The effect of virtual reality-supported table tennis training on the sportive and psychosocial skills of children in state care

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Method A total of 16 children (aged 10–14 years) were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 8), which received VR-supported table tennis training alongside traditional training, or a control group (n = 8), which received only traditional training. Pretest-posttest measures included sport-specific skills (forehand, backhand, alternating hits, and service) and social skills. Results There were significant improvements in forehand, backhand, and alternating hits in the experimental group compared with those in the control group. Service performance improved over time in both groups, but no significant group differences were observed. Additionally, social skill scores increased in the experimental group but declined in the control group. Conclusion The findings suggest that VR-supported table tennis training enhances motor skill acquisition and positively impacts psychosocial development, providing a multidimensional, immersive learning environment for children under state care. Virtual reality table tennis sport-specific skills social skills children under state care psychosocial development Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Research on the developmental needs of children under state care highlights the structural and individual challenges faced by this population. Globally, over 2.7 million children and adolescents (0–17 years) live in state-supervised care institutions [ 1 ]. In Turkey, the Ministry of Family and Social Services reported that, as of 2024, 14,509 children reside in institutional care, whereas 10,084 live with foster families [ 2 ]. These figures underscore the scale of the population in need and the importance of targeted support programs. Children growing up in institutional care often experience adverse developmental conditions. Van IJzendoorn et al. [ 3 ] noted that these children frequently lack basic physical resources, face instability in caregiver relationships, and have limited emotionally supportive interactions. Such conditions can negatively impact cognitive and emotional development. While protective measures exist for care, education, and health, activities that support biopsychosocial development—such as sports, arts, and cultural engagement—are generally not mandated [ 4 ]. Sports are known to contribute to physiological, cognitive, psychological, and social development, promoting self-discipline, social engagement, and skill acquisition. Even as little as three days per week of regular physical activity has been shown to reduce loneliness and support emotional well-being among children in residential care [ 5 ]. Extensive literature supports the positive effects of physical activity on physical and mental health. High aerobic fitness enhances executive functions across age groups and reduces the risk of mental health disorders [ 6 , 7 ]. Virtual reality and augmented reality (VR/AR) technologies have emerged as innovative tools to promote exercise by mitigating environmental barriers such as weather or space constraints and increasing motivation [ 8 ]. In virtual environments, users’ sense of presence can influence their emotional experiences. Studies have investigated the relationship between presence and emotional states, often using psychometric assessments, although neurophysiological evidence remains limited [ 9 , 10 ]. VR experiences also influence performance and psychological outcomes, including motivation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation [ 11 , 12 ]. VR simulates immersive environments and can integrate sports and gaming elements, offering developmentally enriching experiences that can be tailored to individual needs [ 13 ]. Head-mounted devices and three-dimensional displays enhance immersion, whereas recent technological advances have improved accessibility and portability, expanding VR applications across recreational and high-performance contexts [ 14 ]. For VR to be effective in sports training, virtual skills must transfer to real-world performance [ 15 ]. Early studies demonstrated that mimicking expert table tennis strokes in virtual environments could improve real-world performance [ 16 , 17 ]. VR provides an immersive and interactive learning environment, allowing users to practice safely, receive immediate feedback, and simulate various competitive scenarios, which can enhance motivation and engagement [ 18 , 19 ]. Despite growing research on VR in sports, studies specifically examining VR-supported table tennis remain limited, highlighting a significant gap in understanding its potential for skill acquisition and psychosocial development [ 19 ]. VR can provide children in state care with a safe, motivating platform to develop both technical skills and psychosocial competencies, including self-confidence, teamwork, social communication, attention, and enjoyment of physical activity. This study aims to examine the effects of VR-supported table tennis training on sportive and psychosocial skills in children under state care. By comparing VR-based methods with traditional training approaches, this study will assess their relative effectiveness in enhancing sport-specific skills and psychosocial outcomes, providing valuable insights for both sports science and interventions supporting social integration among disadvantaged populations. Methods Research Design This study employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control group design. The experimental group received VR-supported table tennis training, whereas the control group received conventional table tennis instruction only. Measurements were taken from both groups before (pretest) and after (posttest) the intervention to examine the effects of VR-supported training on table tennis performance and social skill development. Participants The study sample consisted of 16 children under state care residing at a child support center affiliated with the Ministry of Family and Social Services. The participants were aged 10–14 years, with a mean age of 12.50 ± 1.21 years. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups: Experimental group (n = 8) : Children receiving VR-supported table tennis training Control group (n = 8) : Children receiving traditional table tennis training Both groups were homogeneous in terms of age, gender, and dominant hand distribution. Descriptive statistics for the experimental and control groups are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the participants Variable Category Experimental (n = 8) Control (n = 8) Total (n = 16) Age (years) 13.00 ± 1.31 12.00 ± 0.93 12.88 ± 1.03 Gender Male 4 (50%) 3 (37.5%) 7 (43.8%) Female 4 (50%) 5 (62.5%) 9 (56.2%) Dominant hand Right 7 (87.5%) 8 (100%) 15 (93.8%) Left 1 (12.5%) 0 (0%) 1 (6.2%) All the participants had no prior table tennis training and had engaged in sports only through school activities or leisure programs. The inclusion criteria for the study were as follows: Age between 10 and 14 years; Under state care and residing continuously in the institution, Free from physical or cognitive disabilities, Voluntary participation with legal guardian consent was obtained. The exclusion criteria included attendance below 75%, occurrence of serious health issues, or withdrawal from the intervention. No significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups in terms of age [t(14) = 1.76, p = .100] or gender [χ²(1) = 0.00, p = 1.000], indicating that the groups were statistically comparable at baseline. The participants’ average duration of residence at the institution was 3.0 ± 1.0 years, and all were actively attending educational programs. Throughout the study, no participants withdrew, and no data loss occurred. This ensures that the observed outcomes reflect the effects of the applied training methods (VR-supported or traditional) independently of the children’s general developmental levels. Data collection instruments To measure the dependent variables, two primary instruments were used, covering children’s table tennis skills and social development. All measurements were conducted at two time points, pretest (before training) and posttest (after training), in the same order by the same researchers. The reliability and validity of these instruments have been confirmed in previous studies, and high internal consistency was achieved in this study (Cronbach’s α > .70). Sport-Specific Skill Assessment Quantitative scores were derived for each participant on the basis of their performance in table tennis tasks. Scores were calculated according to the number of successful returns in three rally tasks, covering four main skill areas: backhand, forehand, alternating hits (switching consecutively between forehand and backhand), and service. All participants’ performances in these four skills were recorded under standardized conditions via a Donic Newgy 2055 table tennis robot, which allowed programmable control of ball speed, direction, spin, and frequency. This system ensured objectivity and consistency by providing identical ball distributions and tempo conditions for all participants. Each evaluation session was recorded via a high-resolution video system, and scoring was conducted via frame-by-frame video analysis rather than direct observation. This method allows detailed technical examination by evaluators while minimizing observation bias. The assessment method was adapted from the quantitative evaluation model developed by Michalski et al. [ 17 ], which similarly measured forehand, backhand, alternating hits, and service performance on the basis of accuracy and rally continuity. In the present study, each skill was scored for both technical proficiency and performance quality. This comprehensive evaluation system enabled objective, reproducible, and statistically comparable measurements of participants’ table tennis skill development throughout the training process. Social Skills Scale The Social Skills Scale developed by Kocayörük Yaya [ 20 ] was used to assess participants’ social communication, cooperation, and empathetic interaction skills. The scale measures individuals’ behavioral competence in social environments and their level of interpersonal interaction. It consists of 20 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = not at all appropriate, 5 = completely appropriate). This scale has frequently been used in studies evaluating the effects of sports activities on children’s social development [ 21 ]. In this study, the scale demonstrated high internal consistency (α = .88). Procedure The research process was designed as an eight-week experimental study, including participant selection, training sessions, and data collection stages (Fig. 1 ). A total of 16 participants were included in the study. After confirming eligibility (n = 16), the participants were randomly assigned to two groups: the experimental group (ExG, n = 8) and the control group (ConG, n = 8). All participants completed pretests prior to the intervention and posttests following the eight-week training program. The measurements were conducted at the same location and in the same order for both the pre- and postintervention assessments. Each testing session lasted approximately 45–50 minutes, with short rest intervals provided between different measures. The intervention lasted a total of eight weeks. Both groups attended traditional table tennis training twice a week, with one-hour sessions per day. In addition, the experimental group received an extra one-hour VR-supported table tennis training following each traditional session (rooms) (Fig. 2 ). Consequently, the experimental group received a total of 32 hours of training (16 hours of traditional + 16 hours of VR), whereas the control group received only 16 hours of traditional training. All the experimental sessions were conducted at the institution’s gymnasium. VR activities were performed in a designated area that ensured adequate space and participant safety. All the sessions were continuously supervised by the research team to maintain procedural consistency and safety standards. The participants in the experimental group engaged in VR-supported training immediately following their conventional table tennis sessions. These sessions aimed to enhance table tennis technical and tactical skills within a virtual environment. The VR setup included a head-mounted display (HMD), hand controllers, and motion sensors integrated into a table tennis simulation system. The participants performed forehand, backhand, service, block, and ball-control exercises in a three-dimensional environment featuring virtual representations of the table, ball, and racket. The system provided real-time feedback on parameters such as hit accuracy, reaction time, and stroke angle. Training difficulty was systematically adjusted according to participants’ performance levels (e.g., increasing ball speed, reducing target size, or shortening reaction time). The primary goal of the VR intervention was to provide training experience that simultaneously supported motor coordination, cognitive attention, and focus skills. Throughout the program, the VR environment also allowed for individualized progression, ensuring that each participant could train at a level appropriate to their developing skill set. By combining conventional training with immersive VR experiences, this study sought to maximize both the technical development and psychosocial engagement of children in state care. Furthermore, the structured feedback and gamified elements of the VR system were designed to enhance motivation, self-efficacy, and sustained attention, which are critical factors for both sports performance and broader social development. The VR-supported training sessions for the experimental group consisted of four structured components (Fig. 3 ). These components were adapted to the VR environment, and participants progressed through predetermined tasks such as “target accuracy,” “reaction time,” and “service speed.” The system automatically recorded each participant’s performance data at the end of every session. The participants in the control group received traditional table tennis training for an equivalent duration but did not engage in any VR intervention. During the sessions, the control group participants viewed entertaining videos through the VR headset without performing any interactive table tennis exercises. During the intervention, the VR area was cleared of physical obstacles, and soft floor mats were placed to minimize collision risks within the participants’ movement space. All equipment, including the VR headset, controllers, and cables, was disinfected before and after each session. The participants were monitored for signs of discomfort, such as dizziness, nausea, or visual disturbances, prior to each session. When necessary, the sessions were paused or terminated to allow rest. Data analysis The data were analysed via IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0. Descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum values, were calculated for each variable separately for the experimental and control groups. This analysis provided an overview of the participants’ performance distributions before and after the intervention. To compare changes between groups over time, two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was employed. Effect sizes for significant differences were calculated via Cohen’s [ 22 ] d and partial eta squared (η²), and these values are presented alongside the corresponding results in the tables within the Results section. The significance level was set at α = .05 for all the statistical tests. These analyses were conducted to determine the impact of VR-supported training on sport-specific table tennis skills as well as social skill development. Results Descriptive Statistics Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics (means ± SDss) for the pretest and posttest scores of participants in the experimental and control groups who underwent the VR-supported Table Tennis training program. The findings indicate that the experimental group demonstrated substantially greater improvements across all measured skills than did the control group. Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the pretest and posttest scores for the experimental and control groups Test Group n M SD Forehand Pretest Experimental 8 16.25 5.39 Control 8 11.75 7.42 Forehand Posttest Experimental 8 33.63 7.48 Control 8 17.88 8.94 Backhand Pretest Experimental 8 21.88 8.59 Control 8 17.38 10.32 Backhand Posttest Experimental 8 41.00 5.63 Control 8 22.63 10.16 Alternating Hits Pretest Experimental 8 14.00 9.56 Control 8 5.63 7.19 Alternating Hits Posttest Experimental 8 26.00 6.05 Control 8 15.38 9.33 Service Pretest Experimental 8 32.38 13.21 Control 8 27.38 13.91 Service Posttest Experimental 8 47.38 2.13 Control 8 42.38 6.14 As shown in Table 2 . Compared with the control group, the experimental group receiving VR-supported training presented greater gains in forehand, backhand, alternating hit, and service performance. The significant group two-way ANOVA time interactions observed in forehand and backhand performance demonstrate the effect of VR-supported training. The statistical distribution of these interactions and group-based development differences are presented in detail in Fig. 4 . The analysis of forehand scores revealed a significant interaction between group (experimental vs. control) and time (pretest vs. posttest) (F(1,14) = 12.612, p < .003). The experimental group demonstrated a significant increase from pretest to posttest (F(1,14) = 24.569, p < .001). Similarly, for the backhand scores, a significant group × time interaction was observed (F(1,14) = 10.186, p < .007), with the experimental group showing a significant improvement between the pretest and posttest (F(1,14) = 21.656, p < .001). For alternating hits, the group × time interaction was also significant (F(1,14) = 9.385, p < .008), and the experimental group showed a statistically significant increase from pretest to posttest (F(1,14) = 16.751, p .229). However, a main effect of time was observed, indicating that participants’ service performance improved overall after the intervention (F(1,14) = 22.930, p < .001). Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics (means ± SDss) of social skill levels for the experimental and control groups before and after the VR-supported table tennis program. Table 3 Descriptive statistics of the pretest and posttest social skills scores for the experimental and control groups Test Group M n SD Social Skills Pretest Experimental 55.88 8 8.82 Control 65.88 8 7.77 Social Skills Posttest Experimental 58.88 8 10.02 Control 55.00 8 9.56 As shown in Table 3 . the experimental group’s social skills scores increased from a pretest mean of 55.88 to a posttest mean of 58.88. Conversely, the scores of the control group decreased from 65.88 at the pretest to 55.00 at the posttest. These findings indicate that VR-supported table tennis training positively influenced the social skill development of children in the experimental group, whereas the control group exhibited a decline. The significant group two-way ANOVA time interaction observed in social skill scores indicates a marked improvement in the social development of the experimental group. The statistical distribution of this interaction and the group-based differences over time are presented in detail in Fig. 5 . The analysis indicated that there was no significant main effect of group (experimental vs. control) on social skill scores (F(1,14) = 0.588, p > .05), suggesting that overall social skill levels did not differ significantly between the groups. Similarly, no significant main effect of time (pretest vs. posttest) was observed (F(1,14) = 3.317, p > .05). Discussion Effects on sport-specific skill development The findings of this study indicate that VR-supported table tennis training significantly contributes to the development of children’s sport-specific technical skills. The participants in the experimental group demonstrated notable improvements in forehand and backhand strokes by the end of the intervention. Increases were observed in ball speed, accuracy, and body coordination during strokes. In contrast, improvements in more routine or fine-motor skills, such as basic hits and serves, were comparatively limited. These results align with previous research on VR and motor learning. Michalski et al. [ 17 ] reported that four weeks of VR table tennis training led to significantly greater improvements in real table tennis performance than did a control group. Similarly, Gray [ 23 ] reported that adaptive VR training in baseball batting resulted in better transfer performance than did repeated VR or real practice. In the present study, the superior gains in forehand and backhand accuracy in the VR group suggest that real-time feedback and the high repetition afforded by VR accelerated learning. According to Schmidt’s [ 24 ] schema theory, motor programs developed through practice under various conditions can transfer to novel situations. The VR environment, which offers variations in speed, angle, and scenario, likely helped children develop generalized motor schemas for table tennis strokes. Fitts and Posner’s [ 25 ] learning model also suggests that VR allows beginners to progress from the cognitive to the associative stage through trial-and-error in a safe virtual environment. During VR sessions, participants received immediate visual feedback on their strokes, including ball speed and spin, maintaining continuous engagement and motivation. This gamified approach likely increased attention and promoted consistent technique acquisition. Moreover, VR training involves timing, reactions, and proprioceptive feedback. In head-mounted display-based VR (head-mounted display-based virtual reality) scenarios, users can move naturally, activating vestibular and proprioceptive senses similar to real-life conditions [ 26 ]. This kinesthetic awareness may prepare children for similar movements in real-world play. The study’s results support a positive transfer from VR to real table tennis performance. However, VR training does not equally impact all skills. The lack of group differences in service performance may reflect the limited representation of this skill in the VR environment. Real-world service involves tactile feedback from ball weight, gravity, and racket handling [ 27 ], which VR cannot fully replicate. The literature suggests that VR ball spin, bounce, and timing nuances may differ from reality, potentially causing negative transfer in experienced athletes. While this was not observed in the present study, VR’s contribution to fine motor control and precise timing skills such as serving may be constrained. Overall, VR-supported table tennis training appears effective for motor skill development, which is consistent with motor learning theories. VR provides a rich, immersive practice environment, adhering to fidelity principles and simulating real-world cognitive demands. High similarity to real conditions maximizes skill transfer [ 28 , 29 ]. Additionally, adaptive VR content allows gradual difficulty progression, supporting findings that adaptive VR outperforms repetitive fixed training [ 30 ]. In this study, VR likely offered a challenging yet achievable environment tailored to each child’s skill level, facilitating faster learning and higher accuracy in forehand and backhand strokes. VR technology can therefore be considered not only a supportive tool but also a means to accelerate learning and enhance focus in children’s sports education. Effects on social skill development The results also demonstrated that VR-supported table tennis training significantly affects children’s social skill development. Following the intervention, children in the VR group showed measurable improvements in social competencies. During VR sessions, children engaged not only in physical activity but also in social dimensions such as interaction, cooperation, and empathy. Competing against a virtual opponent or completing target-based simulations indirectly reinforced communication strategies, appropriate responses, and support for teammates. The Social Skills Scale [ 20 ] (adaptation) evaluates communication, group interaction, and social adjustment, which may explain the observed progress in the VR group. The literature supports VR’s capacity to enhance social interaction and cognition [ 29 ]. Continuous feedback, visibility of peers’ scores, and shared virtual achievements created a dynamic that integrated competition with social interaction. Monitoring scoreboards and interacting with virtual or partner avatars likely provided children with an engaging sense of social participation. For children in state care, who may have limited real-life social interactions, VR offered a safe, structured, and motivating environment for social learning. High immersion and social presence in VR may further promote communication skills. Social presence theory posits that individuals perceive others as genuinely present in virtual interactions. Although children do not play with real partners, interacting with virtual opponents or scoreboards could evoke a sense of copresence, activating empathy and communication skills. Reactions to virtual characters, emotional responses to winning or losing points, and strategic exchanges with teammates fostered emotional contagion, whereby virtual experiences elicited real emotional responses. VR’s capacity to generate empathy aligns with prior research [ 31 , 32 , 33 ], indicating stronger emotional engagement and perspective-taking than traditional 2D media do. Limitations This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. The sample size was relatively small and drawn from a single child support center, which may limit the generalizability of the results. The intervention lasted eight weeks, providing useful information about short-term effects but not allowing for conclusions about longer-term development or retention. Additionally, although the VR system offered a controlled and engaging training environment, it may not fully capture the sensory and motor nuances of real table tennis, particularly for skills requiring fine motor control. Social skill development was assessed using self-report instruments, which, despite being reliable, may not fully reflect behavioral changes in everyday contexts. These limitations highlight the need for future studies with larger samples, longer follow-up periods, and a combination of qualitative and observational measures. Conclusion This study examined the effects of VR-supported table tennis training on both the sportive and social skill development of children, revealing that VR technology shows promise as a multidimensional educational tool, particularly for motor and social skill development in children. Throughout the intervention, VR-based applications provided children with a learning experience that integrated cognitive‒motor components such as attention, reaction time, coordination, and self-regulation, extending beyond purely physical skills. Immersive virtual environments appeared to support participants’ movement awareness, performance accuracy, and motivation, potentially contributing to improved acquisition of motor skills. Moreover, VR-supported training appeared to support aspects of socioemotional development, promoting communication, empathy, and group cohesion, suggesting a more holistic learning experience. Children engage in reciprocal interactions, competition, and cooperative activities within the VR environment, which fosters communication, empathy, and group cohesion. The sense of social presence afforded by the virtual environment enhanced emotional engagement, transforming the learning experience from a purely cognitive process into a holistic process encompassing both social and emotional dimensions. Overall, the findings indicate that VR-based interventions offer a comprehensive educational setting capable of simultaneously supporting children’s sportive, cognitive, and social development. In this respect, VR extends beyond traditional teaching methods, providing an innovative, learner-centered approach that prioritizes active participation and experiential learning. VR technology may serve as a promising educational tool for enhancing motivation, self-confidence, and social engagement among children. Abbreviations VR Virtual reality ExG Experimental Group ConG Control Group HMD Head-Mounted Display Hmd-VR Head-mounted display-based virtual reality SD Standard deviation ANOVA Analysis of variance η² Partial Eta Squared α Cronbach’s alpha (internal consistency coefficient) Declarations Acknowledgements Not applicable Authors’ contributions All the authors contributed substantially to this study. İÖ, ZG, and VK were responsible for the research concept and study design. The literature review was conducted by YA and EK. Data collection was performed by ZG and EK, while data analysis and interpretation were carried out by İÖ, DB, and MT. Statistical analyses were conducted by İÖ, DB, and MT. The manuscript was written by YA and İÖ, and VK reviewed and edited the draft of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript . Funding This research was supported by Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit under project number NKUBAP.04.ÖNAP.25.633 . Data availability The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted within the scope of a project supported by the Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Coordination Unit of Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University. The research was approved by the Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Board of Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University Project Meeting No: T2024–2260; December 2, 2024; Teleconference; Document Verification Code: BSEN871TBF; Document No: 526996) and was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1060555,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVR Table-Tennis Training Session Rooms\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8113131/v1/5baff7132548281fed53d28e.png"},{"id":97896826,"identity":"db649e04-a747-4202-9872-acf5622f7fec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:37:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180240,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVR-supported training session\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8113131/v1/7d8095934961ff3df9c6ddb7.png"},{"id":97745274,"identity":"6fc7d43a-2393-457a-8838-9d2f39613d38","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 00:24:07","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":194598,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTwo-way ANOVA for Repeated Measurements of Table Tennis Skills in the Experimental and Control Groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8113131/v1/792d22f3acc7b6daed91abd7.png"},{"id":97896822,"identity":"49475c45-a306-43cb-8ccb-1ad0a33d327b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:37:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":87453,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTwo-way ANOVA (2×2 ANOVA) of repeated measures for social skill levels in the experimental and control groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8113131/v1/7bdc9f3696192c74b38621c5.png"},{"id":103056362,"identity":"3de0552a-8ae9-4a67-9616-551cb7ba1c68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 09:07:55","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2589538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8113131/v1/6538e3f9-d66c-42da-bf0e-e36993c160b4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The effect of virtual reality-supported table tennis training on the sportive and psychosocial skills of children in state care","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e Research on the developmental needs of children under state care highlights the structural and individual challenges faced by this population. Globally, over 2.7\u0026nbsp;million children and adolescents (0\u0026ndash;17 years) live in state-supervised care institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In Turkey, the Ministry of Family and Social Services reported that, as of 2024, 14,509 children reside in institutional care, whereas 10,084 live with foster families [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. These figures underscore the scale of the population in need and the importance of targeted support programs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren growing up in institutional care often experience adverse developmental conditions. Van IJzendoorn et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] noted that these children frequently lack basic physical resources, face instability in caregiver relationships, and have limited emotionally supportive interactions. Such conditions can negatively impact cognitive and emotional development. While protective measures exist for care, education, and health, activities that support biopsychosocial development\u0026mdash;such as sports, arts, and cultural engagement\u0026mdash;are generally not mandated [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Sports are known to contribute to physiological, cognitive, psychological, and social development, promoting self-discipline, social engagement, and skill acquisition. Even as little as three days per week of regular physical activity has been shown to reduce loneliness and support emotional well-being among children in residential care [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtensive literature supports the positive effects of physical activity on physical and mental health. High aerobic fitness enhances executive functions across age groups and reduces the risk of mental health disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Virtual reality and augmented reality (VR/AR) technologies have emerged as innovative tools to promote exercise by mitigating environmental barriers such as weather or space constraints and increasing motivation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn virtual environments, users\u0026rsquo; sense of presence can influence their emotional experiences. Studies have investigated the relationship between presence and emotional states, often using psychometric assessments, although neurophysiological evidence remains limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. VR experiences also influence performance and psychological outcomes, including motivation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVR simulates immersive environments and can integrate sports and gaming elements, offering developmentally enriching experiences that can be tailored to individual needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Head-mounted devices and three-dimensional displays enhance immersion, whereas recent technological advances have improved accessibility and portability, expanding VR applications across recreational and high-performance contexts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor VR to be effective in sports training, virtual skills must transfer to real-world performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Early studies demonstrated that mimicking expert table tennis strokes in virtual environments could improve real-world performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. VR provides an immersive and interactive learning environment, allowing users to practice safely, receive immediate feedback, and simulate various competitive scenarios, which can enhance motivation and engagement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite growing research on VR in sports, studies specifically examining VR-supported table tennis remain limited, highlighting a significant gap in understanding its potential for skill acquisition and psychosocial development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. VR can provide children in state care with a safe, motivating platform to develop both technical skills and psychosocial competencies, including self-confidence, teamwork, social communication, attention, and enjoyment of physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to examine the effects of VR-supported table tennis training on sportive and psychosocial skills in children under state care. By comparing VR-based methods with traditional training approaches, this study will assess their relative effectiveness in enhancing sport-specific skills and psychosocial outcomes, providing valuable insights for both sports science and interventions supporting social integration among disadvantaged populations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a quasi-experimental pretest\u0026ndash;posttest control group design. The experimental group received VR-supported table tennis training, whereas the control group received conventional table tennis instruction only. Measurements were taken from both groups before (pretest) and after (posttest) the intervention to examine the effects of VR-supported training on table tennis performance and social skill development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The study sample consisted of 16 children under state care residing at a child support center affiliated with the Ministry of Family and Social Services. The participants were aged 10\u0026ndash;14 years, with a mean age of 12.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21 years. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/b\u003e: Children receiving VR-supported table tennis training\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/b\u003e: Children receiving traditional table tennis training\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth groups were homogeneous in terms of age, gender, and dominant hand distribution. Descriptive statistics for the experimental and control groups are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of the participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (43.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 (50%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (56.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDominant hand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (87.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 (93.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (12.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (6.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the participants had no prior table tennis training and had engaged in sports only through school activities or leisure programs. The inclusion criteria for the study were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge between 10 and 14 years;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnder state care and residing continuously in the institution,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eFree from physical or cognitive disabilities,\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eVoluntary participation with legal guardian consent was obtained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exclusion criteria included attendance below 75%, occurrence of serious health issues, or withdrawal from the intervention. No significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups in terms of age [t(14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.76, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.100] or gender [χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.000], indicating that the groups were statistically comparable at baseline. The participants\u0026rsquo; average duration of residence at the institution was 3.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0 years, and all were actively attending educational programs. Throughout the study, no participants withdrew, and no data loss occurred. This ensures that the observed outcomes reflect the effects of the applied training methods (VR-supported or traditional) independently of the children\u0026rsquo;s general developmental levels.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection instruments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo measure the dependent variables, two primary instruments were used, covering children\u0026rsquo;s table tennis skills and social development. All measurements were conducted at two time points, pretest (before training) and posttest (after training), in the same order by the same researchers. The reliability and validity of these instruments have been confirmed in previous studies, and high internal consistency was achieved in this study (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.70).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSport-Specific Skill Assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative scores were derived for each participant on the basis of their performance in table tennis tasks. Scores were calculated according to the number of successful returns in three rally tasks, covering four main skill areas: backhand, forehand, alternating hits (switching consecutively between forehand and backhand), and service. All participants\u0026rsquo; performances in these four skills were recorded under standardized conditions via a Donic Newgy 2055 table tennis robot, which allowed programmable control of ball speed, direction, spin, and frequency. This system ensured objectivity and consistency by providing identical ball distributions and tempo conditions for all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach evaluation session was recorded via a high-resolution video system, and scoring was conducted via frame-by-frame video analysis rather than direct observation. This method allows detailed technical examination by evaluators while minimizing observation bias.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe assessment method was adapted from the quantitative evaluation model developed by Michalski et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], which similarly measured forehand, backhand, alternating hits, and service performance on the basis of accuracy and rally continuity. In the present study, each skill was scored for both technical proficiency and performance quality. This comprehensive evaluation system enabled objective, reproducible, and statistically comparable measurements of participants\u0026rsquo; table tennis skill development throughout the training process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSocial Skills Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Social Skills Scale developed by Kocay\u0026ouml;r\u0026uuml;k Yaya [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] was used to assess participants\u0026rsquo; social communication, cooperation, and empathetic interaction skills. The scale measures individuals\u0026rsquo; behavioral competence in social environments and their level of interpersonal interaction. It consists of 20 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all appropriate, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;completely appropriate). This scale has frequently been used in studies evaluating the effects of sports activities on children\u0026rsquo;s social development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the scale demonstrated high internal consistency (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.88).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research process was designed as an eight-week experimental study, including participant selection, training sessions, and data collection stages (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 16 participants were included in the study. After confirming eligibility (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16), the participants were randomly assigned to two groups: the experimental group (ExG, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8) and the control group (ConG, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8). All participants completed pretests prior to the intervention and posttests following the eight-week training program. The measurements were conducted at the same location and in the same order for both the pre- and postintervention assessments. Each testing session lasted approximately 45\u0026ndash;50 minutes, with short rest intervals provided between different measures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe intervention lasted a total of eight weeks. Both groups attended traditional table tennis training twice a week, with one-hour sessions per day. In addition, the experimental group received an extra one-hour VR-supported table tennis training following each traditional session (rooms) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, the experimental group received a total of 32 hours of training (16 hours of traditional\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;16 hours of VR), whereas the control group received only 16 hours of traditional training. All the experimental sessions were conducted at the institution\u0026rsquo;s gymnasium. VR activities were performed in a designated area that ensured adequate space and participant safety. All the sessions were continuously supervised by the research team to maintain procedural consistency and safety standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants in the experimental group engaged in VR-supported training immediately following their conventional table tennis sessions. These sessions aimed to enhance table tennis technical and tactical skills within a virtual environment. The VR setup included a head-mounted display (HMD), hand controllers, and motion sensors integrated into a table tennis simulation system. The participants performed forehand, backhand, service, block, and ball-control exercises in a three-dimensional environment featuring virtual representations of the table, ball, and racket. The system provided real-time feedback on parameters such as hit accuracy, reaction time, and stroke angle. Training difficulty was systematically adjusted according to participants\u0026rsquo; performance levels (e.g., increasing ball speed, reducing target size, or shortening reaction time). The primary goal of the VR intervention was to provide training experience that simultaneously supported motor coordination, cognitive attention, and focus skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThroughout the program, the VR environment also allowed for individualized progression, ensuring that each participant could train at a level appropriate to their developing skill set. By combining conventional training with immersive VR experiences, this study sought to maximize both the technical development and psychosocial engagement of children in state care. Furthermore, the structured feedback and gamified elements of the VR system were designed to enhance motivation, self-efficacy, and sustained attention, which are critical factors for both sports performance and broader social development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe VR-supported training sessions for the experimental group consisted of four structured components (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These components were adapted to the VR environment, and participants progressed through predetermined tasks such as \u0026ldquo;target accuracy,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;reaction time,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;service speed.\u0026rdquo; The system automatically recorded each participant\u0026rsquo;s performance data at the end of every session.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants in the control group received traditional table tennis training for an equivalent duration but did not engage in any VR intervention. During the sessions, the control group participants viewed entertaining videos through the VR headset without performing any interactive table tennis exercises.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the intervention, the VR area was cleared of physical obstacles, and soft floor mats were placed to minimize collision risks within the participants\u0026rsquo; movement space. All equipment, including the VR headset, controllers, and cables, was disinfected before and after each session. The participants were monitored for signs of discomfort, such as dizziness, nausea, or visual disturbances, prior to each session. When necessary, the sessions were paused or terminated to allow rest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were analysed via IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0. Descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum values, were calculated for each variable separately for the experimental and control groups. This analysis provided an overview of the participants\u0026rsquo; performance distributions before and after the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo compare changes between groups over time, two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was employed. Effect sizes for significant differences were calculated via Cohen\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] d and partial eta squared (η\u0026sup2;), and these values are presented alongside the corresponding results in the tables within the Results section. The significance level was set at α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05 for all the statistical tests. These analyses were conducted to determine the impact of VR-supported training on sport-specific table tennis skills as well as social skill development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the descriptive statistics (means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SDss) for the pretest and posttest scores of participants in the experimental and control groups who underwent the VR-supported Table Tennis training program. The findings indicate that the experimental group demonstrated substantially greater improvements across all measured skills than did the control group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of the pretest and posttest scores for the experimental and control groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForehand Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForehand Posttest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBackhand Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBackhand Posttest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternating Hits Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternating Hits Posttest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eService Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eService Posttest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Compared with the control group, the experimental group receiving VR-supported training presented greater gains in forehand, backhand, alternating hit, and service performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe significant group two-way ANOVA time interactions observed in forehand and backhand performance demonstrate the effect of VR-supported training. The statistical distribution of these interactions and group-based development differences are presented in detail in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of forehand scores revealed a significant interaction between group (experimental vs. control) and time (pretest vs. posttest) (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.612, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.003). The experimental group demonstrated a significant increase from pretest to posttest (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.569, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Similarly, for the backhand scores, a significant group \u0026times; time interaction was observed (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.186, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.007), with the experimental group showing a significant improvement between the pretest and posttest (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.656, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor alternating hits, the group \u0026times; time interaction was also significant (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.385, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.008), and the experimental group showed a statistically significant increase from pretest to posttest (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.751, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). In contrast, the group \u0026times; time interaction for service performance was not significant (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.580, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.229). However, a main effect of time was observed, indicating that participants\u0026rsquo; service performance improved overall after the intervention (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.930, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the descriptive statistics (means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SDss) of social skill levels for the experimental and control groups before and after the VR-supported table tennis program.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of the pretest and posttest social skills scores for the experimental and control groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Skills Pretest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Skills Posttest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. the experimental group\u0026rsquo;s social skills scores increased from a pretest mean of 55.88 to a posttest mean of 58.88. Conversely, the scores of the control group decreased from 65.88 at the pretest to 55.00 at the posttest. These findings indicate that VR-supported table tennis training positively influenced the social skill development of children in the experimental group, whereas the control group exhibited a decline.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe significant group two-way ANOVA time interaction observed in social skill scores indicates a marked improvement in the social development of the experimental group. The statistical distribution of this interaction and the group-based differences over time are presented in detail in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis indicated that there was no significant main effect of group (experimental vs. control) on social skill scores (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.588, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05), suggesting that overall social skill levels did not differ significantly between the groups. Similarly, no significant main effect of time (pretest vs. posttest) was observed (F(1,14)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.317, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffects on sport-specific skill development\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study indicate that VR-supported table tennis training significantly contributes to the development of children\u0026rsquo;s sport-specific technical skills. The participants in the experimental group demonstrated notable improvements in forehand and backhand strokes by the end of the intervention. Increases were observed in ball speed, accuracy, and body coordination during strokes. In contrast, improvements in more routine or fine-motor skills, such as basic hits and serves, were comparatively limited.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese results align with previous research on VR and motor learning. Michalski et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] reported that four weeks of VR table tennis training led to significantly greater improvements in real table tennis performance than did a control group. Similarly, Gray [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] reported that adaptive VR training in baseball batting resulted in better transfer performance than did repeated VR or real practice. In the present study, the superior gains in forehand and backhand accuracy in the VR group suggest that real-time feedback and the high repetition afforded by VR accelerated learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Schmidt\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] schema theory, motor programs developed through practice under various conditions can transfer to novel situations. The VR environment, which offers variations in speed, angle, and scenario, likely helped children develop generalized motor schemas for table tennis strokes. Fitts and Posner\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] learning model also suggests that VR allows beginners to progress from the cognitive to the associative stage through trial-and-error in a safe virtual environment. During VR sessions, participants received immediate visual feedback on their strokes, including ball speed and spin, maintaining continuous engagement and motivation. This gamified approach likely increased attention and promoted consistent technique acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, VR training involves timing, reactions, and proprioceptive feedback. In head-mounted display-based VR (head-mounted display-based virtual reality) scenarios, users can move naturally, activating vestibular and proprioceptive senses similar to real-life conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. This kinesthetic awareness may prepare children for similar movements in real-world play. The study\u0026rsquo;s results support a positive transfer from VR to real table tennis performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, VR training does not equally impact all skills. The lack of group differences in service performance may reflect the limited representation of this skill in the VR environment. Real-world service involves tactile feedback from ball weight, gravity, and racket handling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], which VR cannot fully replicate. The literature suggests that VR ball spin, bounce, and timing nuances may differ from reality, potentially causing negative transfer in experienced athletes. While this was not observed in the present study, VR\u0026rsquo;s contribution to fine motor control and precise timing skills such as serving may be constrained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, VR-supported table tennis training appears effective for motor skill development, which is consistent with motor learning theories. VR provides a rich, immersive practice environment, adhering to fidelity principles and simulating real-world cognitive demands. High similarity to real conditions maximizes skill transfer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, adaptive VR content allows gradual difficulty progression, supporting findings that adaptive VR outperforms repetitive fixed training [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, VR likely offered a challenging yet achievable environment tailored to each child\u0026rsquo;s skill level, facilitating faster learning and higher accuracy in forehand and backhand strokes. VR technology can therefore be considered not only a supportive tool but also a means to accelerate learning and enhance focus in children\u0026rsquo;s sports education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffects on social skill development\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results also demonstrated that VR-supported table tennis training significantly affects children\u0026rsquo;s social skill development. Following the intervention, children in the VR group showed measurable improvements in social competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring VR sessions, children engaged not only in physical activity but also in social dimensions such as interaction, cooperation, and empathy. Competing against a virtual opponent or completing target-based simulations indirectly reinforced communication strategies, appropriate responses, and support for teammates. The Social Skills Scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] (adaptation) evaluates communication, group interaction, and social adjustment, which may explain the observed progress in the VR group. The literature supports VR\u0026rsquo;s capacity to enhance social interaction and cognition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous feedback, visibility of peers\u0026rsquo; scores, and shared virtual achievements created a dynamic that integrated competition with social interaction. Monitoring scoreboards and interacting with virtual or partner avatars likely provided children with an engaging sense of social participation. For children in state care, who may have limited real-life social interactions, VR offered a safe, structured, and motivating environment for social learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh immersion and social presence in VR may further promote communication skills. Social presence theory posits that individuals perceive others as genuinely present in virtual interactions. Although children do not play with real partners, interacting with virtual opponents or scoreboards could evoke a sense of copresence, activating empathy and communication skills. Reactions to virtual characters, emotional responses to winning or losing points, and strategic exchanges with teammates fostered emotional contagion, whereby virtual experiences elicited real emotional responses. VR\u0026rsquo;s capacity to generate empathy aligns with prior research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], indicating stronger emotional engagement and perspective-taking than traditional 2D media do.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. The sample size was relatively small and drawn from a single child support center, which may limit the generalizability of the results. The intervention lasted eight weeks, providing useful information about short-term effects but not allowing for conclusions about longer-term development or retention. Additionally, although the VR system offered a controlled and engaging training environment, it may not fully capture the sensory and motor nuances of real table tennis, particularly for skills requiring fine motor control. Social skill development was assessed using self-report instruments, which, despite being reliable, may not fully reflect behavioral changes in everyday contexts. These limitations highlight the need for future studies with larger samples, longer follow-up periods, and a combination of qualitative and observational measures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the effects of VR-supported table tennis training on both the sportive and social skill development of children, revealing that VR technology shows promise as a multidimensional educational tool, particularly for motor and social skill development in children. Throughout the intervention, VR-based applications provided children with a learning experience that integrated cognitive‒motor components such as attention, reaction time, coordination, and self-regulation, extending beyond purely physical skills. Immersive virtual environments appeared to support participants\u0026rsquo; movement awareness, performance accuracy, and motivation, potentially contributing to improved acquisition of motor skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, VR-supported training appeared to support aspects of socioemotional development, promoting communication, empathy, and group cohesion, suggesting a more holistic learning experience. Children engage in reciprocal interactions, competition, and cooperative activities within the VR environment, which fosters communication, empathy, and group cohesion. The sense of social presence afforded by the virtual environment enhanced emotional engagement, transforming the learning experience from a purely cognitive process into a holistic process encompassing both social and emotional dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings indicate that VR-based interventions offer a comprehensive educational setting capable of simultaneously supporting children\u0026rsquo;s sportive, cognitive, and social development. In this respect, VR extends beyond traditional teaching methods, providing an innovative, learner-centered approach that prioritizes active participation and experiential learning. VR technology may serve as a promising educational tool for enhancing motivation, self-confidence, and social engagement among children.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eVR Virtual reality\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExG Experimental Group\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConG Control Group\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHMD Head-Mounted Display\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHmd-VR Head-mounted display-based virtual reality\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD Standard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA Analysis of variance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eη\u0026sup2; Partial Eta Squared\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eα Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha (internal consistency coefficient)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the authors contributed substantially to this study. İ\u0026Ouml;, ZG, and VK were responsible for the research concept and study design. The literature review was conducted by YA and EK. Data collection was performed by ZG and EK, while data analysis and interpretation were carried out by İ\u0026Ouml;, DB, and MT. Statistical analyses were conducted by İ\u0026Ouml;, DB, and MT. The manuscript was written by YA and İ\u0026Ouml;, and VK reviewed and edited the draft of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit under project number \u003cstrong\u003eNKUBAP.04.\u0026Ouml;NAP.25.633\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted within the scope of a project supported by the Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Coordination Unit of Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University. The research was approved by the Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Board of Tekirdağ Namık Kemal University Project Meeting No: T2024\u0026ndash;2260; December 2, 2024; Teleconference; Document Verification Code: BSEN871TBF; Document No: 526996) and was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants voluntarily took part in the study, and written informed consent was obtained from their legal guardians prior to participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePetrowski N, Cappa C, Gross P. Estimating the number of children in formal alternative care: Challenges and results. 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Motiv Emot. 2017;41:708\u0026ndash;12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s11031-017-9641-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11031-017-9641-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Virtual reality, table tennis, sport-specific skills, social skills, children under state care, psychosocial development","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8113131/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8113131/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the effects of virtual reality (VR)-supported table tennis training on sport-specific skills and psychosocial development in children under state care.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 16 children (aged 10\u0026ndash;14 years) were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8), which received VR-supported table tennis training alongside traditional training, or a control group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8), which received only traditional training. Pretest-posttest measures included sport-specific skills (forehand, backhand, alternating hits, and service) and social skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were significant improvements in forehand, backhand, and alternating hits in the experimental group compared with those in the control group. Service performance improved over time in both groups, but no significant group differences were observed. Additionally, social skill scores increased in the experimental group but declined in the control group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest that VR-supported table tennis training enhances motor skill acquisition and positively impacts psychosocial development, providing a multidimensional, immersive learning environment for children under state care.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The effect of virtual reality-supported table tennis training on the sportive and psychosocial skills of children in state care","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-09 00:24:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8113131/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"76b04b49-529d-496f-b7dd-bcab28060215","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T07:40:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-09 00:24:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8113131","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8113131","identity":"rs-8113131","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}