH, 2022) can impact the behaviors of individuals with ASD during social situations, which can affect the amount and quality of friendships. All of our participants, except for Daniel, reported their attendance in social engagement activities such as social skills groups, clubs, and/or recreational sports. Three of these adolescents, Peter, Gus, and Ryota admitted that they did not socialize with any of their peers in these groups. It is not uncommon for adolescents with ASD to experience loneliness (O’Hagan & Hebron, 2017; Sumiya et al., 2018 ) and, therefore, miss out on opportunities to build meaningful friendships with peers. Some participants (e.g., Daniel and Gus) had difficulty answering some of the interview questions (e.g., What sort of things do you talk about with your friends?) because they did not have experiences to report. The absence of meaningful friendship experiences during adolescence are associated with adverse life outcomes (e.g., isolation and loneliness) in adulthood (Chang & Dean, 2022 ). Previous researchers have reported that adolescents with ASD desired friendships (e.g, Cribb et al., 2019 ), which was reflected in our findings. Many adolescents in this sample group desired companionship and social connections with peers, yet they continued to struggle in attaining these aspirations. Limitations Given the diversity of lived experiences among adolescents with ASD, there are limitations of this study that should be considered when interpreting our findings. First, the study’s small and purposive sample group minimizes the ability to generalize our findings to all adolescents with ASD (Howard et al., 2019 ). Nevertheless, the small sample size and emphasis on an idiographic approach to analysis are features of IPA. The purpose of an IPA study is not for generalization, but for a deeper understanding of a particular sample group’s experience (Smith et al., 2022 ). It should also be noted that information about each participant's race, socioeconomic status, language proficiency scores from standard tests, and educational setting was not collected. These factors may have contributed further to our analysis and understanding of our participants’ experiences. Another limitation of this study was the brevity of participant responses to interview questions, which resulted in relatively short interviews. The core of IPA research is the elicitation of participants’ experiences through in-depth interviews (Smith et al., 2022 ). One consideration may be that the limited responses were simply an artifact of our participants being teenagers. Another consideration was that the reliance on expressive language in this investigation may have been problematic for some individuals with ASD (Howard et al., 2019 ). We tried to mitigate this possibility by ascertaining from their parents if they could have a conversation with us in an interview format. Considering the communication and interactional needs of the participants (Kerchbaum & Price, 2017), we also incorporated prompts within the interview questions to support participants with their responses, if needed. This was especially important to ensure the participants who may speak less—such as some individuals with ASD and given the sensitivity of the topic—had the opportunity to be heard (Kerchbaum & Price, 2017). Lastly, member checks were incorporated into this study in an attempt to improve the credibility of our findings (Thomas, 2017 ). Unfortunately, only two of the eight adolescents participated in member check meetings. Implications for Future Research Individuals with ASD have a distinct way of experiencing life compared to TD individuals (Petrina et al., 2014 ). The inherent idiosyncrasies of adolescents with ASD may impact their ability to develop meaningful friendships (Ellingsen et al., 2017 ). This study calls attention to the value of the experiential knowledge of adolescents with ASD and the need for further idiographic research that positions their lived experiences at the forefront. Future investigations should consider centering the participant’s disability and providing options for collecting personalized data (e.g., written responses, photo-elicitation) that allow participants to share their experiences authentically (Howard et al., 2019 ). For example, in research conducted by Kerschbaum and Price ( 2017 ), potential participants were given a survey that included a question about their preferred modality for participating in interviews (e.g., in-person, phone, or videoconferencing). Offering modality options to participants with ASD can enhance both their comfort and the overall quality of the interview data. Involving this unique population in the research process and emphasizing collaboration between the participant and the researcher has the potential to attain more substantial insights into the experiences of adolescents with ASD (Howard et al., 2019 ; King et al., 2019 ), the obstacles they encounter in their social lives, and their suggestions for supportive social interventions. Conclusion This study sought to gain insight into the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD by interpreting their shared lived experiences. The themes we developed represent this sample group and are not intended to speak for all adolescents with ASD. Nevertheless, this study’s findings not only spotlight our participants’ perspectives regarding their social lives, but also shed light on the obstacles these individuals encounter in their social endeavors. Friendships play a pivotal role in the happiness of all humans (Leibowitz, 2018 ). Like many adolescents with ASD, this group wanted friendships and were still figuring out how to navigate social situations. Declarations Author Contribution Planning and methodological decisions for the study detailed in this manuscript were conducted by M.S., K.B., and E.D. All data collection for this study was completed by M.S. Data analysis was performed by M.S. and reviewed by K.B. through a consultative process. Initial themes were developed by M.S. and subsequently reviewed and refined by M.S., K.B., and E.D. Author M.S. drafted the main manuscript text and prepared tables 1 and 2. Authors K.B. and E.D. edited the manuscript text. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability Due to the sensitive nature of the data collected and to protect participant privacy, the data cannot be openly shared. References Ahlers, K. P., Gabrielsen, T. P., Lewis, D., Brady, A. M., & Litchford, A. (2017). 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The Guilford Press. Zeedyk, S. M., Rodriguez, G., Tipton, L. A., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2014). Bullying of youth with autism. spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, or typical development: Victim and parent perspectives. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8 (9), 1173–1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.001 APPENDIX 1. INTERVIEWPROTOCOL. Questions 1 Is there a name that you want me to call you during this interview or in the report that I write? Or, do you want me to make up a name for you? 2. How old are you? 3. What grade are you in at school? 4. What sort of things do you like to do?. Possible prompts (1) Do you prefer to do things on your own or with other people? (2) Do you have a. hobby? (3) What type of games do you enjoy? (4) Do you like hanging out with friends? 5. What makes a person a friend?. Possible prompts : (1) How would you describe a friend? (2) What are some things that friends do with or for each other? 6. What qualities are important to you in a friend?. Possible prompts (1) What are some things you look for in a friend? (2) What are some things that make a good friend? 7. How do friendships benefit you?. Possible prompts (1) What are some good things about having a friend? (2) How do friendships help you? (3) If they indicate that friendships are not beneficial, ask them to explain. 8. Can you describe your friends at school and what are some things you do with your friends at school?. Possible prompts : (1) Do you hang out with friends or peers at school? (2) How do you feel when you are with your friends? 9. Can you describe your friends outside of school and what are some things you do with your friends outside of school?. Possible prompts (1) Do you hang out with friends in-person? (2) Do you attend social events? (3) Do you participate in any after school activities such as sports or clubs? (4) How do you communicate with your friends outside of school? 10. What sort of things do you talk about with your friends?. Possible prompts : (1) Do you talk about your personal lives? (2) Do you share secrets with your friends? 11. Do you think it is important to have friends? Why/why not?. Possible prompts : (1) Can friendships be helpful? (2) What do you think is important about friendships? 12. Can you tell me about difficulties you have had with your friends?. Possible prompts : (1) Have you ever had an argument or disagreement with a friend? (2) Has a friend ever made you feel sad? (3) Have you ever been picked on?. Gallup, Smith (2016). 2022; Vine Foggo & Webster, 2017). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files APPENDIX1.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 07 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Silva","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAu0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCChAIGBn7mgw1AJjOxWgwYGCTbEknRwgDUYnAsgYE4LbrtZx9/eGBwWN74GHObBEOFNdguvMDsTLqZRILBYcNtxxiBWs6kE6HlQBob0C9pjNvuN7ZJMLYdJkLL+WfMH4Ba7De3AW1h/EeMlhtpDECH2SRuYANpaSBKyzM2kJbkGccYmy0SjqUbE+GwNOaPPyokbPvb2B/e+FBjLUtQCypIIE35KBgFo2AUjAJcAABQrzzSP1WsNwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Florida International University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maria","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Silva","suffix":""},{"id":507152915,"identity":"9a6d316d-145f-4ed0-bd6b-d203fc30c64c","order_by":1,"name":"Kyle D. Bennett","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Florida International University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kyle","middleName":"D.","lastName":"Bennett","suffix":""},{"id":507152916,"identity":"f7359f56-3dcf-4de1-89d2-de7f7b28524b","order_by":2,"name":"Emily A. Dare","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Louisiana State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emily","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Dare","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-09 13:53:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03249-y","type":"published","date":"2026-01-07T15:59:16+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":100069442,"identity":"8000970c-06ba-4460-a4d9-747f0733697d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-12 16:14:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":865418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7334291/v1/ae580aad-9aa7-4ca6-a0d1-fbc8e1c60244.pdf"},{"id":90201372,"identity":"f703f387-9c86-4b42-b43f-140e66b31638","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-29 18:41:04","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16491,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"APPENDIX1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7334291/v1/b1019f16747eb6f2ea81602a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Friends “Make You Feel Way Better”: Illuminating the Perspectives of Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), their teenage years can bring new social opportunities and challenges. Understanding the friendship development and social experiences of adolescents with ASD is not a simple undertaking since ASD is characterized by a wide variation and severity of traits. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; 2022) described ASD as a neurological condition that impacts (a) how someone interacts and communicates with others, (b) their behaviors, and (c) how they learn. Individuals with ASD typically display impairment in social skills, which may impact their ability to form and maintain friendships. These social challenges may cause difficulty navigating back-and-forth conversation, understanding another person\u0026rsquo;s point of view, communicating with peers and adults, and adapting to social situations (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022; NIMH, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research has suggested the possibility that although friendships of youth with ASD are different from typically developing (TD) youth, they may meet the needs (e.g., companionship and shared interests) of individuals with ASD (Petrina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). According to the NIMH (2022), adolescents with ASD may exhibit subtle communication differences such as problems understanding variations in voice intonations, facial expressions, and figurative language. These subtle differences, among others noted earlier, may negatively affect friendship development and social experiences. Donaldson and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) acknowledged the differences in the quality of friendships between individuals with ASD and their TD peers and suggested a need to investigate the definitions of friendship and the perspectives of youth with ASD by seeking information directly from this population.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescence is a critical time for friendship development and social engagement. Leibowitz (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) describes \u003cem\u003efriendship\u003c/em\u003e as a mutual relationship between two or more individuals in which they value each other such that the relationship brings happiness to each person involved. Zeedyk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) explained that friendships offer support in various ways such as emotional security, opportunities for candid disclosure, and validation within social circles. Considering the impact that social difficulties may have on the lives of individuals with ASD, researchers have sought to understand the social lives of this population, typically through parent and self-reports on standardized assessments (e.g., Friendship Quality Scale and Social Responsiveness Scale-2).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn a review of previous studies that relied on sociometric evaluations, Bauminger-Zviely (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) reported that the friendships of youth with ASD typically consisted of tenuous connections with one or two friends. This description of superficial friendships reflected the work of O\u0026rsquo;Hagan and Hebron (2017) and Platos and Pisula (2021), whose studies included the examination of the definitions of friendships of adolescents with ASD. Their findings revealed that participants with ASD less often referred to defining characteristics of friendships (e.g., affection and intimacy) compared to their TD peers (O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017; Platos \u0026amp; Pisula, 2021). Nevertheless, O\u0026rsquo;Hagan and Hebron reported that adolescents\u0026rsquo; with ASD described desirable attributes of friendship such as being nice to each other and reciprocal support. Previous studies, such as O\u0026rsquo;Hagan and Hebron, have indicated that individuals with ASD possess surface-level friendships; however, they have the capability of distinguishing characteristics they desire in a friend.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e When examining friendship characteristics, it is also prudent to consider social engagement and participation. Friendships can form around shared interests (Leibowitz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), which is a common connection among adolescents with ASD (O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017). Work conducted by Bohnert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Kuo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the social activities in which adolescents participated. Bohnert et al. examined adolescents\u0026rsquo; participation in organized activities such as sports and religious groups that can help facilitate social engagement. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the relations between the Friendship Quality Questionnaire-Abbreviated Edition and an Organized Activity Inventory (Bohnert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). While there was not a significant correlation between organized activities and friendship quality, Bohnert and colleagues recognized that the organized activity that adolescents with ASD participated in the most was sports. Further, these findings revealed that higher levels of involvement in organized activities were linked to lower levels of loneliness (e.g., having someone to talk to; Bohnert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThrough mail-based surveys completed by adolescents with ASD, Kuo et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) study identified several activities that adolescents with ASD participated in and contributed to their positive social experiences. For example, 20\u0026ndash;40% of the participants reported spending time with friends by engaging in physical activities, watching television, playing (e.g., video games, board games, and sports), and having conversations. In particular, males with ASD reported frequently playing video games with friends, while females reported partaking in conversations with friends (Kuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The majority of adolescents with ASD also reported having friends of the same gender (Kuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD looks different across individuals in this unique population, and their social experiences can positively or negatively impact their lives. It is necessary to learn more about their friendship experiences and how they may affect their quality of life.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasuring the quality of friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD is an undertaking that requires substantial consideration. To explore the intricacies of these friendships, the present study goes beyond the standard practice of analyzing quantitative data from surveys and questionnaires (Cribb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and the heavy reliance on parent interpretations and perceptions about their adolescent\u0026rsquo;s social lives (e.g., Sedgewick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Current studies rarely ask adolescents with ASD about their friendships qualitatively (e.g., Sedgewick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), with one of the few exceptions being the work by O\u0026rsquo;Hagan and Hebron (2017). We anticipated that adolescents with ASD would have unique insights into their own friendships and social engagements, which others (e.g., parents, teachers) would not be able to share. To capture the essence of friendship and the quality of social engagement of adolescents with ASD through a phenomenological lens, this study aimed to answer the following two questions: (a) How do adolescents with ASD conceptualize friendship? and (b) What perceptions do adolescents with ASD have regarding their friendship quality and their level of social engagement with their friends?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDesign\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe rooted this study in the three core foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Interpretive phenomenological analysis centers on individuals\u0026rsquo; interpretations of their experiences; involves a double hermeneutic in which both participants and researchers make meaning of those experiences; and emphasizes a detailed, individual analysis of each participant\u0026rsquo;s lived reality (Nizza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Through IPA, this study was constructed to understand the subjective perspectives of adolescents with ASD through a first-person lens (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers using IPA approach a research topic with three priorities: (a) understanding the essence of an experience for phenomenon of interest, (b) focusing on each individual\u0026rsquo;s experience\u0026mdash;even among a group of research participants, and (c) examining how both participants and researchers engage in meaning-making and interpretation about the experience (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For this work, the phenomena of study were the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD. Using IPA, we completed an in-depth, case-by-case analysis of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences. Finally, we conducted a secondary cross-case analysis of our participant group to identify commonalities or differences among their individual experiences (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePositionality of the Researchers\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the time of this study, Author 1 was a specialist supporting individuals with ASD and related disabilities in South Florida. Her lived experiences as a mother of a child with ASD, special education teacher, and researcher shape her commitment to centering the voices of individuals with disabilities to inform effective support services. Author 2 is an Associate Professor of Special Education with experience serving students with ASD and other developmental disabilities in a variety of roles (i.e., paraprofessional, teacher, related service provider, and program administrator). Author 3, Associate Professor of Science and STEM Education, focuses her research on preparing science teachers and supporting diverse students in STEM, using primarily qualitative, phenomenological methods. Together, their varied perspectives shaped the research approach, with a shared commitment to centering participant voice and conducting inquiry that challenges deficit-based assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the university\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board. To be included in this study, participants had to be English-speaking adolescents between the ages 12\u0026ndash;17 years, which is the age of adolescence identified by the CDC (2021). Participants must have previously received a community diagnosis of ASD by a medical professional or qualify for services under the eligibility category of ASD defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004). Moreover, based on the parental report, potential participants had to be able to engage in an interview discussion with us.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe used purposive sampling\u0026mdash;which is common in IPA studies (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;to recruit adolescents who fit the boundaries of this study\u0026rsquo;s focus. Recruitment flyers were sent via email through a regional autism support center located in the southeast region of the United States. The first author met with 10 parents to ascertain their child\u0026rsquo;s eligibility for the study. Eight adolescents assented to participate; their parents provided consent. Participant demographics are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Note that smaller sample sizes (i.e., 6\u0026ndash;10 interviews) are typical of IPA studies to allow for in depth idiographic analysis of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), with recent examples of IPA studies with small sample sizes in the peer-reviewed literature on topics related to ASD (e.g., Au Yeung et al., in press).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParticipant Demographics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eName\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrade\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLemmy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRyota\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaniel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePedro\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLexi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMark\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11th\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e For each participant, data collection consisted of a one-time semi-structured interview and one follow-up meeting for a member check. We developed interview questions (see Appendix A) so that participants could share characteristics of their current friendships and describe activities they usually engaged in with their friends (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The interview protocol was created by the first and second author and subsequently piloted with two individuals not associated with the study. The final interview protocol consisted of 12 positively phrased, open-ended questions to prevent making assumptions about participants\u0026rsquo; experiences and to minimize the risk of distress or discomfort of the participants (O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Nine of the questions had two to four pre-identified prompts to assist the participants in the event they had difficulty responding to the question (interview protocol available upon request from the first author; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first author conducted all interviews and follow-up meetings. The interviews were conducted and recorded via the Zoom platform. The waiting room feature of Zoom was enabled to prevent unauthorized access to the interview meeting. Moreover, the first author locked the meeting once the interview started. In alignment with the idiographic nature of IPA (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and our commitment to centering the lived experiences of our participants, we implemented several disability affordances to ensure the interview setting was respectful of participants\u0026rsquo; needs (Kerschbaum \u0026amp; Price, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). For example, participants were given the option to have their cameras on or off to ameliorate any possibility of uncomfortable eye contact felt by the participants, which is a common difficulty among individuals with ASD (Ahlers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Trevisan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, participants had the option to have their parents present during the interview and follow-up meeting (for those parents that were present, the first author asked that the parent allow the child to share their own experience without providing commentary). Before starting the recording, the first author engaged in polite conversation with the participant to establish rapport. The interviews ranged from 11\u0026ndash;26 minutes, with an average interview time of 15 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the follow-up meetings, Peter and Ryota met with the first author as part of a member checking measure (Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) by reviewing the entire interview transcript. The researcher posed clarifying questions and requested elaborations on previous responses from each participant. These meetings took place on Zoom but were not recorded. Response rates for member checks are typically low in qualitative research (Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which was the case in this study as only two out of the eight participants elected to participate in a follow-up meeting. During\u0026mdash; and immediately following\u0026mdash;interviews and follow-up meetings, the first author wrote down impressions in an interview journal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe engaged in IPA to develop a set of themes of the lived friendship and social experiences of the adolescents with ASD in our study. Video recordings were transcribed verbatim using Sonix.ai (an artificial intelligence transcription program) and checked by the first author to correct the transcript and make notations (e.g., non-verbal utterances, significant pauses; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Interview transcripts were uploaded to ATLAS.ti for Mac (version 24), a qualitative data analysis software package. Participant interviews were analyzed by the first author, who utilized several tools within ATLAS.ti (e.g., document quotations with comments, coding tools, and networks).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first author individually analyzed all of the transcripts by engaging in the IPA phases as described by Smith et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), including: (a) repeated readings of transcripts and exploratory noting; (b) developing experiential statements (ESs); (c) developing preliminary Personal Experiential Themes (PETs); (d) interrogating the data to refine and finalize the PETs with sub-themes; and (e) exploring the convergence and divergence of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences across all cases to develop Group Experiential Themes (GETs) with subthemes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo organize the data, we created a table template in Microsoft Word to visualize the final PETs and uploaded it into ATLAS.ti. Each participant\u0026rsquo;s final PETs were organized within the table in ATLAS.ti, and the first author included their ESs with their corresponding response number from the transcript and quote. Moreover, the first author engaged in code mapping throughout the analysis to review PETs, ESs, interview transcripts, and video recordings (Anfara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). This recursive process allowed the first author to interpret personal accounts of friendships and social engagement shared by the participants. After all interviews were individually analyzed, the first author conducted a cross-case analysis (the final step in an IPA study) to search for convergence and divergence among participants\u0026rsquo; experiences (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Throughout the analysis process, the first author wrote in an analytic journal noting impressions and ideas for analysis. Finally, following the example of Cridland et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) IPA, the second author reviewed the transcripts and engaged in a consultative process with the first author to review and refine the final PETs and GETs. This data interrogation resulted in developing four GETs among the eight participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eQuality and Trustworthiness\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the journaling, code mapping, and consultation between the first and second authors noted in the previous subsections, the first author engaged in a critical self-reflection process by writing in a reflexive journal throughout the entire investigation to keep potential bias in check (Howard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, our analysis incorporated Nizza et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) four markers of high-quality IPA (i.e., developing a convincing narrative, establishing a robust experiential description, in-depth reading of participants\u0026rsquo; interview transcripts, and detailing the ways in which participants\u0026rsquo; experiences converge and diverge). Through the in-depth and systematic analysis of interview transcripts, the first author examined the experiential significance of what our participants were reporting about their friendships and social engagement and focused on the meaning-making they engaged in about their experiences (Nizza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The first and second authors also met throughout the analysis phase to review, discuss, and analyze the PETs and GETs. Additionally, the authors conducted negative case analysis to present authentic examples of participant experiences, not only positive ones (Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Lastly, an audit was conducted by the second author (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Although this audit was not conducted by someone independent of the study, the process lends some degree of credibility to findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThrough IPA of participant experiences, we developed four GETs: (a) \u003cem\u003eWe Expect Friends to \u0026ldquo;Make You Feel Way Better,\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (b) \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I Like My Friends,\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (c) \u003cem\u003eFriendship Isn\u0026rsquo;t Easy, \u0026ldquo;I Don\u0026rsquo;t Really Do Anything Wrong,\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e and (d) \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I Feel Like I Could Use More Friends, Yeah\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e depicts the four GETs, along with seven corresponding sub-themes and pertinent participant quotes that support each theme (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), demonstrating transparency of our code mapping as recommended by Anfara et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). To protect the privacy of our participants, pseudonyms that were either assigned by the first author or chosen by the participant are used. We did not edit participants\u0026rsquo; quotes that are included in this section so that we could represent their experiences as told to us. Moreover, quotes within each GET name was the wording by participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOverview of Group Experiential Themes (GET) and Selected Examples of Code Mapping\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGET Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-themes and Corresponding Experiential Statements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. WE EXPECT FRIENDS TO \u0026ldquo;MAKE YOU FEEL WAY BETTER\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 1: Friendships are helpful relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends help each other through hard times.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Believes friendships are important to help you.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friendships provide companionship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friendships offer emotional support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 2: Friends should be good to you.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends are people who are nice and kind to you.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends respect each other.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends are people you decide to trust.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. \u0026ldquo;I LIKE MY FRIENDS\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 1: I am content with my friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Participant is happy/content with their friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Being around friends makes him happy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends are there for you when you need them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 2: We laugh together.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends laugh and joke around with each other.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friends can bond over laughter and humor.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 3: We do fun things together.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Enjoys spending time with friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Engages with friends outside of school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Has made friends through community/social clubs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Engages in shared common interest activities with friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGET Name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-themes and Corresponding Experiential Statements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. FRIENDSHIP ISN\u0026rsquo;T EASY, \u0026ldquo;I DON\u0026rsquo;T REALLY DO ANYTHING WRONG\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Friendship development has not been easy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Thinks some peers at school don\u0026rsquo;t like her.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Engaging with peers requires effort.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Prefers closer friendships over superficial friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Has experienced arguments and/or disagreements with friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. \u0026ldquo;I FEEL LIKE I COULD USE MORE FRIENDS, YEAH\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 1: Lacking meaningful friendship experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Only interacts with friends/peers in school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Does not engage with friends outside of school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Lacks friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Does not communicate with friends/peers outside of school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-theme 2: Desires to have more friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Unhappy about lack of friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Has limited friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Desires to have more friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e● Does not shy away from making new friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGET 1: We Expect Friends to \u0026ldquo;Make You Feel Way Better\u0026rdquo;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first theme captures the essence of how our participants conceptualized friendships and their expectations of friendship. Participants were asked to share qualities and characteristics of a friend. Most of our participants listed attributes that they expected a friend to have. These attributes comprised our sub-themes, which include that friendships can be helpful and that friends should be good to you.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 1: Friendships are helpful relationships.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe expectation of friendships being helpful and supportive relationships (e.g., provide companionship, help practice social skills, or offer emotional support) was a universal thread across this group of adolescents with ASD. Some participants shared the helpful nature of how friends can rely on each other in times of need or distress. For example, when asked how friendships could be helpful and why they were important, Daniel shared how friends help each other stating, \u0026ldquo;We work together. We help each other. We help each other to overcome problems.\u0026rdquo; Lemmy explained how having friends could help with social skills development, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s pretty good cause it, um, social skills is something that that you will need later on in life. And having friends will help with that.\u0026rdquo; Similarly, in Peter\u0026rsquo;s follow-up meeting, he discussed how having friends could support social development by providing experience talking to others and more opportunities in social settings. Daniel, Lemmy, and Peter expected friendships to be beneficial relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn another response on how friendships could be beneficial, Gus expressed how having friends could, \u0026ldquo;Make you feel way better. Make you not feel lonely.\u0026rdquo; In this response, Gus acknowledged the loneliness and despair he felt, which has been a sentiment noted by other adolescents with ASD (Sumiya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Recognizing that his lack of friendships made him feel very lonely, Gus viewed the possibility of having friends as an opportunity to feel wanted and liked by peers. Daniel shared the similar opinion that friends could relieve feelings of loneliness, \u0026ldquo;So you don\u0026rsquo;t feel lonely.\u0026rdquo; Lexi presupposed, \u0026ldquo;they show that someone has a lot in common with me and that, that they like to chat with me and that someone is just there for me.\u0026rdquo; Our participants acknowledged how friendships could be helpful in different ways, and a commonality among this group was that friendships were beneficial in some way.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 2: Friends should be good to you.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second sub-theme was the understanding that friendships should be positive experiences. The repetition of the desirable attribute \u0026lsquo;nice\u0026rsquo; reverberated across all eight interviews. For instance, Lemmy stated, \u0026ldquo;usually, um this is how what makes a friend, be nice.\u0026rdquo; Likewise, Lexi expressed, \u0026ldquo;I want them [friends] to be nice.\u0026rdquo; Participants had an expectation of how they should be treated by someone they consider to be a friend. They expected amiable friendships with individuals who are nice to them and have good intentions. Mark explained that friends should, \u0026ldquo;keep it to 100 and like all time and like umm not being disrespectful or anything like that or being rude.\u0026rdquo; The colloquialism, \u0026ldquo;keep it to 100,\u0026rdquo; denotes the authenticity of a person or a situation. These ideations of niceness exemplify our participants\u0026rsquo; belief that friends should be good to you.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome participants also shared how trustworthiness was another indication of how friends should be good to you. Ryota explained the importance of trust in friendship:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUm, mainly it\u0026rsquo;s trust. So if like, let\u0026rsquo;s say like, um, something happens and I trust, like I say, please don\u0026rsquo;t tell anybody about this, and then like they don\u0026rsquo;t, then I consider that trustful. Like it\u0026rsquo;s like a secret, I tell them. And if they go and tell other people, then it\u0026rsquo;s not like, they\u0026rsquo;re not your friend.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntimate disclosures, such as sharing secrets, is a dimension of friendship that signifies a deeper bond with someone else (O'Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), and as such, Ryota expected her friends to honor their word. Her comment articulated the viewpoint of other participants who believed that friends should be trustful. Similarly, Mark expected friends to be honest and treat each other with respect, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;d like to say this a lot in this kind of good, like loyalty and respect.\u0026rdquo; Our participants demonstrated an understanding of positive friendships and an awareness of how they expected friends to treat each other.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Responses provided by Peter emphasized his expectation of friendships that offered emotional support. When asked about good qualities in a friend, Peter stated, \u0026ldquo;Someone who will check up on you and you\u0026rsquo;ll check up on them if they\u0026rsquo;re feeling down or whatnot\u0026hellip;Someone to help you get through hard times and you do the same.\u0026rdquo; His responses indicated his desire for meaningful friendships that consisted of interpersonal connections. This first GET reflected the expectations and ideal friendship characteristics of our participants. Although some of our participants did not possess these types of friendships (discussed in the third and fourth GETs), they were able to envision what healthy relationships between peers should look like.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGET 2: \u0026ldquo;I Like My Friends\u0026rdquo;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile the first GET focused on the participants\u0026rsquo; expectations of friendships, this second GET centered on their lived experiences with their friends (for those that had them). Four of the interview questions specifically asked participants about their interactions with friends (e.g., Can you describe your friends at school and what are some things you do with your friends at school?). Their responses to these interview questions highlighted various friendship experiences. We developed three sub-themes within this GET that conveyed experiences where participants were content with their friendships, enjoyed laughing and joking with their friends, and had fun interactions with friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 1: I am content with my friendships.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Six of the eight participants expressed content when talking about their friendship experiences. Pedro emphatically shared, \u0026ldquo;I like my friends.\u0026rdquo; Daniel described two of his friends at school and stated, \u0026ldquo;Friendships benefit me to be happy. Like, I\u0026rsquo;ll be happy.\u0026rdquo; The social engagement activities (e.g., playing basketball, playing video games) that Daniel and Pedro enjoyed with their friends, like others, satisfied their needs and brought them happiness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Lexi, one of two females in our participant group, expressed the joy she felt from having friends she could depend on when she stated, \u0026ldquo;The most important thing about them is that you have someone that\u0026rsquo;s there for you and someone to chat with you, and also someone that you can rely on to have your back.\u0026rdquo; She engaged in typical teenage behavior, \u0026ldquo;we also like to talk about the drama that happened at our school.\u0026rdquo; Ryota expressed a similar closeness with her friends and explained the emotional support that these deep relationships provide when she stated, \u0026ldquo;a couple of my friends have like a couple of personal problems so like, I let them talk to me about it.\u0026rdquo; In the follow-up meeting with Ryota, she expanded on her in-school friendships. Her comments reflected these were chosen friendships that were built organically. The friendships experienced by Lexi and Ryota met their intrinsic needs by having dependable friends with close bonds. However, these significant interactions between friends were not often experienced by the majority of our participants. Three of our participants (Ryota, Lexi, and Lemmy) described the close connections that they shared with their friends consisting of trust, companionship, and affection. Of the other five participants, Daniel, Mark, and Pedro described simpler aspects of friendships (i.e., playing together, helping each other), with which they were happy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnly one participant voiced having a best friend. Lemmy talked about his strong connection with his best friend and shared some of the things they have in common such as their love for tennis and having the same favorite color. He spent a lot of time with his best friend outside of school engaging in shared interest activities. He highlighted the strength of their friendship bond when he shared, \u0026ldquo;Yeah, especially to my best friend, because he\u0026rsquo;s probably the one I only trust. I trust a lot.\u0026rdquo; He trusts his best friend with secrets and knows he can rely on him, which signifies a high degree of comfort with this friend. This group of adolescents with ASD had variations in their friendships; some had aspects of friendship that consisted of trust and affection, while others seem to have consisted of surface-level experiences. Nevertheless, most participants were genuinely content with their friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 2: We laugh together.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Shared laughter and humor were common occurrences among the friendships of our participants. Jocular exchanges between friends can help bring people together and create a relaxing interaction. It is not uncommon for adolescents with ASD to report playful and jovial experiences with friends (Sedgewick et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Lemmy recognized humor as a positive attribute in friendship and illuminated the perspectives of participants with his responses, \u0026ldquo;I think humor is a pretty big part of being a friend, because it because the more fun you are, it makes your friend get to, like, get attracted to you more,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Yeah, it just creates, like, a good, you know, bond in the friendship.\u0026rdquo; Mark further highlighted this point when describing one of his friends,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHe's funny. Funny way he. Funny way he is in very, um, creative of jokes like that. I don't know how. I don't know about the jokes, but I laugh at them sometimes. It's just funny to me to laugh at.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLemmy\u0026rsquo;s and Mark\u0026rsquo;s comments indicated the silly interchanges enjoyed with their friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar interactions were reported by Lexi and Daniel. Through her text communication with friends, Lexi shared, \u0026ldquo;sometimes we just send each other like a bunch of funny like, like images and memes.\u0026rdquo; She enjoyed exchanging humorous images and laughing with friends. Daniel gave a description of one of his school friends, \u0026ldquo;he\u0026rsquo;s funny to talk, and I like him\u0026rdquo; and explained, \u0026ldquo;we joke around.\u0026rdquo; Furthermore, he shared that hanging out and joking around with his friends made him feel comfortable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 3: We do fun things together.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis group of adolescents with ASD expressed their enjoyment when engaging in fun, shared interests with their friends. It is not uncommon for individuals with ASD to gravitate more towards individuals who have similar interests (Cridland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017). Engagement in preferred activities can lead to the development of friendships based on common interests. Ryota remarked, \u0026ldquo;Um, well, we mainly, like, talk about our favorite things\u0026hellip;We mainly also like, draw together, like I make comics with my two friends.\u0026rdquo; Likewise, Pedro commented that he and his friends, \u0026ldquo;Talk about basketball, basketball, and Minecraft.\u0026rdquo; Communicating about common interests serves as a starting point to make connections with others.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Several participants communicated a fondness for spending time with their friends. Distinctive statements such as, \u0026ldquo;I love hanging out with my friends\u0026rdquo; (Lemmy) and \u0026ldquo;It's fun to hang out\u0026rdquo; (Mark) represented the satisfaction felt by our participants. Social interactions with friends improved the lives of participants. They talked about engaging in fun activities with peers inside and outside of school. In school, Lexi described how she engages with her friends, \u0026ldquo;We mostly chat and whenever and whenever, um, the teacher gives us free time, we normally just like, look up stuff that we like on the computer. Mostly Hello Kitty stuff.\u0026rdquo; Outside of school, Pedro cheerfully mentioned spending time with his friends at a community pool, \u0026ldquo;Playing. Playing there, playing in the pool, in their pool when we have a playdate or sleepover.\u0026rdquo; Mark further amplified this groups\u0026rsquo; contentment with spending time with their friends when he detailed an experience with his friend:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYeah. I hang out with this. Um, um, my friend out of school is, I go to the gym to, um, Thursdays and Fridays, and his name is [Victor], and yeah we, we have a good bond to each other. Our friendship bond. We bond a lot in gym.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMark recognized that spending time with friends outside of school helps to develop an interpersonal bond that goes beyond the casual friendships with peers at school.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Some participants also participated in social clubs and events outside of school that helped to facilitate their friendship development. For instance, some participants attended groups geared towards adolescents with ASD. Access to these social opportunities were clearly positive for participants like Mark, who stated, \u0026ldquo;Oh, yeah. Yeah, I make friends in [ASD teen social club] as well. Yeah, I have friends in [ASD teen social club]. A lot of them I recognize.\u0026rdquo; Others attended groups, interacted with group members, but had limited interaction with the group members outside of the group setting. For example, Peter stated, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m also a part of another group that was, it was also for um, um, more kids on the spectrum like me\u0026hellip;but I don\u0026rsquo;t really communicate with them or anybody from the group.\u0026rdquo; Not all participants were content with their social engagement and some reported not participating in any social groups or activities with friends outside of school. As an example, Gus did not participate in any social groups but he mentioned playing on a soccer team and reported not having any friends on the team.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Overall, multiple participants in our study were content with their friendship experiences, both outside of and within structured groups or activities. These participants provided details of the fun times they share with their friends. Yet, other participants struggled to have friendship experiences outside of structured groups. These experiential variations shed light on the participants\u0026rsquo; positive and negative friendship experiences, even when social opportunities were available.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGET 3: Friendship Isn\u0026rsquo;t Easy, \u0026ldquo;I Don\u0026rsquo;t Really Do Anything Wrong\u0026rdquo;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeveloping and maintaining friendships during adolescence can be troublesome for many individuals with ASD (Mamas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For individuals who have not received explicit social skills training, friendship development can be quite challenging (Otero et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, navigating social situations such as conversations, disagreements, and arguments may cause some adolescents with ASD to retreat and seek less social engagement (Sumiya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Vine Foggo \u0026amp; Webster, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Our participants' experiential accounts offered insights that enhanced our understanding that friendship is not easy for them, which led to the development of our third theme.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Several participants described the difficulties they faced when attempting to socialize, such as Lexi\u0026rsquo;s comment, when she stated, \u0026ldquo;Well, I pretty much only have like one or two because I just can\u0026rsquo;t really make friends with that school for some reason\u0026rdquo; and Gus\u0026rsquo; comment, when he expressed, \u0026ldquo;They don\u0026rsquo;t agree so much with me.\u0026rdquo; These comments alluded to their feelings of despair and frustration. Furthermore, Lexi and Ryota articulated their beliefs as to why friendship development has not been easy. Lexi\u0026rsquo;s experience with obstacles related to friendship development exemplified that of other participants:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eI don't know. Some of them like, like to say that like, I'm annoying for some reason during class when I don't really do nothing. I don't really do anything wrong. And, um, and then some think I talk a lot, which I don't really because I'm a shy person and, and I only talk when I want to.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLexi felt as if her peers did not like her and to no avail, she tried to rationalize the possible reasons why. Similarly, Ryota believed that her \u0026ldquo;really dramatic personality\u0026rdquo; was to blame for negatively impacting her friendship development. She also noted that, \u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t really match my personality\u0026rdquo; with peers. These female adolescents shared sentiments of feeling unwanted and misunderstood by their peers, as did three of our male participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Seven of the eight participants disclosed situations when disagreements and arguments with peers or friends made them uncomfortable. These problematic and often hurtful situations led to feelings of mistrust and sadness. For example, Ryota shared, \u0026ldquo;In the past, I\u0026rsquo;ve had friends, like, turn on me.\u0026rdquo; Daniel commented, \u0026ldquo;Just fight and, and they won\u0026rsquo;t listen what I\u0026rsquo;m saying.\u0026rdquo; It was evident that these experiences made friendship development difficult. Some participants felt uneasy in situations of conflict. Lexi detailed an incident between her friends that ultimately led to cyberbullying. She described an instance, \u0026ldquo;where one of my friends talked behind my back\u0026rdquo; and then \u0026ldquo;she started texting more mean things to me.\u0026rdquo; This incident carried over into other virtual settings (e.g., Roblox) and caused turmoil between Lexi and her friends. Dealing with typical teenage complex social situations, such as those described by Lexi, can be hard for adolescents in general, but especially those with ASD (Ahlers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although many participants endured stressful situations with friends, most reported that they were able to resolve their issues amicably. For instance, Mark shared, \u0026ldquo;But then our friendship came back with a sorry letter. I gave it to him. And no, actually not to him, but to a teacher. And then the teacher gave it to him. So yeah, that fixed our friendship.\u0026rdquo; In another occurrence, after a challenging tennis game dispute with a friend, Lemmy stated, \u0026ldquo;We get over it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Throughout participant interviews, the lasting effects of friendship challenges were palpable. A few of the participants struggled with trusting others, \u0026ldquo;Like, really sad. And then, like, it's hard for me to not trust someone now,\u0026rdquo; Ryota stated. Likewise, Daniel shared how a past friendship dilemma left him confused and upset, \u0026ldquo;Well, my friends make me sad is when I wasn\u0026rsquo;t doing anything and they just blame on me for no reasons.\u0026rdquo; Although the uneasiness of friendships differentiated across the participants, they undoubtedly left a lasting imprint on how they approached future social interactions. For Peter, his past experiences left him less interested in casual friendships and in search of \u0026ldquo;real friends.\u0026rdquo; He admitted, \u0026ldquo;my biggest problem is just trusting somebody\u0026rdquo; and that engaging with peers required effort such that, \u0026ldquo;if I need to do it with other people, then I\u0026rsquo;ll uh, I\u0026rsquo;ll, I\u0026rsquo;ll manage.\u0026rdquo; Peter\u0026rsquo;s use of the word \u0026ldquo;manage\u0026rdquo; depicted the way he felt about engaging with others, as if it was an arduous task. This group of adolescents with ASD found it difficult to navigate the complex intricacies of teenage friendships, which sometimes left them lacking meaningful social experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGET 4: \u0026ldquo;I Feel Like I Could Use More Friends, Yeah\u0026rdquo;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe final theme we developed was that these adolescents with ASD yearned for more friendships. Although several participants in this group expressed their satisfaction with their current friendships, there were three participants (Peter, Gus, and Lexi) who greatly desired enjoyable relationships with peers and more substantive friendships. We developed two sub-themes to explain these findings in more detail.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 1: Lacking meaningful friendship experiences.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Through discussions with our participants, it was apparent that they lacked meaningful friendship experiences. Some of them described tenuous relationships with friends at school, \u0026ldquo;we only see each other in, like, the classes that we have\u0026hellip;See, this is why I don't like, consider them real, real friends. Because I only see them like once in five times a week,\u0026rdquo; Peter recalled. Peter\u0026rsquo;s interview responses demonstrated his distinction between \u0026lsquo;real friends\u0026rsquo; and casual acquaintances at school were highlighted. Furthermore, during the follow-up meeting with Peter, he described how people may act differently inside and outside of school, which is why he believed that to be considered a \u0026lsquo;real friend\u0026rsquo;, you need to know someone in both spaces. These were experiences he lacked. Gus stated that he enjoyed hanging out with friends outside of school; yet, when asked to provide examples of activities he engages in with friends he admittedly responded, \u0026ldquo;Uh uh, well, I don't really. I'm not sure. I mean, like. Because I don't really have any friends right now, but I just have my neighbors.\u0026rdquo; Unlike most of the participants in this group who shared some things they do with friends or school peers, Gus could not provide many details about his friendship experiences because he was lacking them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlong with social interactions at school, involvement in afterschool activities (e.g., sports, groups, clubs) provided opportunities to interact with peers and bond over similar interests. All but one of our participants reported participation in afterschool activities; however, their participation did not always result in friendship attainment. For instance, Gus enjoyed playing with the kids on his soccer team, but acknowledged that, \u0026ldquo;They don't talk to me that much. I just don't, but, I mean they don't talk to me at all, actually.\u0026rdquo; While sharing about his experience, Gus came to the realization that his teammates do not talk to him and concluded that, \u0026ldquo;I never had friends in any soccer teams.\u0026rdquo; Another example of the lack of meaningful friendship experiences within this group was illustrated by Peter\u0026rsquo;s description of his after school activities. He participated in a social group for adolescents with ASD and in a fantasy role-playing club; however, when asked to provide examples of things he talks about with his friends he responded, \u0026ldquo;I'm not sure, its cause I don't really have, I don't really have many other friends outside of those groups, so. And I and I, uh, seldom meet them.\u0026rdquo; Participants were not lacking access to social engagement opportunities as some attended support groups, others attended after school activities, and others engaged in sports. Despite these opportunities for social engagement and possible friendships, some participants struggled with developing friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSub-theme 2: Desires to have more friends.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Our participants appreciated social connections and most were generally content with the friendships they had; yet, some desired more connections with peers and companionship. Throughout our interview with Gus, his desire for friends was evident. When prompted to share details about his friends or classmates at school, Gus responded, \u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t have any.\u0026rdquo; Gus conveyed his sadness about his desire to have more friends, \u0026ldquo;Because I don\u0026rsquo;t really have any friends right now\u0026rdquo; and described actions he aspired to do someday with friends when he commented that he and friends could, \u0026ldquo;Hang out and uh maybe go to my house and play.\u0026rdquo; Like other participants, Gus longed for more companionship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Seven of our participants talked about the friends they had at school, although two (i.e., Daniel and Gus) acknowledged that they do not engage with peers or friends outside of school. For instance, Daniel stated, \u0026ldquo;Uh. I don't have friends outside the school. Sorry.\u0026rdquo; Daniel shared details about some of the friends he had at school yet admitted that he does not communicate with any of them outside of school. One participant, Peter, expressed his desire for friends and also wanted a more substantive connection with a friend. Although he maintained a neutral stance on friendship throughout his interview, Peter admitted, \u0026ldquo;Um. I feel like I could use more friends, yeah.\u0026rdquo; He also explained some parameters of a real friendship, \u0026ldquo;I feel like if you feel like you want to call them like a real friend, you have to know them in, in just about every environment.\u0026rdquo; He desired a friend that he could personally connect with. These friendships are undemanding and reflect value for one another (L\u0026ouml;schke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e In their quest for friendships, some participants were eager to socialize and did not shy away from making new friends. Despite previous uncomfortable encounters with peers, Mark proudly shared, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m making a lot of new friends in school.\u0026rdquo; In her similar search for more friendships, Lexi illustrated how some of her friendships have developed by stating, \u0026ldquo;Sometimes people ask me to be their friend. Or sometimes I ask them and they say, sure, and maybe sometimes we end up really liking the way we act with each other, so that can also make us friends.\u0026rdquo; These genuine social interactions have supported our participants\u0026rsquo; desire for more friends and their need for increased social connections.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe conducted this study to explore the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD by listening to their voices and illuminating their perspectives. Through semi-structured interviews, each participant shared their conceptualization of friendships and their personal experiences with friends. Our interpretative synthesis of the data collected resulted in the development of four main GETs, with associated sub-themes. The insight gained from the disclosure of their experiences highlighted the variations of friendships among this group of adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participants shared their expectations for the kind of relationships they wanted to have with friends. Most of our participants expected friendships to be positive and beneficial relationships. They envisioned helpful relationships with peers that would provide companionship and emotional support. Consistent with Kuo et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) findings, our participants mainly thought that friends would have similar interests and would hang out with them in and out of school. Some of our participants also described several hallmarks of friendship, such as being nice to each other and the shared support they desired in their friendships, which aligned with previous work by O\u0026rsquo;Hagan and Hebron (2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Some participants\u0026rsquo; perceptions of friendship were more straightforward than others. However, findings from this study indicated that contrary to previous research by Petrina et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), this group possessed a conceptual understanding of what friendship means to them. Interestingly, these participants\u0026rsquo; ideals of friendship may have differed from societal expectations of what friendship should be. Previous research has outlined some defining characteristics of friendships, such as mutual emotional vulnerability (L\u0026ouml;schke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and interconnected emotional interactions (Bauminger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). As participants described attributes of friendship, it was evident that their definitions did not always represent their current experiences with friends. For example, our participants noted the mutual support within friendships; however, none of our participants expressed an overt exchange of emotions with their friends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs participants shared details about their current experiences with friendship, they described instances of affection and empathetic understanding within their friendships, which previous studies have reported was uncommon in adolescents with ASD (O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017; Platos \u0026amp; Pisula, 2021). In 2014, Petrina and colleagues published a literature review that noted lower quality in certain aspects of friendship (e.g., companionship, closeness) in children and adolescents with ASD. However, our findings revealed that several participants were satisfied with their friendships and social engagement. These findings align with previous investigations that concluded that adolescents with ASD could understand friendships, yet some continued to experience challenges with forming and maintaining friendships (e.g., O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur participants enjoyed hanging out and laughing with friends, which is consistent with the work of Sedgewick et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Laughter brings people together and can be a great way to engage in friendship development and attainment. Six participants engaged in typical teenage social out-of-school activities such as attending clubs and/or playing sports. Half the participants interacted via phone with friends outside of school (i.e., calls and text messages). These findings contrast with previous reports stating that adolescents with ASD infrequently socialize outside of school (e.g., Donaldson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Petrina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). It was clear that for many of our participants, their existing friendships met their needs, even if they were not representative of an \u0026ldquo;ideal\u0026rdquo; friendship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother important finding was the acknowledgment that developing and maintaining friendships has not been easy for this group of adolescents with ASD. Some may have insufficient social skills (e.g., recognizing the feelings of others, conflict resolution) needed to help understand and handle conflict with peers and friends. Oftentimes they become anxious or discomfited, perpetuating barriers to developing and maintaining friendships. As highlighted by Ahlers et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), individuals with ASD struggle with socialization and managing complex social emotional issues, which was true for most of our participants (i.e., Daniel, Gus, Ryota, Lexi, Mark, and Peter). Disagreements and arguments with friends often left participants feeling unhappy. Given the extensive research on the social skills difficulties of adolescents with ASD (NIMH, 2022), it is reasonable to associate these difficulties with hindering their ability to handle uncomfortable social situations and being hesitant to approach future social opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA final takeaway from this work is that the adolescents with ASD in our study often lacked substantive friendship experiences, leading to feelings of loneliness and a deep desire for more friendships. Friendships are valuable experiences in life that add to one\u0026rsquo;s overall quality of life (Leibowitz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Lacking these experiences can have negative impacts on adolescents with ASD. Friendships are developed through interactions between two or more individuals; how they behave during those interactions can impact the likelihood of friendship formation (Dryburgh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The limited social skills that are inherently characteristic among individuals with ASD impacts their ability to socialize with others. Possessing prosocial behaviors (e.g., sharing, kindness, and helping) have been linked to developing and maintaining high-quality friendships (Dryburgh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Difficulty with conversational skills, acknowledgement of social cues, and perspective taking (CDC, 2022; NIMH, 2022) can impact the behaviors of individuals with ASD during social situations, which can affect the amount and quality of friendships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll of our participants, except for Daniel, reported their attendance in social engagement activities such as social skills groups, clubs, and/or recreational sports. Three of these adolescents, Peter, Gus, and Ryota admitted that they did not socialize with any of their peers in these groups. It is not uncommon for adolescents with ASD to experience loneliness (O\u0026rsquo;Hagan \u0026amp; Hebron, 2017; Sumiya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and, therefore, miss out on opportunities to build meaningful friendships with peers. Some participants (e.g., Daniel and Gus) had difficulty answering some of the interview questions (e.g., What sort of things do you talk about with your friends?) because they did not have experiences to report. The absence of meaningful friendship experiences during adolescence are associated with adverse life outcomes (e.g., isolation and loneliness) in adulthood (Chang \u0026amp; Dean, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous researchers have reported that adolescents with ASD desired friendships (e.g, Cribb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which was reflected in our findings. Many adolescents in this sample group desired companionship and social connections with peers, yet they continued to struggle in attaining these aspirations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the diversity of lived experiences among adolescents with ASD, there are limitations of this study that should be considered when interpreting our findings. First, the study\u0026rsquo;s small and purposive sample group minimizes the ability to generalize our findings to all adolescents with ASD (Howard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the small sample size and emphasis on an idiographic approach to analysis are features of IPA. The purpose of an IPA study is not for generalization, but for a deeper understanding of a particular sample group\u0026rsquo;s experience (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt should also be noted that information about each participant's race, socioeconomic status, language proficiency scores from standard tests, and educational setting was not collected. These factors may have contributed further to our analysis and understanding of our participants\u0026rsquo; experiences. Another limitation of this study was the brevity of participant responses to interview questions, which resulted in relatively short interviews. The core of IPA research is the elicitation of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences through in-depth interviews (Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). One consideration may be that the limited responses were simply an artifact of our participants being teenagers. Another consideration was that the reliance on expressive language in this investigation may have been problematic for some individuals with ASD (Howard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). We tried to mitigate this possibility by ascertaining from their parents if they could have a conversation with us in an interview format. Considering the communication and interactional needs of the participants (Kerchbaum \u0026amp; Price, 2017), we also incorporated prompts within the interview questions to support participants with their responses, if needed. This was especially important to ensure the participants who may speak less\u0026mdash;such as some individuals with ASD and given the sensitivity of the topic\u0026mdash;had the opportunity to be heard (Kerchbaum \u0026amp; Price, 2017). Lastly, member checks were incorporated into this study in an attempt to improve the credibility of our findings (Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, only two of the eight adolescents participated in member check meetings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eImplications for Future Research\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndividuals with ASD have a distinct way of experiencing life compared to TD individuals (Petrina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The inherent idiosyncrasies of adolescents with ASD may impact their ability to develop meaningful friendships (Ellingsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This study calls attention to the value of the experiential knowledge of adolescents with ASD and the need for further idiographic research that positions their lived experiences at the forefront. Future investigations should consider centering the participant\u0026rsquo;s disability and providing options for collecting personalized data (e.g., written responses, photo-elicitation) that allow participants to share their experiences authentically (Howard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in research conducted by Kerschbaum and Price (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), potential participants were given a survey that included a question about their preferred modality for participating in interviews (e.g., in-person, phone, or videoconferencing). Offering modality options to participants with ASD can enhance both their comfort and the overall quality of the interview data. Involving this unique population in the research process and emphasizing collaboration between the participant and the researcher has the potential to attain more substantial insights into the experiences of adolescents with ASD (Howard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the obstacles they encounter in their social lives, and their suggestions for supportive social interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study sought to gain insight into the friendships and social engagement of adolescents with ASD by interpreting their shared lived experiences. The themes we developed represent this sample group and are not intended to speak for all adolescents with ASD. Nevertheless, this study\u0026rsquo;s findings not only spotlight our participants\u0026rsquo; perspectives regarding their social lives, but also shed light on the obstacles these individuals encounter in their social endeavors. Friendships play a pivotal role in the happiness of all humans (Leibowitz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Like many adolescents with ASD, this group wanted friendships and were still figuring out how to navigate social situations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlanning and methodological decisions for the study detailed in this manuscript were conducted by M.S., K.B., and E.D. All data collection for this study was completed by M.S. Data analysis was performed by M.S. and reviewed by K.B. through a consultative process. Initial themes were developed by M.S. and subsequently reviewed and refined by M.S., K.B., and E.D. Author M.S. drafted the main manuscript text and prepared tables 1 and 2. Authors K.B. and E.D. edited the manuscript text. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the sensitive nature of the data collected and to protect participant privacy, the data cannot be openly shared.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhlers, K. P., Gabrielsen, T. P., Lewis, D., Brady, A. M., \u0026amp; Litchford, A. (2017). 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Parent perspectives on autistic girls\u0026rsquo; friendships and futures. \u003cem\u003eAutism\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026amp; \u003cem\u003eDevelopmental Language Impairments\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/2396941518794497\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/2396941518794497\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSedgewick, F., Hill, V., Yates, R., Pickering, L., \u0026amp; Pellicano, E. (2016). Gender differences in the social motivation.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eand friendship experiences of autistic and non-autistic adolescents. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1297\u0026ndash;1306. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2669-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10803-015-2669-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith, J. A., Flowers, P., \u0026amp; Larkin, M. (2022). \u003cem\u003eInterpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method, and\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eresearch\u003c/em\u003e (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSumiya, M., Igarashi, K., \u0026amp; Miyahara, M. (2018). Emotions surrounding friendships of adolescents with autism.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003espectrum disorder in Japan A qualitative interview study. \u003cem\u003ePloS One\u003c/em\u003e, 13(2), e0191538\u0026ndash;e0191538. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191538\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0191538\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThomas, D. R. (2017). \u003cem\u003eFeedback from research participants\u003c/em\u003e. Are member checks useful in qualitative research?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualitative Research in Psychology, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 23\u0026ndash;41.\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1219435\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/14780887.2016.1219435\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTrevisan, D. A., Roberts, N., Lin, C., \u0026amp; Birmingham, E. (2017). How do adults and teens with self-declared autism.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003espectrum disorders experience eye contact? A qualitative analysis of first-hand accounts. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(11), e0188446. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188446\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0188446\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVine Foggo, R. S., \u0026amp; Webster, A. A. (2017). Understanding the social experiences of adolescent females on the.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eautism spectrum \u003cem\u003eResearch in Autism Spectrum Disorders\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e35\u003c/em\u003e, 74\u0026ndash;85. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.11.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.rasd.2016.11.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYin, R. K. (2016). \u003cem\u003eQualitative research: From start to finish\u003c/em\u003e (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZeedyk, S. M., Rodriguez, G., Tipton, L. A., Baker, B. L., \u0026amp; Blacher, J. (2014). Bullying of youth with autism.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003espectrum disorder, intellectual disability, or typical development: Victim and parent perspectives. \u003cem\u003eResearch in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8\u003c/em\u003e(9), 1173\u0026ndash;1183. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.001\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAPPENDIX 1.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eINTERVIEWPROTOCOL.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQuestions 1 Is there a name that you want me to call you during this interview or in the report that I write? Or, do you want me to make up a name for you? 2. How old are you? 3. What grade are you in at school? 4. What sort of things do you like to do?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e (1) Do you prefer to do things on your own or with other people? (2) Do you have a.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ehobby? (3) What type of games do you enjoy? (4) Do you like hanging out with friends? 5. What makes a person a friend?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e: (1) How would you describe a friend? (2) What are some things that friends do with or for each other? 6. What qualities are important to you in a friend?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e (1) What are some things you look for in a friend? (2) What are some things that make a good friend? 7. How do friendships benefit you?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e (1) What are some good things about having a friend? (2) How do friendships help you? (3) If they indicate that friendships are not beneficial, ask them to explain. 8. Can you describe your friends at school and what are some things you do with your friends at school?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePossible \u003cem\u003eprompts\u003c/em\u003e: (1) Do you hang out with friends or peers at school? (2) How do you feel when you are with your friends? 9. Can you describe your friends outside of school and what are some things you do with your friends outside of school?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e (1) Do you hang out with friends in-person? (2) Do you attend social events? (3) Do you participate in any after school activities such as sports or clubs? (4) How do you communicate with your friends outside of school? 10. What sort of things do you talk about with your friends?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e: (1) Do you talk about your personal lives? (2) Do you share secrets with your friends? 11. Do you think it is important to have friends? Why/why not?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e: (1) Can friendships be helpful? (2) What do you think is important about friendships? 12. Can you tell me about difficulties you have had with your friends?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cem\u003ePossible prompts\u003c/em\u003e: (1) Have you ever had an argument or disagreement with a friend? (2) Has a friend ever made you feel sad? (3) Have you ever been picked on?.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGallup, Smith (2016). 2022; Vine Foggo \u0026amp; Webster, 2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"friendship, social engagement, autism, adolescents, phenomenology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can struggle with developing and maintaining meaningful friendships. In this qualitative study, we explored their real-life friendship experiences by focusing on the following questions: (a) How do adolescents with ASD conceptualize friendship? and (b) What perceptions do adolescents with ASD have regarding their friendship quality and their level of social engagement with their friends? Participants were eight adolescents aged between 12\u0026ndash;17 years, diagnosed with ASD. Semi-structured interviews explored their experiences with their current friendships and social engagement. The data collected were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. We developed Personal Experiential Themes (PETs) for each participant. A cross-case analysis of PETs resulted in four Group Experiential Themes (GETs): (a) We Expect Friends to \u0026ldquo;Make You Feel Way Better,\u0026rdquo; (b) \u0026ldquo;I Like My Friends,\u0026rdquo; (c) Friendship Isn\u0026rsquo;t Easy, \u0026ldquo;I Don\u0026rsquo;t Really Do Anything Wrong,\u0026rdquo; and (d) \u0026ldquo;I Feel Like I Could Use more Friends, Yeah\u0026rdquo;. Participants\u0026rsquo; experiences were not all the same; yet, there was a clear distinction between those who were content with their friendships and those who were not. The four GETs illuminated the participants\u0026rsquo; friendship expectations, quality of current friendships and social experiences, difficulties encountered when engaging with peers, and desire for meaningful friendships. Implications for future research are discussed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Friends “Make You Feel Way Better”: Illuminating the Perspectives of Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-29 18:40:59","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7334291/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3909f067-bd8c-4812-95a0-928dc311d957","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-12T16:06:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7334291","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03249-y","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-child-and-family-studies","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-07 15:59:16","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 7th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-29 18:40:59","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10826-025-03249-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03249-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7334291","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7334291","identity":"rs-7334291","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}