Community Awareness and Cultural Beliefs on Female Genital Mutilation in Ibadan, Oyo State: Insights from a Localized Intervention

Community Awareness and Cultural Beliefs on Female Genital Mutilation in Ibadan, Oyo State: Insights from a Localized Intervention | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Community Awareness and Cultural Beliefs on Female Genital Mutilation in Ibadan, Oyo State: Insights from a Localized Intervention Semiyu Gbadebo Hammed, Enemona Jacob This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6916267/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in BMC Women's Health → Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background : Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) remains a significant public health issue in Nigeria, particularly in Ibadan, with a prevalence rate of 38%. Despite increased awareness and advocacy, FGM persists as a rite of passage, chastity, or cultural custom. Objective: To analyse community awareness and cultural beliefs regarding FGM in Ibadan Oyo State, examining misconceptions, cultural justifications, and the impact of traditional norms. Methods: This is a qualitative study among female young adults of reproductive age (18-49 years), who participated in semistructured in-depth interviews using a narrative qualitative research approach. Insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, and attitudes impacted by awareness programs, as well as the interaction of cultural phenomena with public health education were revealed through thematic analysis of the data. Results: Awareness programs and education have reduced FGM prevalence by providing accurate information, challenging misconceptions, and offering alternatives. Schools and community-based initiatives empower younger generations, but bridging generational knowledge gaps remains a challenge. Conclusion: Eliminating FGM in Ibadan requires not only disseminating information but also sustaining culturally respectful, context-specific advocacy. Long-term progress lies in embedding anti-FGM education in everyday institutions and empowering future generations to advocate for change. Female genital mutilation Young women Prevalence Qualitative Reproductive effects Awareness Background Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a cultural practice that involves the partial or complete removal of female external genitalia for nonmedical reasons, often driven by religious and societal beliefs, and is often associated with notions of femininity, marriageability, and familial honour [ 31 , 32 , 46 , 48 , 57 , 74 ]. Despite being a global human rights violation, FGM continues to be practiced in various nations, including Nigeria, where it is widespread and has varying prevalence rates across different areas [ 25 , 27 , 44 , 62 , 64 ]. Female genital mutilation, a widespread practice in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, is deeply rooted in sociocultural factors and influenced by social norms and beliefs [ 11 , 18 , 33 , 66 ]. FGM in West Africa has historical roots beyond colonial times and is often associated with rites of passage, marital preparation, and cultural identity [ 29 , 40 , 69 ]. Regional practices vary across ethnic and religious groups, rationalizing the act of maintaining chastity, improving marriage opportunities, or adhering to community norms [ 4 , 9 , 52 ]. Nigeria, with high prevalence rates of female genital mutilation, is a culturally significant practice among various ethnic groups, including the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa communities [ 14 , 50 , 59 ]. The method is often seen as a cultural imperative, with variations in its manifestation and intensity across different locations [ 25 , 56 ]. Nigeria has the highest absolute number of FGM cases in Africa, with a prevalence rate of approximately 25% among women of childbearing age [ 70 ]. The practice continues across all major ethnic groups in Nigeria, with some areas indicating prevalence rates reaching 38% [ 16 , 81 ]. Despite heightened awareness, the incidence of FGM has varied among Nigeria's six geopolitical zones over the last twenty years [ 14 , 60 ]. A study by Gwarzo [ 35 ] indicated that while 93.6% of mothers were cognisant of FGM, 67.2% who had experienced the procedure perpetuated the practice with their daughters, and only 10.4% acknowledged its detrimental effects. Oyo State, located in southwestern Nigeria, is home to the Yoruba people, one of the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria [ 6 , 83 ]. The practice of FGM in Oyo State, as in many other parts of Nigeria, is deeply embedded in cultural and traditional practices. In Yoruba culture, FGM has been practiced for centuries as a way to preserve virginity, control women’s sexuality, and ensure successful marriage [ 3 , 64 , 68 ]. It is often seen as an important rite of passage that marks a girl’s transition into womanhood. However, Oyo State is leading efforts to combat FGM in southwestern Nigeria, with NGOs, health organizations, and the Nigerian government promoting alternative rites of passage [ 2 , 37 , 65 ]. In urban areas such as Ibadan, state capital, awareness of the dangers of FGM has led to a decrease in its prevalence [ 67 , 81 ]. However, rural communities in Oyo State face challenges in eliminating FGM due to cultural pressure [ 39 ], and the government collaborates with organizations to enforce legislation, educate, and support community-led efforts [ 39 , 54 , 7 ]. This article explores the community awareness and cultural beliefs surrounding FGM in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. It analyses the prevailing knowledge levels, misconceptions, cultural justifications, and influence of traditional norms on the continuation of the practice. Methods Study design The study utilized narrative inquiry as a qualitative research framework to investigate participants' experiences with FGM and its associated awareness programs in Ibadan, Nigeria. This method provides nuanced insights into complex topics such as FGM [ 23 , 45 ], taking the perspectives of participants into account. The study focuses on personal stories and how cultural customs and awareness initiatives influence behavior and decision-making. The Ibadan city's small-scale society and strong roots in cultural practices such as FGM make it an ideal location for awareness programs aimed at positive changes [ 12 , 5 ]. Study location The study was conducted in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, the capital and third-largest city in the country with a population of over 2,649,000, as of 2021 [ 5 ]. It is known for its culture, education, and historical significance, making it an ideal location for awareness programs on the FGM issue. The city's proximity to Lagos and Abuja ensures a crucial connection between coastal and inland areas [ 12 , 5 ]. Yoruba is the primary ethnic group in Ibadan, and the city has 11 local government areas (LGAs) covering the metropolitan area. This heterogeneity allows for a diverse population and a better understanding of FGM practices and awareness levels [ 12 ]. Ibadan was chosen as the research setting owing to its historical events and the prevalence of FGM, as well as ongoing initiatives to influence American culture. The city's small-scale society and strong roots in cultural practices such as FGM make it an ideal location for awareness programs aimed at positive changes [ 12 , 5 ]. This research aims to contribute to positive changes in the community. Study Participants This study focuses on young adult women aged 18–49 years in Ibadan, Nigeria, who have experienced or been exposed to FGM. The population is chosen because of its dual significance as a target group for FGM interventions and potential community change agents. Sampling and sample size The study used purposive and snowball sampling techniques to select participants relevant to its objectives, with a focus on women with FGM-related experiences [ 15 , 19 , 51 ]. Snowball sampling allows for additional participants through referrals, broadening the scope while maintaining relevance [ 72 ]. The study sample size of 22 participants out of 44 registered people was guided by data saturation, ensuring thoroughness while balancing methodological thoroughness with practical constraints [ 80 , 86 ]. Data saturation, or "information redundancy," is a widely accepted threshold for determining a sufficient sample size in thematic and narrative studies [ 26 ]. Recruitment, Consent Processes, and Interview Procedures Participant recruitment was performed through a multiplatform strategy, including digital channels such as WhatsApp and Telegram. The participants were provided with informational posters and invitation messages, and digital consent was obtained before the interviews were scheduled via Microsoft Teams for a streamlined and ethical recruitment process. Through Qualtrics, participants accessed a participant information sheet and consent form, which provided details on the study's purpose, voluntary participation, confidentiality assurance, and withdrawal procedures. The research used online semistructured interviews for data collection because of their adaptability and comprehensiveness, making them ideal for exploring sensitive issues such as female genital mutation (FGM) and awareness programs. These interviews allow participants to articulate their thoughts and provide a rich narrative that aligns with qualitative research principles. The interview guide used was developed for this study and is included in the supplementary materials. The interview guide was designed to ensure clarity and cultural sensitivity, encouraging participants to share their experiences in a safe environment. The questions included "What are the main reasons for FGM practices in your community?" and "Have you witnessed changes in attitudes due to awareness programs?" These questions allowed for an in-depth understanding and data collection about awareness programs. The interviews were held via Microsoft Teams, allowing for personal time convenience and a duration of 45–60 minutes. The study utilized a semistructured format to facilitate lively discussions and improve data reliability. Iterative refinement of the interview questions and best practices for qualitative research improved the reliability of the data. The participants' responses provided an interview recording into themes for analysis. This method upheld ethical standards and ensured that participants' voices were central to the study's results, which explored the interaction between cultural norms, personal experiences, and the impact of FGM awareness campaigns. Ethical approval The University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee (Protocol number: cLMS/PGT/UH/05727; dated August 12, 2024) approved the study, adhering to strict protocols. The participants were informed and signed consent through a secure online platform (Qualtrics), and personal identifiers were replaced with anonymized codes. The data were encrypted and stored on password-protected servers, ensuring participant welfare, data protection, and research integrity. Data Management and Analysis The research adhered to ethical and legal provisions by maintaining robust data management and storage systems [75]. Personal information and recordings were only kept for the research goals, and after conversion into written form, they were securely destroyed. Transcripts and recordings underwent specific anonymization actions to prevent recognizable data from being recovered [82]. The backup files were stored on a password-protected OneDrive account of the University of Hertfordshire, minimizing unauthorized access and potential data breaches. This ensured participant confidentiality and data integrity. The study ensured data integrity through encryption and strict access protocols, allowing only the main investigator to handle the data [30]. The Participant Information Sheet explained the secure storage, processing, and erasure of information, fostering trust among participants [41]. Backup activities were sufficient during data retention to protect against loss and corruption. After completion, electronic files were permanently deleted, and physical copies were shredded, ensuring compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and institutional policies [41]. The study utilized thematic analysis to analyse qualitative data, focusing on complex, context-specific issues such as FGM and awareness programs. This method allows for a comprehensive examination of cultures, individuals, and groups, making it an effective tool for understanding society's relationship with their own stories [21, 71, 73]. The study followed Braun and Clarke's six-phase process for data analysis [21, 20]. The first step involved familiarizing the data by reviewing transcripts from Microsoft Teams and saving them to the University of Hertfordshire's secure OneDrive. This stage allows the researcher to indulge in the data and gain bias-free preliminary knowledge of the content [28, 36]. The third step involves coding the data and systematically labelling related ideas and patterns [55, 79]. The researcher used manual coding to gain a personal connection to the data and better recognize subtle insights. The codes were combined in clusters to form initial themes, focusing on participants' attitudes towards FGM and their associations with effective awareness campaigns [85, 22, 87]. Results A total of 44 individuals aged 18 - 49 years expressed interest in participating in the study. Recruitment was conducted across all local government areas within the Ibadan metropolis. Of these, 22 participants (50%) proceeded to participate in semistructured interviews conducted via Google Teams . Thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s six-step framework , was employed to systematically identify, code, and categorize key themes emerging from the narratives of the participants. This process ensured that the findings aligned with the objectives of the study. The analysis resulted in the identification of four central themes : shifting beliefs and behaviour change, resistance to cultural norms, family stability, and the culture of volunteering. Table 1: The codes and themes generated from participants responses are shown in the table below Codes Themes - Not circumcising daughters (5,11) - Reduction in FGM practice (3,5,6,17) - Discouraging it among others (5,15) - Change in community attitude (5,14,18) - Change wrong tradition belief (4,5,6,15,19) - Does not control a child and keep family honor (1,13) - Enlighten mothers that think FGM protect (11,12,13,19) - Open up FGM issue to spouse (10) - Discouraging FGM among others (15, 18) - Religious and community leaders should help spread awareness (10,12,18) - Volunteer in school awareness programs (12,17) Shifting Beliefs and Behavior Change Counterculture Family Stability Culture of Volunteering Shifting Beliefs and Behavior Change Shifting beliefs and behavior change are central to the effectiveness of awareness programs aimed at eradicating Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Awareness programs have proven effective in influencing individual beliefs about FGM, leading to gradual behavioral changes. The participants highlighted how exposure to school-based and community awareness initiatives equipped them with knowledge about the physical and psychological risks associated with FGM, prompting a shift in perspectives. For example, a participant shared, “After attending awareness programs, I decided not to circumcise my daughters.” This quote emphasizes how exposure to information through educational campaigns can empower individuals to make informed decisions, thereby breaking generational cycles of FGM. Furthermore, the participants noted that schools play a significant role in spreading anti-FGM messages to young people, who can then influence their families and broader communities. Another participant said: “Weekly sessions in schools teach girls about harmful traditional practices.” This shows that school-based programs educate girls about FGM risks and consequences, empowering the next generation and challenging cultural norms. Schools provide safe spaces for girls to learn without fear of judgment, fostering new perspectives. The participants also stated that awareness campaigns held in clinics and public health centers are highly effective. Additionally, one of the participants noted: “Awareness has helped reduce the practice... It’s more common in cities than in rural areas.” This indicates that where awareness initiatives are more prevalent, there tends to be a noticeable reduction in FGM practices. These responses show that young adults, particularly in urban areas, have begun rejecting FGM due to an improved understanding of its consequences. While individual participants report significant changes in their understanding and decisions, the transition to collective behavioral change is more gradual because of persistent cultural pressures. Resistance to Cultural Norms Awareness campaigns have empowered individuals to question the deeply rooted cultural norms that perpetuate female genital mutation (FGM). These norms, often tied to family honor, morality, and social conformity, present significant barriers to change. Many participants highlighted that FGM persists because of unchallenged traditions. For instance, a participant stated: "Some families still enforce it without questioning the tradition." A participant who is also a school teacher also remarked: “People are not fully informed on why it’s done; they just follow tradition.” Awareness programs challenge this ignorance, enabling individuals to critically evaluate these practices. Despite individual belief changes, translating this into broader collective action remains difficult. As one of the younger participants noted, “Older people say it helps control a child and keeps the family honor.” This statement reflects how society pressures younger generations when rejecting FGM. Similarly, one of the participants noted that: “Some mothers still enforce circumcision because they believe it’s their duty.” A significant barrier to progress is the generational divide in attitudes toward FGM. Younger individuals exposed to awareness programs often reject FGM, whereas elderly individuals view it as a cultural necessity. Another participant, who is also a schoolteacher, shared the following: “In some families, the elders decide everything, and they see FGM as something that must be done.” This tension complicates efforts to eradicate the practice. The participants emphasized the importance of social support in resisting cultural norms. A participant who is a school teacher noted: “Involving community leaders helps spread awareness and reduce resistance.” By leveraging trusted figures, awareness campaigns can foster collective shifts in attitudes, reducing the stigma of abandoning FGM. Family Stability Awareness programs not only target individuals but also emphasize the role of families and communities in creating a supportive environment for rejecting FGM. The participants emphasized how family stability fosters open communication, enabling younger members to voice their opposition to FGM without fear of alienation. “I have a problem with it in my marriage, but I only find ways around it. Then, I open up to my spouse. You get it? I open up to my spouse, so this brings a kind of peace to my home.” Culture of Volunteering A culture of volunteering within communities was also seen as enhancing the reach and impact of awareness programs. Participants shared that individuals who had benefited from these campaigns often volunteered to spread anti-FGM messages, creating a ripple effect that influenced others. A participant who is an awareness volunteer declared the following: "Realizing it is harmful, awareness has helped me discourage it among others." One of the older participants noted: “Religious and community leaders should help spread awareness.” These findings suggest that collective volunteer action and leadership drive community-wide advocacy against FGM. By encouraging families to work together and promoting volunteer-driven advocacy, awareness programs leverage familial and communal bonds to support the abandonment of FGM. Discussion Awareness programs have played a significant role in challenging traditional beliefs and reshaping behaviors related to FGM [34, 77]. These programs are particularly effective in urban areas, where schools and public health campaigns provide structured opportunities for education. Awareness campaigns often focus on the physical and psychological consequences of FGM [8, 61], such as its health risks and impact on mental well-being [43]. These messages are tailored to dispel myths, including the belief that FGM is necessary for preserving chastity or preventing promiscuity. The success of awareness programs in changing beliefs lies in their ability to foster critical thinking [45, 78] among participants, particularly young adults. Initiatives that educate women about health risks and legal prohibitions of FGM empower them to make informed decisions, aligning with the perspectives of Njue et al. [58] and Odera et al. [63]. Furthermore, younger generations exposed to these programs often act as agents of change within their families, introducing alternative perspectives that challenge entrenched cultural norms. However, in a similar observation reported by Abdulnor, [1] while individual beliefs may change, behavioral shifts at the community level are often slower due to persistent social pressures and deeply rooted traditions. The transfer of knowledge about the dangers of FGM to younger generations is one of the most effective strategies for reducing its prevalence [47, 53]. Schools play a pivotal role in this process [49, 54], serving as safe spaces where adolescents can learn about FGM without fear of judgment [84]. Awareness campaigns targeting young people often include interactive sessions, open discussions, and educational materials that emphasize the medical and legal implications of the practice [10, 24, 42]. These efforts not only inform young adults but also create a ripple effect, as informed individuals share their knowledge with peers and family members. Despite these successes, the study highlighted challenges in ensuring consistent knowledge transfer, particularly in rural areas. Many communities lack access to schools or structured awareness programs, leaving adolescents reliant on family elders for guidance. This challenge is particularly pronounced in low- and middle-income countries, where socioeconomic factors, geographical disparities, and cultural norms create significant barriers to structured health education [38, 76]. In such cases, traditional beliefs often dominate, perpetuating the cycle of FGM. This disparity underscores the need to expand educational initiatives to underserved areas, ensuring that all young people, regardless of location, have access to accurate information about FGM. Formal education has proven to be a key factor in reducing the prevalence of FGM among girls [13, 17]. However, the impact of education on completely eliminating the practice may take a considerable amount of time to manifest [47]. Limitations The research was limited to participants in Ibadan, Nigeria, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other regions or countries with differing cultural and social dynamics. As the data were self-reported, there is a possibility of participants underreporting or exaggerating their responses due to social desirability or sensitivity surrounding FGM. While qualitative data provide depth, the absence of complementary quantitative data limits the ability to measure the statistical significance of the findings or trends. Additionally, owing to the distance barrier between the researcher and participants, the ethnography research method, which focuses exclusively on the cultural perspectives of people in a setting, could not be used for this study. This will have added to the richness of the research findings from further observations of participants for some time and from taking field notes of what is being observed in participants alongside interviews. Conclusion This study highlights the critical role of awareness programs in shaping perceptions and promoting behavior change regarding Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Ibadan, Oyo State. While the findings suggest that these programs have made measurable progress in reducing the prevalence of FGM, especially in urban settings, deeply entrenched cultural norms and generational divides remain formidable barriers. The narratives of the participants reveal that culturally sensitive, community-driven education initiatives—particularly those integrated within schools, health centers, and religious institutions—are effective in challenging traditional beliefs and empowering young adults to reject harmful practices. However, resistance from older generations and limited access to structured awareness platforms in rural areas continue to impede broader social transformation. Bridging these gaps will require expanded outreach efforts, active engagement with community gatekeepers, and the inclusion of intergenerational dialogue within intervention frameworks. A focus on grassroots volunteerism and partnerships with local leaders may further strengthen public health messaging and community buying. Declarations Ethics Approval Ethical approval for the study was granted by the University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee (Protocol number: cLMS/PGT/UH/05727; dated August 12, 2024). The consent that was obtained from all of the participants was informed. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki to this effect. Consent to Participate An online filled and signed consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews, after approval from the University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee. All participants' information provided in the results section is coded. The consent that was obtained from all of the participants was informed. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki to this effect. Consent for Publication Not applicable. Data availability The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical constraints, but are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The authors did not receive any funding for this study. Interview guide The interview guide used was developed for this study. Acknowledgements We want to acknowledge and express our profound gratitude to Bukola Christianah, family, and friends for their unwavering encouragement and support at all times, and also to all the participants who took part in this study for sharing their valuable experience and perception with us. References Abdulnor A. 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Naeem M, Ozuem W, Howell K, Ranfagni S. A step-by-step process of thematic analysis to develop a conceptual model in qualitative research. Int J Qual Methods. 2023;22:16094069231205789. Nakai M, Migration. Social Norms and Experiences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) among Somali Communities in the UK. [Doctoral dissertation, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London]; 2021. Njoku DC, Heba A, Njoku U. The history, sexual, and reproductive consequences of female genital mutilation on women: a focus on sub-Saharan Africa. Sapientia Found J Educ Sci Gend Stud. 2020;2(4). Njue C, Karumbi J, Esho T, Varol N, Dawson A. Preventing female genital mutilation in high-income countries: a systematic review of the evidence. Reprod Health. 2019;16:1–20. Nnanatu CC, Fagbamigbe AF, Afuecheta E, Utazi CE. Spatially varying intergenerational changes in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting in Nigeria: lessons learnt from a recent household survey. Appl Spat Anal Policy. 2023;16(2):703–27. Nnanatu CC, Atilola G, Komba P, Mavatikua L, Moore Z, Matanda D, Kandala NB. Evaluating changes in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among 0–14 years old girls in Nigeria using data from multiple surveys: A novel Bayesian hierarchical spatiotemporal model. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(2):e0246661. O’Neill S, Pallitto C. The consequences of female genital mutilation on psycho-social well-being: a systematic review of qualitative research. Qual Health Res. 2021;31(9):1738–50. Obiora OL, Maree JE, Nkosi-Mafutha N. Female genital mutilation in Africa: scoping the landscape of evidence. Int J Afr Nurs Sci. 2020;12:100189. Odera C, Nyadera IN, Ouma SJ. The role of communication and advocacy in resolving culture-based conflict: lessons from efforts to combat FGM practices in Kenya. Soc Commun. 2023;24(1):24–42. Olaniru B. How Possible is it to Eliminate FGM? Uncovering Practice-Sustaining Barriers in South West Nigeria. Soc Innov J. 2023;16(1). Olusegun OO, Oyelade OS. Access to justice for Nigerian women: A veritable tool to achieving sustainable development. Int J Discrimination Law. 2022;22(1):4–29. Oluwasanmi L, Falusi B, Ishola J, Igbekoyi K, Ogboru J. Socio-Cultural Determinants of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Practice In Kwara South Senatorial District, Kwara State, Nigeria. ASM J. 2023;3. Omigbodun O, Bella-Awusah T, Emma-Echiegu N, Abdulmalik J, Omigbodun A, Doucet MH, Groleau D. Escaping social rejection, gaining total capital: the complex psychological experience of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) among the Izzi in Southeast Nigeria. Reproductive health. 2022;19(1):41. Omoniyi TO. Appraisal of harmful traditional practices in Nigeria: Magnitude, justifications and interventions. J Social Humanity Educ. 2020;1(1):67–78. Onyango Q. An Evaluation of Communication Strategies for the Eradication of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): A Case Study of West Pokot, Kenya. 2021. 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Based on the perceptions of community stakeholders, how can adolescent pregnancies be prevented? A qualitative study. F1000Research. 2018;7:428. 10.12688/F1000RESEARCH.14220.1 . Salah N, Cottler-Casanova S, Petignat P, Abdulcadir J. Investigating Factors Associated with Migration and Cultural Adaptation in Relation to Change in Attitudes and Behavior towards Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) among Populations from FGM/C-Practicing Countries Living in Western Countries: A Scoping Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2024;21(5):528. Saleh SE. Critical thinking as a 21st-century skill: conceptions, implementation, and challenges in the EFL classroom. Eur J Foreign Lang Teach. 2019. Saunders CH, Sierpe A, von Plessen C, Kennedy AM, Leviton LC, Bernstein SL, Leyenaar JK et al. Practical thematic analysis: a guide for multidisciplinary health services research teams engaging in qualitative analysis. BMJ. 2023;381. Squire CM, Giombi KC, Rupert DJ, Amoozegar J, Williams P. Determining Appropriate Sample Size for Qualitative Interviews: Code Saturation. 2023. Taiwo PA, Kingsley I. Perceived health implications of female genital mutilation on women in Ibadan, Oyo state. 2020. Theivendrampillai S, Cooper J, Lee T, Lau MWK, Marquez C, Straus SE, Fahim C. Canadian public perceptions and experiences with information during the COVID-19 pandemic: strategies to optimize future risk communications. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):796. Udo EM. The vitality of Yoruba culture in the Americas. Ufahamu: J Afr Stud, 2020;41(2). Unicef. Female genital mutilation and the humanitarian-development nexus: practical ways to support program-level implementation. 2022. United Nations Children’s Fund. Female genital mutilation/cutting: A global concern. New York (NY): UNICEF; 2016. Yağar F. Determination of Sample Size in Qualitative Research: Data Saturation. Aksaray Univ J Soc Sci Inst. 2023;7(2):138–52. Younas A, Cuoco A, Vellone E, Fàbregues S, Barrios E. Contextual coding in qualitative research involving participants with diverse sociocultural backgrounds. Qual Rep. 2022;27(11):2509–27. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Despite being a global human rights violation, FGM continues to be practiced in various nations, including Nigeria, where it is widespread and has varying prevalence rates across different areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]. Female genital mutilation, a widespread practice in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, is deeply rooted in sociocultural factors and influenced by social norms and beliefs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFGM in West Africa has historical roots beyond colonial times and is often associated with rites of passage, marital preparation, and cultural identity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Regional practices vary across ethnic and religious groups, rationalizing the act of maintaining chastity, improving marriage opportunities, or adhering to community norms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Nigeria, with high prevalence rates of female genital mutilation, is a culturally significant practice among various ethnic groups, including the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. The method is often seen as a cultural imperative, with variations in its manifestation and intensity across different locations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNigeria has the highest absolute number of FGM cases in Africa, with a prevalence rate of approximately 25% among women of childbearing age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. The practice continues across all major ethnic groups in Nigeria, with some areas indicating prevalence rates reaching 38% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite heightened awareness, the incidence of FGM has varied among Nigeria's six geopolitical zones over the last twenty years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. A study by Gwarzo [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] indicated that while 93.6% of mothers were cognisant of FGM, 67.2% who had experienced the procedure perpetuated the practice with their daughters, and only 10.4% acknowledged its detrimental effects. Oyo State, located in southwestern Nigeria, is home to the Yoruba people, one of the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. The practice of FGM in Oyo State, as in many other parts of Nigeria, is deeply embedded in cultural and traditional practices. In Yoruba culture, FGM has been practiced for centuries as a way to preserve virginity, control women’s sexuality, and ensure successful marriage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. It is often seen as an important rite of passage that marks a girl’s transition into womanhood. However, Oyo State is leading efforts to combat FGM in southwestern Nigeria, with NGOs, health organizations, and the Nigerian government promoting alternative rites of passage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn urban areas such as Ibadan, state capital, awareness of the dangers of FGM has led to a decrease in its prevalence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e]. However, rural communities in Oyo State face challenges in eliminating FGM due to cultural pressure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], and the government collaborates with organizations to enforce legislation, educate, and support community-led efforts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This article explores the community awareness and cultural beliefs surrounding FGM in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. It analyses the prevailing knowledge levels, misconceptions, cultural justifications, and influence of traditional norms on the continuation of the practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study utilized narrative inquiry as a qualitative research framework to investigate participants' experiences with FGM and its associated awareness programs in Ibadan, Nigeria. This method provides nuanced insights into complex topics such as FGM [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], taking the perspectives of participants into account. The study focuses on personal stories and how cultural customs and awareness initiatives influence behavior and decision-making. The Ibadan city's small-scale society and strong roots in cultural practices such as FGM make it an ideal location for awareness programs aimed at positive changes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy location\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, the capital and third-largest city in the country with a population of over 2,649,000, as of 2021 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. It is known for its culture, education, and historical significance, making it an ideal location for awareness programs on the FGM issue. The city's proximity to Lagos and Abuja ensures a crucial connection between coastal and inland areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eYoruba is the primary ethnic group in Ibadan, and the city has 11 local government areas (LGAs) covering the metropolitan area. This heterogeneity allows for a diverse population and a better understanding of FGM practices and awareness levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Ibadan was chosen as the research setting owing to its historical events and the prevalence of FGM, as well as ongoing initiatives to influence American culture. The city's small-scale society and strong roots in cultural practices such as FGM make it an ideal location for awareness programs aimed at positive changes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. This research aims to contribute to positive changes in the community.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Participants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on young adult women aged 18–49 years in Ibadan, Nigeria, who have experienced or been exposed to FGM. The population is chosen because of its dual significance as a target group for FGM interventions and potential community change agents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSampling and sample size\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study used purposive and snowball sampling techniques to select participants relevant to its objectives, with a focus on women with FGM-related experiences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Snowball sampling allows for additional participants through referrals, broadening the scope while maintaining relevance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]. The study sample size of 22 participants out of 44 registered people was guided by data saturation, ensuring thoroughness while balancing methodological thoroughness with practical constraints [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. Data saturation, or \"information redundancy,\" is a widely accepted threshold for determining a sufficient sample size in thematic and narrative studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRecruitment, Consent Processes, and Interview Procedures\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participant recruitment was performed through a multiplatform strategy, including digital channels such as WhatsApp and Telegram. The participants were provided with informational posters and invitation messages, and digital consent was obtained before the interviews were scheduled via Microsoft Teams for a streamlined and ethical recruitment process. Through Qualtrics, participants accessed a participant information sheet and consent form, which provided details on the study's purpose, voluntary participation, confidentiality assurance, and withdrawal procedures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research used online semistructured interviews for data collection because of their adaptability and comprehensiveness, making them ideal for exploring sensitive issues such as female genital mutation (FGM) and awareness programs. These interviews allow participants to articulate their thoughts and provide a rich narrative that aligns with qualitative research principles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interview guide used was developed for this study and is included in the supplementary materials. The interview guide was designed to ensure clarity and cultural sensitivity, encouraging participants to share their experiences in a safe environment. The questions included \"What are the main reasons for FGM practices in your community?\" and \"Have you witnessed changes in attitudes due to awareness programs?\" These questions allowed for an in-depth understanding and data collection about awareness programs. The interviews were held via Microsoft Teams, allowing for personal time convenience and a duration of 45–60 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study utilized a semistructured format to facilitate lively discussions and improve data reliability. Iterative refinement of the interview questions and best practices for qualitative research improved the reliability of the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The participants' responses provided an interview recording into themes for analysis. This method upheld ethical standards and ensured that participants' voices were central to the study's results, which explored the interaction between cultural norms, personal experiences, and the impact of FGM awareness campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee (Protocol number: cLMS/PGT/UH/05727; dated August 12, 2024) approved the study, adhering to strict protocols. The participants were informed and signed consent through a secure online platform (Qualtrics), and personal identifiers were replaced with anonymized codes. The data were encrypted and stored on password-protected servers, ensuring participant welfare, data protection, and research integrity.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"_Toc185199154\"\u003eData Management and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research adhered to ethical and legal provisions by maintaining robust data management and storage systems [75]. Personal information and recordings were only kept for the research goals, and after conversion into written form, they were securely destroyed. Transcripts and recordings underwent specific anonymization actions to prevent recognizable data from being recovered [82]. The backup files were stored on a password-protected OneDrive account of the University of Hertfordshire, minimizing unauthorized access and potential data breaches. This ensured participant confidentiality and data integrity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study ensured data integrity through encryption and strict access protocols, allowing only the main investigator to handle the data [30]. The Participant Information Sheet explained the secure storage, processing, and erasure of information, fostering trust among participants [41]. Backup activities were sufficient during data retention to protect against loss and corruption. After completion, electronic files were permanently deleted, and physical copies were shredded, ensuring compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and institutional policies [41]. The study utilized thematic analysis to analyse qualitative data, focusing on complex, context-specific issues such as FGM and awareness programs. This method allows for a comprehensive examination of cultures, individuals, and groups, making it an effective tool for understanding society's relationship with their own stories [21, 71, 73]. The study followed Braun and Clarke's six-phase process for data analysis [21, 20]. The first step involved familiarizing the data by reviewing transcripts from Microsoft Teams and saving them to the University of Hertfordshire's secure OneDrive. This stage allows the researcher to indulge in the data and gain bias-free preliminary knowledge of the content [28, 36]. The third step involves coding the data and systematically labelling related ideas and patterns [55, 79]. The researcher used manual coding to gain a personal connection to the data and better recognize subtle insights. The codes were combined in clusters to form initial themes, focusing on participants' attitudes towards FGM and their associations with effective awareness campaigns [85, 22, 87].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of \u003cstrong\u003e44 individuals aged 18\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e49 years\u003c/strong\u003e expressed interest in participating in the study. Recruitment was conducted across all local government areas within the Ibadan metropolis. Of these, \u003cstrong\u003e22 participants (50%)\u003c/strong\u003e proceeded to participate in \u003cstrong\u003esemistructured\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;interviews conducted via Google Teams\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThematic analysis, following \u003cstrong\u003eBraun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s six-step framework\u003c/strong\u003e, was employed to systematically \u003cstrong\u003eidentify, code, and categorize\u003c/strong\u003e key themes emerging from the narratives of the participants. This process ensured that the findings aligned with the objectives of the study. The analysis resulted in the identification of \u003cstrong\u003efour central themes\u003c/strong\u003e: shifting beliefs and behaviour change, resistance to cultural norms, family stability, and the culture of volunteering.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe codes and themes generated from participants responses are shown in the table below\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"714\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCodes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThemes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Not circumcising daughters (5,11)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Reduction in FGM practice (3,5,6,17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Discouraging it among others (5,15)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Change in community attitude (5,14,18)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Change wrong tradition belief (4,5,6,15,19)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Does not control a child and keep family honor (1,13)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Enlighten mothers that think FGM protect (11,12,13,19)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Open up FGM issue to spouse (10)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Discouraging FGM among others (15, 18) \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Religious and community leaders should help spread awareness (10,12,18)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eVolunteer in school awareness programs (12,17)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShifting Beliefs and Behavior Change\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCounterculture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily Stability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCulture of Volunteering\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc185199160\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShifting Beliefs and Behavior Change\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShifting beliefs and behavior change are central to the effectiveness of awareness programs aimed at eradicating Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Awareness programs have proven effective in influencing individual beliefs about FGM, leading to gradual behavioral changes. The participants highlighted how exposure to school-based and community awareness initiatives equipped them with knowledge about the physical and psychological risks associated with FGM, prompting a shift in perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor example,\u0026nbsp;a participant\u0026nbsp;shared, \u0026ldquo;After attending awareness programs, I decided not to circumcise my daughters.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis quote emphasizes how exposure to information through educational campaigns can empower individuals to make informed decisions, thereby breaking generational cycles of FGM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the participants noted that schools play a significant role in spreading anti-FGM messages to young people, who can then influence their families and broader communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother participant said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Weekly sessions in schools teach girls about harmful traditional practices.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis shows that school-based programs educate girls about FGM risks and consequences, empowering the next generation and challenging cultural norms. Schools provide safe spaces for girls to learn without fear of judgment, fostering new perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants also stated that awareness campaigns held in clinics and public health centers are highly effective.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, one of the participants\u0026nbsp;noted:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Awareness has helped reduce the practice... It\u0026rsquo;s more common in cities than in rural areas.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis indicates that where awareness initiatives are more prevalent, there tends to be a noticeable reduction in FGM practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese responses show that young adults, particularly in urban areas, have begun rejecting FGM due to an improved understanding of its consequences. While individual participants report significant changes in their understanding and decisions, the transition to collective behavioral change is more gradual because of persistent cultural pressures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3 id=\"_Toc185199161\"\u003eResistance to Cultural Norms\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwareness campaigns have empowered individuals to question the deeply rooted cultural norms that perpetuate female genital mutation (FGM). These norms, often tied to family honor, morality, and social conformity, present significant barriers to change. Many participants highlighted that FGM persists because of unchallenged traditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor instance, a participant stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;Some families still enforce it without questioning the tradition.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA participant who is also a school teacher also remarked:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;People are not fully informed on why it\u0026rsquo;s done; they just follow tradition.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwareness programs challenge this ignorance, enabling individuals to critically evaluate these practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite individual belief changes, translating this into broader collective action remains difficult.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs one of the younger participants noted,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Older people say it helps control a child and keeps the family honor.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis statement reflects how society pressures younger generations when rejecting FGM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, one of the participants noted that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Some mothers still enforce circumcision because they believe it\u0026rsquo;s their duty.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA significant barrier to progress is the generational divide in attitudes toward FGM. Younger individuals exposed to awareness programs often reject FGM, whereas elderly individuals view it as a cultural necessity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother participant, who is also a schoolteacher, shared the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;In some families, the elders decide everything, and they see FGM as something that must be done.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis tension complicates efforts to eradicate the practice. The participants emphasized the importance of social support in resisting cultural norms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA participant who is a school teacher noted:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Involving community leaders helps spread awareness and reduce resistance.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy leveraging trusted figures, awareness campaigns can foster collective shifts in attitudes, reducing the stigma of abandoning FGM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3 id=\"_Toc185199162\"\u003eFamily Stability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAwareness programs not only target individuals but also emphasize the role of families and communities in creating a supportive environment for rejecting FGM. The participants emphasized how family stability fosters open communication, enabling younger members to voice their opposition to FGM without fear of alienation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I have a problem with it in my marriage, but I only find ways around it. Then, I open up to my spouse. You get it? I open up to my spouse, so this brings a kind of peace to my home.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3 id=\"_Toc185199163\"\u003eCulture of Volunteering\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA culture of volunteering within communities was also seen as enhancing the reach and impact of awareness programs. Participants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eshared that individuals who had benefited from these campaigns often volunteered to spread anti-FGM messages, creating a ripple effect that influenced others.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA participant who is an awareness volunteer declared the following:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;Realizing it is harmful, awareness has helped me discourage it among others.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the older participants noted:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Religious and community leaders should help spread awareness.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that collective volunteer action and leadership drive community-wide advocacy against FGM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy encouraging families to work together and promoting volunteer-driven advocacy, awareness programs leverage familial and communal bonds to support the abandonment of FGM.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAwareness programs have played a significant role in challenging traditional beliefs and reshaping behaviors related to FGM [34, 77]. These programs are particularly effective in urban areas, where schools and public health campaigns provide structured opportunities for education. Awareness campaigns often focus on the physical and psychological consequences of FGM [8, 61], such as its health risks and impact on mental well-being [43]. These messages are tailored to dispel myths, including the belief that FGM is necessary for preserving chastity or preventing promiscuity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe success of awareness programs in changing beliefs lies in their ability to foster critical thinking [45, 78] among participants, particularly young adults. Initiatives that educate women about health risks and legal prohibitions of FGM empower them to make informed decisions, aligning with the perspectives of Njue et al. [58] and Odera et al. [63]. Furthermore, younger generations exposed to these programs often act as agents of change within their families, introducing alternative perspectives that challenge entrenched cultural norms. However, in a similar observation reported by Abdulnor, [1] while individual beliefs may change, behavioral shifts at the community level are often slower due to persistent social pressures and deeply rooted traditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe transfer of knowledge about the dangers of FGM to younger generations is one of the most effective strategies for reducing its prevalence [47, 53]. Schools play a pivotal role in this process [49, 54], serving as safe spaces where adolescents can learn about FGM without fear of judgment [84]. Awareness campaigns targeting young people often include interactive sessions, open discussions, and educational materials that emphasize the medical and legal implications of the practice [10, 24, 42]. These efforts not only inform young adults but also create a ripple effect, as informed individuals share their knowledge with peers and family members.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these successes, the study highlighted challenges in ensuring consistent knowledge transfer, particularly in rural areas. Many communities lack access to schools or structured awareness programs, leaving adolescents reliant on family elders for guidance. This challenge is particularly pronounced in low- and middle-income countries, where socioeconomic factors, geographical disparities, and cultural norms create significant barriers to structured health education [38, 76]. In such cases, traditional beliefs often dominate, perpetuating the cycle of FGM. This disparity underscores the need to expand educational initiatives to underserved areas, ensuring that all young people, regardless of location, have access to accurate information about FGM. Formal education has proven to be a key factor in reducing the prevalence of FGM among girls [13, 17]. However, the impact of education on completely eliminating the practice may take a considerable amount of time to manifest [47].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research was limited to participants in Ibadan, Nigeria, which may restrict the generalizability of\u0026nbsp;the findings to other regions or countries with differing cultural and social dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs\u0026nbsp;the data were self-reported, there is a possibility of participants underreporting or exaggerating their responses due to social desirability or sensitivity surrounding FGM.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile qualitative data\u0026nbsp;provide depth, the absence of complementary quantitative data limits the ability to measure the statistical significance of the findings or trends.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, owing to the distance barrier between the researcher and participants, the ethnography research method, which focuses exclusively on the cultural perspectives of people in a setting, could not be used for this study. This will have added to the richness of the research findings from further observations of participants for some time and from taking field notes of what is being observed in participants alongside interviews.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the critical role of awareness programs in shaping perceptions and promoting behavior change regarding Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Ibadan, Oyo State. While the findings suggest that these programs have made measurable progress in reducing the prevalence of FGM, especially in urban settings, deeply entrenched cultural norms and generational divides remain formidable barriers. The narratives of the participants reveal that culturally sensitive, community-driven education initiatives—particularly those integrated within schools, health centers, and religious institutions—are effective in challenging traditional beliefs and empowering young adults to reject harmful practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, resistance from older generations and limited access to structured awareness platforms in rural areas continue to impede broader social transformation. Bridging these gaps will require expanded outreach efforts, active engagement with community gatekeepers, and the inclusion of intergenerational dialogue within intervention frameworks. A focus on grassroots volunteerism and partnerships with local leaders may further strengthen public health messaging and community buying.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for the study was granted by the University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee (Protocol number: cLMS/PGT/UH/05727; dated August 12, 2024). The consent that was obtained from all of the participants was informed. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki to this effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn online filled and signed consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews, after approval from the University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering, and Technology Ethics Committee. All participants' information provided in the results section is coded. The consent that was obtained from all of the participants was informed. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki to this effect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical constraints, but are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors did not receive any funding for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterview guide\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interview guide used was developed for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe want to acknowledge and express our profound gratitude to Bukola Christianah, family, and friends for their unwavering encouragement and support at all times, and also to all the participants who took part in this study for sharing their valuable experience and perception with us.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdulnor A. 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Qual Rep. 2022;27(11):2509\u0026ndash;27.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-womens-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bmwh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Women's Health](http://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/bmwh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Women's Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Female genital mutilation, Young women, Prevalence, Qualitative, Reproductive effects, Awareness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6916267/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6916267/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) remains a significant public health issue in Nigeria, particularly in Ibadan, with a prevalence rate of 38%. Despite increased awareness and advocacy, FGM persists as a rite of passage, chastity, or cultural custom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective:\u003c/strong\u003eTo analyse community awareness and cultural beliefs regarding FGM in Ibadan Oyo State, examining misconceptions, cultural justifications, and the impact of traditional norms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003eThis is a qualitative study among female young adults of reproductive age (18-49 years), who participated in semistructured in-depth interviews using a narrative qualitative research approach. Insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, and attitudes impacted by awareness programs, as well as the interaction of cultural phenomena with public health education were revealed through thematic analysis of the data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Awareness programs and education have reduced FGM prevalence by providing accurate information, challenging misconceptions, and offering alternatives. Schools and community-based initiatives empower younger generations, but bridging generational knowledge gaps remains a challenge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eEliminating FGM in Ibadan requires not only disseminating information but also sustaining culturally respectful, context-specific advocacy. Long-term progress lies in embedding anti-FGM education in everyday institutions and empowering future generations to advocate for change.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Community Awareness and Cultural Beliefs on Female Genital Mutilation in Ibadan, Oyo State: Insights from a Localized Intervention","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-01 12:40:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6916267/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-23T00:16:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-13T19:03:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-06T06:41:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T16:47:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"29352449139175561180091082700308185587","date":"2025-09-01T07:54:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"5864732940261420004072488378295807724","date":"2025-08-31T12:06:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"282352353208398577959113140437821865820","date":"2025-08-26T05:28:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123147753436204626614270831135525670676","date":"2025-08-25T13:47:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"307109722734690822427817001800679392284","date":"2025-08-25T11:11:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-22T11:21:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-17T07:58:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-14T11:51:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-12T12:13:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Women's Health","date":"2025-07-12T12:10:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-womens-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bmwh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Women's Health](http://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/bmwh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Women's Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"61c124e7-eeac-4e77-909b-b1c63293e244","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-04T16:01:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6916267","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-026-04483-2","journal":{"identity":"bmc-womens-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Women's Health"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-27 15:58:13","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 27th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-01 12:40:35","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12905-026-04483-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-026-04483-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6916267","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6916267","identity":"rs-6916267","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}