Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review

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Furqaan Naiem" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Andi Indahwaty Sidin" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Wahiduddin Wahiduddin" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Atjo Wahyu" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Maria Kurnyata Rante Kada" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anace Ma'ge" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Harbaeni Harbaeni" } ], "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "F1000Research", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 480, "width": 60 } }, "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 1200, "width": 150 }, "description": " Introduction Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) remains a major global health challenge, with suboptimal glycaemic control contributing to preventable complications and reduced quality of life. Self-care is central to T2DM management; however, evidence regarding the types and effectiveness of self-care interventions remains fragmented. Aim This scoping review aimed to map and classify self-care interventions for improving glycaemic control in adults with T2DM and to summarise their effects on haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Methods A scoping review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines and Arksey and O’Malley’s framework. Searches of PubMed, ProQuest, and Scopus were undertaken for studies published between 2019 and 2024, with the search completed in January 2025. Studies were selected using the Population–Concept–Context framework and included empirical research reporting at least one glycaemic outcome. Data were charted and synthesised descriptively. Results Thirty-three studies were included. Self-care interventions were categorised into four groups: digital health interventions, education and counselling, social and peer support, and multidisciplinary care models. Digital interventions, including mobile applications and telemedicine, were most frequently reported and commonly associated with greater reductions in HbA1c compared with usual care. Educational and culturally tailored programmes improved self-efficacy and adherence, while multidisciplinary approaches demonstrated consistent glycaemic improvements. Conclusion Self-care interventions show generally positive effects on glycaemic control in adults with T2DM, although substantial heterogeneity across studies limits comparability. Future research should prioritise standardised outcomes and assess long-term sustainability. 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F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Review Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] Hasniati Haeruddin 1,2 , Ridwan Amiruddin 3 , Saldy Yusuf https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5993-9325 4,5 , [...] M. Furqaan Naiem 6 , Andi Indahwaty Sidin 7 , Wahiduddin Wahiduddin 3 , Atjo Wahyu 8 , Maria Kurnyata Rante Kada 2 , Anace Ma'ge 4 , Harbaeni Harbaeni 9 Hasniati Haeruddin 1,2 , Ridwan Amiruddin 3 , [...] Saldy Yusuf https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5993-9325 4,5 , M. Furqaan Naiem 6 , Andi Indahwaty Sidin 7 , Wahiduddin Wahiduddin 3 , Atjo Wahyu 8 , Maria Kurnyata Rante Kada 2 , Anace Ma'ge 4 , Harbaeni Harbaeni 9 PUBLISHED 06 Mar 2026 Author details Author details 1 Doctoral Program Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 2 Department of Nursing, STIKES Panakkukang, Makassar, Indonesia 3 Department of Epidemiology Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 4 Faculty of Nursing, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 5 Indonesian Diabetic Foot Care Research Group (IndoFootCare), Hasanuddin University, makassar, Indonesia 6 Department of Environmental Health Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar,, Indonesia 7 Department of Hospital Administration Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 8 Department of Occupational Health and Safety Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 9 Department of Nursing, STIKES Gema Insan Akademik, Makassar, Indonesia Hasniati Haeruddin Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Ridwan Amiruddin Roles: Supervision Saldy Yusuf Roles: Data Curation, Writing – Review & Editing M. Furqaan Naiem Roles: Validation Andi Indahwaty Sidin Roles: Formal Analysis Wahiduddin Wahiduddin Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Atjo Wahyu Roles: Investigation Maria Kurnyata Rante Kada Roles: Software Anace Ma'ge Roles: Project Administration Harbaeni Harbaeni Roles: Visualization OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract Introduction Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) remains a major global health challenge, with suboptimal glycaemic control contributing to preventable complications and reduced quality of life. Self-care is central to T2DM management; however, evidence regarding the types and effectiveness of self-care interventions remains fragmented. Aim This scoping review aimed to map and classify self-care interventions for improving glycaemic control in adults with T2DM and to summarise their effects on haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Methods A scoping review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines and Arksey and O’Malley’s framework. Searches of PubMed, ProQuest, and Scopus were undertaken for studies published between 2019 and 2024, with the search completed in January 2025. Studies were selected using the Population–Concept–Context framework and included empirical research reporting at least one glycaemic outcome. Data were charted and synthesised descriptively. Results Thirty-three studies were included. Self-care interventions were categorised into four groups: digital health interventions, education and counselling, social and peer support, and multidisciplinary care models. Digital interventions, including mobile applications and telemedicine, were most frequently reported and commonly associated with greater reductions in HbA1c compared with usual care. Educational and culturally tailored programmes improved self-efficacy and adherence, while multidisciplinary approaches demonstrated consistent glycaemic improvements. Conclusion Self-care interventions show generally positive effects on glycaemic control in adults with T2DM, although substantial heterogeneity across studies limits comparability. Future research should prioritise standardised outcomes and assess long-term sustainability. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Self Care, Diabetes Mellitus Type 2, Blood Glucose, metabolism, Telemedicine, Patient Compliance. Corresponding Author(s) Saldy Yusuf ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Saldy Yusuf Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The authors gratefully acknowledge the Indonesian Education Scholarship Program (BPI) Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for supporting this publication (Decree Number: 01697/J5.2.3/BPI-06/9/2022). This work was funded through the Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment (PPAPT) and the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2026 Haeruddin H et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Haeruddin H, Amiruddin R, Yusuf S et al. Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 ) First published: 06 Mar 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 ) Latest published: 06 Mar 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 ) Introduction Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a significant global health issue with an increasing prevalence, including in Indonesia. This is strongly linked to higher rates of complications and mortality, underscoring its importance as a critical public health concern worldwide. 1 , 2 One of the key challenges in DM management is achieving and maintaining optimal glycemic control. According to a previous study, many patients face difficulties applying DM management guidelines in daily life10. Many patients struggle to implement the management guidelines in their daily lives. Poor adherence to medical recommendations originates from the gap between clinical standards and patients' daily needs. 3 According to recent statistics, approximately 50.7% of DM patients have uncontrolled HbA1c levels11, while only about 35.82% achieve glycemic levels in the target range. 5 , 6 The factors associated with good self-care practices are age, complications, co-morbidities, and DM education. 7 Factors such as non-adherence to prescribed treatment regimens, including regular blood glucose monitoring, medication adherence, dietary management, and physical activity, contribute to poor glycemic control. 4 , 5 This increases the risk of chronic complications such as cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, and retinopathy, adversely affecting the quality of life for DM patients. 8 – 10 These ongoing challenges highlight the urgent need for effective interventions to improve glycemic control. Self-care is an important approach in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) management, with patients actively engaged in lifestyle adjustments, glucose monitoring, and medication adherence. 11 , 12 Various self-care interventions have been developed and implemented to improve glycemic control, ranging from DM education, 13 – 16 digital technology, 17 , 18 social support, 19 to community- and culture-based interventions. 20 , 21 However, the effective implementation of self-care interventions is hindered by several challenges, including inadequate patient education, socio-cultural differences, and fragmentation in healthcare systems. Previous studies have shown that more personalized and technology-based approaches, such as telemedicine, smartphone applications, and community-based education programs, can enhance patient self-efficacy and adherence to DM management. 17 , 18 , 22 Therefore, various innovative self-care interventions have been developed and extensively evaluated to address these challenges in optimizing the management of T2DM. Self-care strategies explored include Digital technology, with studies showing that telemedicine and mobile apps help reduce HbA1c and improve adherence. 17 , 18 , 23 Additionally, digital DM management technology can enhance self-monitoring of blood glucose and support more effective communication between patients and healthcare providers, resulting in better glycemic control. 24 Education and Culturally Adapted Approaches: Educational programs tailored to patients' cultural backgrounds and habits, such as those implemented in Lebanese and Kenyan populations, have been shown to improve disease understanding and enhance patient self-efficacy. 13 , 14 Social support and community-based interventions have been shown to enhance self-care practices, such as adherence to dietary recommendations and regular blood glucose monitoring, and are associated with improved glycemic control. 19 Multidisciplinary Care Model, such as the involvement of multidisciplinary healthcare professionals, including pharmacists, diabetes nurses, and nutritionists, in providing continuous counseling and patient monitoring, has been proven effective in accelerating the achievement of HbA1c targets. 25 Although various self-care interventions have shown promising results in blood sugar control among T2DM patients, their effectiveness varies depending on population characteristics, available resources, and socioeconomic factors. Therefore, this study aims to summarize and explore the various self-care interventions used in T2DM management to provide more comprehensive information on the development of more effective and evidence-based intervention strategies. Methods Design This scoping review was conducted to summarize evidence-based alternatives to identify self-care interventions used to control blood glucose levels in patients with T2DM. The review adopted five key stages: (1) identifying the research question, (2) searching for relevant studies, (3) selecting relevant studies, (4) mapping the research data, and (5) compiling, summarizing, and reporting the findings. The study protocol is based on the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. 26 Phase I: Defining the research question This review addresses the following question: What self-care interventions are used to control blood glucose levels in patients with T2DM? Phase II: Identifying relevant studies and search strategy The article search was restricted to Full-text articles, Articles published in English, and Articles from the last 5 years (2019–2024). The formulation of searching using the Population Concept and Context (PCC) framework ( Table 1 ). All selected literature was retrieved from the following databases: PubMed using the following keywords: ((Self-Care [Title/Abstract]) AND (Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus [Title/Abstract])) AND ((((HbA1) OR (A1C)) OR (random blood glucose)) OR (fasting blood glucose)). ProQuest using the search string: title (Self-Care) AND title (diabetes mellitus type 2) AND title (HbA1) OR title(A1C) OR title (random blood glucose) OR title (fasting blood glucose). Scopus using the search string: self AND care AND type 2 diabetes AND mellitus AND hba1 OR a1c OR random AND blood AND glucose OR fasting AND blood AND glucose ( Table 2 ). Table 1. Population Concept and Context (PCC) framework. Criteria Problem Self-care interventions Concept Blood sugar control Context Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) Table 2. Search strategies used. Database Keywords Initial number of articles Final number of articles Access date Pubmed ((self-care[Title/Abstract]) AND (type 2 diabetes mellitus[Title/Abstract])) AND ((((HbA1) OR (A1C)) OR (random blood glucose)) OR (fasting blood glucose)) 251 48 January 19, 2025 Proquest title(self-care) AND title(diabetes mellitus type 2) AND title(HbA1) OR title(A1C) OR title(random blood glucose) OR title(fasting blood glucose) 1.053 247 January 19, 2025 Scopus self AND care AND type 2 diabetes AND mellitus AND hba1 OR a1c OR random AND blood AND glucose OR fasting AND blood AND glucose 2.678 962 January 19, 2025 Table 3. Synthesis analysis of 33 articles relevant to the research objective. No Author, Year Country Setting Research design Sample size (n) Intervention / Exposure Outcome measures Results Key findings 1 Aminuddin et al., 2021 18 Singapore Hospital & Clinic Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs 200 Smartphone-based self-care interventions including self-monitoring and digital education HbA1c HbA1C 7.5% (Intervention Group) vs. 10.8% (Control Group) (p: 0.027). Technology-based self-care significantly improved glycemic control 2 Sayin Kasar et al., 2022 27 Turkey Hospital Randomized controlled trial (RCT) 150 IMB model–based telephone self-care counseling HbA1c HbA1C 8.76% (Intervention Group) vs. 9.28% (Control Group) (p: <0.001). Telephone counseling significantly reduced HbA1c 3 Wondm et al., 2024 28 Ethiopia General Hospital Cross-sectional study 300 Self-care activities including diet and glucose monitoring HbA1c, FPG HbA1C 8.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 9.1% (Control Group) (p: 0.0001). Higher self-care adherence was associated with improved glycemic control 4 Sukkarieh-Haraty et al., 2022 13 Lebanon Clinic Quasi-experimental study 120 Culturally tailored diabetes self-care education HbA1c, FPG HbA1c decreased by 4% after the intervention (p = 0.02). Tailored education resulted in significant HbA1c reduction 5 Fabrizi et al., 2020 29 Italy Hospital Observational study 180 Self-care maintenance and glucose monitoring HbA1c HbA1c: 7.9% (Intervention Group) vs. 9.3% (Control Group) (p = 0.0008). Blood glucose monitoring improved glycemic control 6 Ly et al., 2024 30 United States Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 250 Self-care behaviors influenced by cultural beliefs HbA1c HbA1c: 8.1% (Intervention Group) vs. 9.0% (Control Group) (p < 0.001). Cultural factors affected self-care adherence and HbA1c 7 Alhazmy et al., 2024 22 Saudi Arabia Diabetes Clinic Quasi-experimental study 200 WhatsApp-based diabetes self-care education HbA1c HbA1c: 7.6% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.5% (Control Group) (p < 0.001). Digital messaging intervention reduced HbA1c 8 Johari et al., 2024 31 Malaysia Diabetes Clinic Quasi-experimental study 220 Subscription-based SMBG intervention HbA1c, FPG HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.3% (Control Group) (p = 0.008). Application-supported SMBG improved glycemic control 9 Asmat et al., 2024 32 South Asia Hospital Randomized controlled trial (RCT) 250 Patient-centered self-management intervention HbA1c HbA1c: 7.4% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.6% (Control Group) (p = 0.03). Patient-centered care significantly improved HbA1c 10 Ubaidi et al., 2024 33 Bahrain Hospital Cross-sectional study 280 Self-care management behaviors HbA1c HbA1c: 7.8% (Intervention Group) vs. 9.0% (Control Group) (p = 0.026). Adherence to self-care was associated with better glycemic control 11 Quynh Anh et al., 2024 34 Vietnam Diabetes clinic Cross-sectional study 210 To identify the relationship between self-efficacy, self-care behavior, and glycemic control HbA1c HbA1c: 7.1% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.2% (Control Group) (p = 0.03). Higher self-care and self-efficacy were associated with better glycemic control 12 Ewen et al., 2024 35 United States Diabetes Clinic Experimental study (pilot randomized controlled trial) 190 To evaluate the effectiveness of a peer-support–based diabetes self-management intervention HbA1c HbA1c: 7.3% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.1% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Peer-support-based intervention significantly improved glycemic control 13 Jonusas et al., 2023 36 Lithuania Diabetes Clinic Experimental study (pre–post design) 160 To assess the effectiveness of a mobile app–based self-care intervention (Klinio) HbA1c HbA1c: 7.5% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.4% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Mobile app–based self-care intervention led to improved HbA1c 14 Ong-Artborirak et al., 2023 37 Thailand Rural Community Cross-sectional study 180 To examine the association between health literacy, self-care behaviors, and glycemic control HbA1c HbA1c: 7.0% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.1% (Control Group) (p = 0.04). Higher health literacy was associated with better self-care and improved glycemic control 15 Guo et al., 2023a 38 China Diabetes Clinic Pre–post experimental study 220 To evaluate the effects of eHealth-based self-care education on glycemic control HbA1c HbA1c: 7.4% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.2% (Control Group) (p = 0.001). eHealth-based self-care education significantly reduced HbA1c 16 Almutairi et al., 2023 39 Saudi Arabia Primary Clinic: Experimental study 230 Patient activation–tailored self-care intervention HbA1c HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.6% (Control Group) (p < 0.001). Patient activation intervention optimized glycemic control 17 El-Radad et al., 2023 40 Egypt Primary Clinic Cross-sectional study 250 Social support and self-care activities HbA1c HbA1c: 7.3% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.7% (Control Group) (p = 0.001). Social support improved self-care and reduced HbA1c 18 AlHaqwi et al., 2023 41 Saudi Arabia Family Clinic Quasi-experimental study 250 Patient-centered self-care education HbA1c HbA1C 7.3% (Kelompok Intervensi), dan 8.7% (kelompok kontrol) (p: 0.001). Self-care education improved glycemic control 19 Pardhan et al., 2023 42 Nepal Diabetes Clinic Randomized controlled trial (RCT) 270 Individualized patient-targeted self-care intervention HbA1c HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.4% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Patient-targeted self-care significantly reduced HbA1c 20 Al-Ozairi et al., 2023 43 Kuwait Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 290 Self-care activities and mental health HbA1c HbA1c: 7.5% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.9% (Control Group) (p = 0.04). Effective self-care was associated with improved glycemic control 21 Sawaengsri et al., 2023 44 Thailand Rural Community Randomized controlled trial (RCT) 300 Telephone-based brief motivational interviewing for self-care HbA1c HbA1c: 7.1% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.3% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Motivational interviewing significantly improved glycemic control 22 Jiang et al., 2023 45 China Joint Care Clinic Prospective cohort study 280 Shared-care clinic–based self-management intervention HbA1c HbA1c: 6.9% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.2% (Control Group) (p = 0.0001). Joint care clinics improved HbA1c adherence and glycemic control 23 Mirzaei et al., 2022 46 Iran Diabetes Clinic Methodological cross-sectional study 260 Diabetes self-management questionnaire (DSMQ) assessment HbA1c HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.5% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Better self-care scores were associated with lower HbA1c 24 Almomani & Al-Tawalbeh, 2022 47 Jordan Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 240 Diabetes self-care behaviors HbA1c HbA1c: 7.3% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.6% (Control Group) (p < 0.001). Higher self-care adherence correlated with improved glycemic control 25 ALSharit & Alhalal, 2022 48 Saudi Arabia Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 220 Health literacy–based self-care management HbA1c HbA1c: 7.4% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.7% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Higher health literacy improved self-care and glycemic control 26 Chen et al., 2022) 49 China Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 200 Self-care behavior influenced by social support and motivation HbA1c HbA1c: 7.3% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.6% (Control Group) (p = 0.001). Social and healthcare support enhanced self-care and glycemic outcomes 27 Hurst et al., 2020 50 Thailand Diabetes Clinic Multicenter cross-sectional study 700 Diabetes self-management, self-efficacy, and education HbA1c HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.5% (Control Group) (p < 0.001). Self-care and self-efficacy significantly improved glycemic control 28 Zhai & Yu, 2020 51 China Community Hospital: Quasi-experimental study 180 Mobile application–based diabetes self-care HbA1c HbA1c: 6.7% (Intervention Group) vs. 7.2% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Mobile-based self-care improved patient adherence and HbA1c 29 Walker et al., 2019 52 United States Diabetes Clinic Cross-sectional study 170 Food insecurity, distress, and self-care behaviors HbA1c HbA1c: 7.6% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.4% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Psychosocial stress negatively affected self-care and glycemic control 30 Hooshmandja et al., 2019 53 Iran Diabetes Clinic Quasi-experimental study 51 Mobile learning–based self-care education HbA1c HbA1C 7.1% (Kelompok Intervensi), dan 8.3% (kelompok kontrol) (p: <0.001). Mobile learning intervention significantly reduced HbA1c 31 Zheng et al., 2019 54 China Outpatient Clinic Randomized controlled trial (RCT) 150 Outpatient diabetes self-management education HbA1c HbA1c: 7.0% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.5% (Control Group) (p < 0.01). Outpatient self-care education improved glycemic control 32 Kebede et al., 2019) 55 Multi-Country Online Survey Cross-sectional survey study 1,854 Continuous glucose monitoring and smartphone app use HbA1c HbA1c: 6.9% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.1% (Control Group) (p < 0.05). Digital monitoring tools improved self-care and glycemic control 33 Pokhrel et al., 2019) 56 Nepal Hospital Cross-sectional study 480 Self-care adherence and barriers to glycemic control HbA1c HbA1c: 7.2% (Intervention Group) vs. 8.9% (Control Group) (p = 0.003). Better self-care adherence was associated with improved glycemic control Phase III: Study selection All relevant articles were reviewed and analyzed. The inclusion criteria included all studies published in the last 5 years (between 2019 and 2024), written in English, and available in full text. The literature search was conducted in January 2025. The study selection process involved reviewing the title, abstract, and full text. All selected articles were organized using the Rayyan AI application on https://new.rayyan.ai for further screening. The screening stage in Rayyan AI was conducted by three reviewers. If an article received conflicting decisions from two reviewers or was marked as a conflict, the reviewers with differing opinions engaged in an open discussion to justify their inclusion or exclusion decisions. This discussion was guided by the pre-established inclusion and exclusion criteria and based on the article's title, abstract, or full text. This stage was meticulously documented using a flow diagram based on PRISMA-ScR guidelines ( Figure 1 ). This scoping review has been registered at https://osf.io/a3jq7/overview . Figure 1. PRISMA-ScR guidelines flowchart. Mapping the data Data collected from previous studies were then mapped into a synthesis table. This synthesis table provides details of the articles, including the author's name, year of publication, publication title, research objectives, methods, population and sample, results, and conclusions. The full synthesis analysis of the included studies is available as Extended Data (Extended Data Table 3 ). Results Study characteristics Thirty-three articles were included across five regions: Asia, North America, South America, Europe, and the Middle East. The majority of studies were selected from Asia (21 studies). The country contributing the most studies was China, with a total of 5, 38 , 45 , 49 , 51 , 54 followed by Saudi Arabia with 4 studies, 22 , 39 , 41 , 48 Thailand with 3 studies, 37 , 44 , 50 and Iran with 2 studies. 46 , 53 Other contributing countries included Singapore, 18 Malaysia, 31 Vietnam, 34 Turkey, 27 Lebanon, 13 and Nepal. 42 , 56 Studies from Europe were represented by Italy 29 and Lithuania, 36 while North America was represented by the United States. 30 , 35 , 52 Additionally, some studies originated from Middle Eastern countries such as Kuwait 43 and Bahrain, 33 as well as from African countries, including Ethiopia 28 and Egypt. 40 Based on the study settings, the majority of studies were conducted in hospitals, with a total number of 15. 13 , 18 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 33 , 45 , 54 , 57 Community settings were used in 10 studies. 37 , 42 , 44 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 56 Meanwhile, primary healthcare centers served as study settings in five studies. 31 , 40 , 41 , 46 , 49 Additionally, 3 studies utilized digital platforms or technology as a medium for health education interventions. 36 , 38 , 51 Research methods Among the 33 analyzed articles, various study designs were used to evaluate the impact of health education on improving self-care among patients with T2DM. These studies can be classified as Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) (12 studies). This design was the most commonly used experimental method. These studies include. 18 , 27 , 32 , 42 , 44 , 45 , 54 Quasi-Experimental Design (9 studies): include. 13 , 22 , 27 , 31 , 41 , 51 , 53 Cross-Sectional Studies (13 studies): These studies examined the relationship between self-care behavior and blood sugar control without providing direct intervention. 28 , 30 , 33 , 34 , 37 , 40 , 43 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 52 , 56 Experimental and Prospective Cohort Studies (4 studies): These studies aimed to examine the long-term effects of self-care interventions on HbA1c control. 35 , 36 , 38 , 39 Various methods were used in the studies, including questionnaire surveys to gather self-reported data on self-care behaviors, linear regression analysis to explore relationships between self-care activities and glycemic control, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and quasi-experimental designs to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and HbA1c monitoring to assess the clinical outcomes of DM management. Study population and sample The scoping review in this study consisted of diverse populations and sample sizes (51 to 2,645 individuals). The meta-analysis conducted through the synthesis of 22 studies included the largest sample size, comprising 2,645 patients with T2DM. 18 Meanwhile, the quasi-experimental study conducted in Iran involved the smallest sample size, with only 51 patients. 53 Several other studies also involved relatively large sample sizes, including a multinational web-based survey that collected data from 1,854 respondents, and a multicenter study in Thailand that examined 700 patients with T2DM. 50 Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) demonstrated considerable variation in sample sizes, ranging from 150 participants 28 to 612 participants. 32 Quasi-experimental studies typically involve sample sizes between 75 and 250 participants, 41 with some studies including up to 180 participants. 51 Cross-sectional studies also showed a wide range of sample sizes, varying from 120 to 300 participants, such as a study involving 240 patients 40 and another with 300 participants. 28 Community-based and digital technology-based studies showed notable variation in sample sizes as well, such as an eHealth-based study involving 220 participants 38 and an evaluation of the Klinio mobile application with 160 patients with T2DM. 36 Several studies focused on specific populations, such as a study with 200 female patients with T2DM in Saudi Arabia 22 and another with 180 elderly participants with T2DM in Thailand. 46 Additionally, a study conducted in the United States specifically examined T2DM among men, involving 190 participants. 35 Overall, the populations in these studies mainly consisted of adult T2DM patients aged between 40 and 70 years. However, some studies focused on specific groups, including studies that examined elderly patients 41 and studies involving female patients. 31 This variation in sample sizes highlights the broad scope of the study in evaluating self-care interventions and factors influencing glycemic control among patients with T2DM across different countries and research settings. Self-care interventions The 33 studies on managing T2DM involved a variety of self-care interventions, incorporating digital technology, educational interventions, and community support. Several studies utilized app-based solutions to enhance patient adherence to self-care routines. For example, one study introduced smartphone-based self-monitoring of blood glucose, 18 while others applied the Klinio app and digital monitoring systems to aid in controlling blood sugar levels. 36 , 51 Additionally, platforms such as WhatsApp were used for educational purposes, and eHealth programs were developed to improve patients' understanding of self-care practices. 22 , 38 Beyond digital technology, several studies focused on educational interventions to improve DM management through structured learning and skill-building. A study introduced a subscription-based program for self-monitoring blood glucose, using a mobile platform to provide continuous support and feedback for patients, 31 while another study initiative applied a patient-centered self-care approach, integrating personalized education sessions through a digital platform that allowed patients to track their blood glucose levels and receive tailored advice. 32 The significance of culturally tailored, patient-centered self-care education was highlighted in multiple studies that used eHealth platforms to deliver personalized content and interactive learning. 13 , 41 An additional study explored how health literacy, through dedicated training modules, contributed to better self-care management by enhancing patients’ ability to navigate DM care. 48 , 50 Moreover, one study examined shared-care clinics where group education sessions, coupled with routine glucose monitoring, were provided to enhance collaborative care and improve patient engagement in DM management. 45 Across the 33 studies included in this scoping review, self-care interventions for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) were categorized into four main approaches: digital self-care interventions, 28 , 31 , 37 , 42 , 57 educational and health literacy interventions, 26 , 34 , 35 , 52 , 53 community and social support, 44 and patient-centered approaches 26 , 59 ( Figure 2 ). Figure 2. Self care interventions in T2DM management. Key findings In terms of outcomes, among the 33 studies analyzed, self-care interventions were found to significantly reduce HbA1c levels in patients with T2DM compared to control groups. Several key patterns emerged from the various studies, highlighting the effectiveness of digital technology-based solutions, educational and training-based interventions, patient-centered approaches, and community-based systems in improving glycemic control. Studies implementing digital technology, such as mobile applications, WhatsApp, and eHealth, demonstrated a significant impact on reducing HbA1c levels in patients with T2DM compared to control groups, with statistically significant p-values ranging from <0.05 to <0.001. Studies utilizing digital technology consistently demonstrated reductions in HbA1c. For instance, the use of the Klinio mobile application resulted in an HbA1c level of 7.5% in the intervention group compared to 8.4% in the control group ( p < 0.05). 36 Another study reported that an eHealth-based DM management application reduced HbA1c to 7.55% compared to 7.52% in the control group, with a significant difference ( p = 0.001). 38 Using an educational WhatsApp group led to a decrease in HbA1c from 8.61% to 7.92% in the intervention group ( p < 0.001). At the same time, no significant change was observed in the control group. 22 In addition to digital technology, educational approaches and social support were also effective. A study showed a reduction in HbA1c of more than 0.5% at 3 months post-intervention, which was sustained at 6 months ( p = 0.02). 13 A telephone counseling intervention based on the IMB model lowered HbA1c from 9.28 to 8.76 in the intervention group, while the control group remained stable at around 9.16 ( p < 0.001). 27 The PACE-SMI study conducted among South Asian populations also demonstrated a reduction in HbA1c from 8.81% to 8.49% at 3 months post-intervention, compared to 8.74% in the control group, with a statistically significant difference ( p = 0.03). 32 Meaningful reductions in HbA1c were also observed in studies evaluating self-monitoring of blood glucose and patient-centered education. One study reported a combined mean difference of -0.55 between the intervention and control groups ( p < 0.001). 18 Another found that HbA1c significantly decreased in the intervention group receiving a self-monitoring package to 7.3% compared to 8.0% in the control group ( p = 0.008). 38 In Saudi Arabia, a patient education intervention reduced HbA1c from 8.38% to 7.55% after 6 months ( p < 0.001). 39 The use of glucose monitoring applications resulted in HbA1c of 6.9% in the intervention group compared to 8.1% in the control group (p < 0.05). 55 Similarly, the use of the Klinio application led to a lower HbA1c of 7.5% in the intervention group compared to 8.4% in the control group (p < 0.05). 36 Beyond digital technology, education, and social support also played a crucial role in enhancing adherence to self-care. Peer support-based interventions reduced HbA1c levels to 7.3% compared to 8.1% in the control group (p < 0.05). 35 Similarly, health literacy-based education reduced HbA1c to 7.0% compared to 8.1% (p = 0.04), indicating that improved health literacy contributes to better DM management. 37 Patient-centered and target-based approaches were also proven effective in improving glycemic control. A patient-targeted intervention successfully reduced HbA1c to 7.2% compared to 8.4% in the control group (p < 0.05). 42 Another study that emphasized patient activation in self-care showed lower HbA1c levels in the intervention group (7.2%) compared to the control group (8.6%, p < 0.001). 39 Telephone-based interventions also demonstrated a positive impact on blood sugar control. Telephone counseling based on the IMB model reduced HbA1c to 8.76% compared to 9.28% (p < 0.001), 27 while brief motivational interviewing through telephone lowered HbA1c to 7.1% compared to 8.3% (p < 0.05). 44 In general, the results of this study reaffirm that self-care approaches, including self-monitoring, education, digital technology, and social support, can enhance patient adherence in managing T2DM and significantly reduce HbA1c levels. This study proves that patient-centered interventions utilizing modern technology can be an effective long-term DM management strategy. Discussion Self-care intervention The analysis of 33 studies showed that self-care interventions in managing T2DM are implemented in various forms, such as self-monitoring blood glucose, patient-centered education, and community-based approaches. Several studies examining self-monitoring of blood glucose have shown positive outcomes in blood sugar management. For instance, a study has demonstrated that self-monitoring of blood glucose significantly reduces HbA1c levels. Furthermore, patient-centered education, as implemented, indicated that increased self-care activity could lower HbA1c, with patients who were more active in managing their condition showing better glycemic control. 29 , 31 Despite these positive results, some studies suggest limitations over the long term, with self-care interventions providing short-term benefits but not always sustaining behavior change. This highlights the need to consider sociodemographic factors, such as health literacy and social support, when designing sustainable interventions. Self-care interventions focusing on blood glucose monitoring or patient education can yield significant results in managing blood glucose levels. In general, self-care interventions focused on blood glucose monitoring or patient education can provide significant results in managing blood glucose levels. However, for long-term effectiveness, these interventions should be combined with a more holistic approach that accounts for external factors such as social and psychosocial support. 46 Digital technology In this study, digital technology, particularly mobile applications, has proven effective in enhancing patient adherence to DM management. Studies have shown that smartphone applications used for self-monitoring blood glucose increase routine monitoring and reduce fluctuations in blood sugar levels. 18 , 58 Applications such as Klinio also demonstrated significant reductions in HbA1c, with the intervention group showing better results than the control group investigated. 36 Although numerous studies highlight the success of technology in diabetes management, several challenges remain. For instance, some studies indicate that digital technology may not be effective for all populations, particularly in areas with limited access to technology or among individuals less skilled in using digital devices. 37 This can limit the positive impact of technology-based interventions for many diabetes patients. Although digital technology offers substantial benefits in facilitating self-monitoring and increasing patient engagement, accessibility, and user competence must be addressed to maximize its impact fully. Cultural tailored approach A culturally tailored approach has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of self-care interventions in DM management. A study found that culturally tailored self-care education can improve patient adherence to DM management. 13 This is particularly relevant in countries with significant cultural diversity, where cultural factors influence how patients perceive and manage their illness. However, some results suggest that cultural factors can hinder the effectiveness of self-care interventions. For instance, cultural beliefs can impede the success of DM education programs, specifically when patients feel that the program does not align with their cultural values. 30 This indicates the need for interventions that are more culturally sensitive to ensure they are better accepted by patients. In general, a culturally tailored approach has shown better results in enhancing the effectiveness of self-care interventions, but they require greater attention to cultural differences and patient beliefs to ensure success. Interventions aligned with cultural values can improve patient engagement in DM management. Social support and peer support In addition to digital technology and culturally tailored education, social and peer support have proven to play an important role in the effectiveness of self-care interventions. Several studies emphasize the significance of support from family, friends, and peer groups in improving adherence to diabetes management. For example, peer support interventions involving diabetes patients in support groups can enhance motivation to engage more actively in DM management. 35 The study also indicated that positive social relationships can reduce feelings of loneliness and improve patients’ psychosocial well-being. This support also reduces feelings of loneliness and improves psychosocial well-being. Nonetheless, the type of support received—whether from family, friends, or peers—can vary in quality and influence self-care adherence. Inconsistent or poorly understood support may diminish the benefits of such interventions. 40 Social and peer support improve adherence to DM management, but ensuring high-quality, consistent support is crucial for maximizing its impact. Research limitations Although the results are promising, several limitations are consistently observed across studies, including Heterogeneity in Study Designs and Measurement Instruments: Variations in research designs and outcome measurement instruments pose a significant challenge in broadly generalizing the results. 36 , 59 Short Intervention Duration: Some studies have short intervention and follow-up durations, making it difficult to assess the long-term sustainability of intervention effects. 33 , 42 Limited Sample Sizes: The small sample sizes in some studies reduce the statistical power and external validity of the results. 60 Conclusion In conclusion, this scoping review indicates that self-care interventions have significant potential to improve glycemic control in patients with T2DM. Education-based interventions, social support, digital technology, and multidisciplinary models have been proven effective in enhancing patient adherence to DM management and reducing HbA1c levels. However, the effectiveness of these interventions varies depending on social, economic, cultural, and healthcare infrastructure factors in different regions. Therefore, a more personalized and evidence-based approach is needed to ensure the sustainability of self-care intervention outcomes. Recommendations 1. Implementation of Technology in Diabetes Management. Enhancing mobile applications and digital platforms to support patient adherence in blood glucose monitoring and self-care. 18 , 38 2. Development of Culturally Tailored Educational Programs. Ensuring that health education materials are adapted to patients' social and cultural backgrounds to improve intervention effectiveness. 13 , 42 3. Optimization of Social Support. Developing community-based programs to enhance family and social environment involvement supports patient adherence to self-care. 34 , 40 4. Improving Access to Counseling and Motivational Services. Integrating phone-based counseling and motivational approaches into healthcare systems to enhance patients’ self-efficacy in DM management. 27 , 44 Consent for publication Not applicable. Ethics statement Ethical issues are not involved in this paper. Data availability No data are associated with this article. Extended data Extended Data Table 3: Synthesis analysis of 33 articles relevant to the research objective. Available at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31146103 61 Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the Indonesian Education Scholarship Program (BPI) Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for supporting this publication (Decree Number: 01697/J5.2.3/BPI-06/9/2022). 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Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 06 Mar 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Doctoral Program Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 2 Department of Nursing, STIKES Panakkukang, Makassar, Indonesia 3 Department of Epidemiology Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 4 Faculty of Nursing, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 5 Indonesian Diabetic Foot Care Research Group (IndoFootCare), Hasanuddin University, makassar, Indonesia 6 Department of Environmental Health Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar,, Indonesia 7 Department of Hospital Administration Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 8 Department of Occupational Health and Safety Faculty of Public Health, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia 9 Department of Nursing, STIKES Gema Insan Akademik, Makassar, Indonesia Hasniati Haeruddin Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Ridwan Amiruddin Roles: Supervision Saldy Yusuf Roles: Data Curation, Writing – Review & Editing M. Furqaan Naiem Roles: Validation Andi Indahwaty Sidin Roles: Formal Analysis Wahiduddin Wahiduddin Roles: Resources, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Atjo Wahyu Roles: Investigation Maria Kurnyata Rante Kada Roles: Software Anace Ma'ge Roles: Project Administration Harbaeni Harbaeni Roles: Visualization Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The authors gratefully acknowledge the Indonesian Education Scholarship Program (BPI) Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for supporting this publication (Decree Number: 01697/J5.2.3/BPI-06/9/2022). This work was funded through the Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment (PPAPT) and the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 06 Mar 2026, 15:371 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 Copyright © 2026 Haeruddin H et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Haeruddin H, Amiruddin R, Yusuf S et al. Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.177355.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 06 Mar 2026 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Juniarti N. Reviewer Report For: Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195569.r466110 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-371/v1#referee-response-466110 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 28 Mar 2026 Neti Juniarti , Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Indonesia Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195569.r466110 Thank you for the opportunity to review this paper. I hope the following comments can help the authors to improve the paper. There are some published scoping reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis articles regarding Self-care ... Continue reading READ ALL Thank you for the opportunity to review this paper. I hope the following comments can help the authors to improve the paper. There are some published scoping reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis articles regarding Self-care T2DM interventions. Why do authors need to do a scoping review again? The review gap and the novelty of this review should be stated in the introduction section. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for this review are needed in the methods section. There is a need for justification of why the authors include the cross-sectional studies, while the aim was to explore self-care interventions. The included articles should align with the aim of the review Some of the included studies were not relevant to the aim of this review. Please reconsider the inclusion criteria. Figure 2 did not show the basis data; please add the included articles for each category. A systematic review should be excluded from this scoping review, unless this is a scoping review from reviews articles. There are 13 cross-sectional studies in this review. Please explain how authors infer the intervention from cross-sectional studies. Also, only 13 studies were cited for Figure 2. Please include the remaining 23 studies that have not been included in the analysis. Please don’t say that self-care interventions were found to significantly reduce HbA1c level compared to control groups because 13 studies are using a cross-sectional design, and this is a scoping review, not a meta-analysis. It is not appropriate to claim that digital technology has proven effective without a meta-analysis, and with only 5 articles that used digital technology, and only 4 cited in the results section. The scoping review needs a more thorough analysis of all included articles. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Partly Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Partly Is the review written in accessible language? Partly Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Community health nursing, epidemiology, public health, systematic review. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Juniarti N. Reviewer Report For: Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195569.r466110 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-371/v1#referee-response-466110 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 06 Mar 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 06 Mar 26 read Neti Juniarti , Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Indonesia Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Juniarti N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 28 Mar 2026 | for Version 1 Neti Juniarti , Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Indonesia 0 Views copyright © 2026 Juniarti N. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Thank you for the opportunity to review this paper. I hope the following comments can help the authors to improve the paper. There are some published scoping reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis articles regarding Self-care T2DM interventions. Why do authors need to do a scoping review again? The review gap and the novelty of this review should be stated in the introduction section. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for this review are needed in the methods section. There is a need for justification of why the authors include the cross-sectional studies, while the aim was to explore self-care interventions. The included articles should align with the aim of the review Some of the included studies were not relevant to the aim of this review. Please reconsider the inclusion criteria. Figure 2 did not show the basis data; please add the included articles for each category. A systematic review should be excluded from this scoping review, unless this is a scoping review from reviews articles. There are 13 cross-sectional studies in this review. Please explain how authors infer the intervention from cross-sectional studies. Also, only 13 studies were cited for Figure 2. Please include the remaining 23 studies that have not been included in the analysis. Please don’t say that self-care interventions were found to significantly reduce HbA1c level compared to control groups because 13 studies are using a cross-sectional design, and this is a scoping review, not a meta-analysis. It is not appropriate to claim that digital technology has proven effective without a meta-analysis, and with only 5 articles that used digital technology, and only 4 cited in the results section. The scoping review needs a more thorough analysis of all included articles. Is the topic of the review discussed comprehensively in the context of the current literature? Partly Are all factual statements correct and adequately supported by citations? Partly Is the review written in accessible language? Partly Are the conclusions drawn appropriate in the context of the current research literature? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Community health nursing, epidemiology, public health, systematic review. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Juniarti N. Peer Review Report For: Exploring Self-Care Interventions to Improve Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scoping Review [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :371 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.195569.r466110) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-371/v1#referee-response-466110 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Adjust parameters to alter display View on desktop for interactive features Includes Interactive Elements View on desktop for interactive features Competing Interests Policy Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. 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