Qualitative Descriptive Study on the Use of Instructional Videos by Undergraduate Students

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McFerren This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This qualitative descriptive study explored the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students at community colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The technology acceptance model (TAM) was used as the framework for this study. According to the TAM, the use of technology is influenced by perceptions related to the ease of use, enjoyment, and usefulness of the technology. Therefore, the research questions were, “How do undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?” and “How do undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos?” The sample included 20 research participants. Eleven participants chose to be interviewed individually, and nine participants chose to attend one of three focus groups. Reflexive thematic analysis identified seven themes: use, usefulness, enjoyment, ease of use, length of video, video characteristics, and student factors. Usefulness, the most important determinant for use, is increased when the videos contain the specific information that is needed for success in the class. Students also consider the length, and occasionally enjoyment, when deciding whether to watch videos and how they watch videos. Students employ a variety of strategies, such as speeding up the video, to obtain the information needed using the least amount of time. The use of instructional videos is also influenced by certain video characteristics and student factors. Although ease of use does not influence intention to use, actual usage can be impacted by challenges related to ease of use. The findings from this study increase understanding related to the use of instructional videos and can be applied to increase the likelihood that students will use, and therefore benefit, from instructional videos. Educational Psychology instructional videos educational videos online learning technology acceptance model Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Instructional videos provide many benefits (Beheshti et al., 2018 ; Estriegana et al., 2019 ; Fyfield et al., 2019 ), are often preferred by students (Campbell et al., 2019 ; Jayaratne & Moore, 2017 ), and are the primary teaching tool for online classes (Mayer, 2021 ). However, studies on the effectiveness of instructional videos have reported mixed findings (Breneiser et al., 2018 ; Fyfield et al., 2019 ; Laugerman & Saunders, 2019 ; Pal & Patra, 2021 ; Zielinski et al., 2018 ). Most research studies on this topic have been quantitative, but unexpected findings have led researchers to recommend qualitative studies to provide clarity (Bordes et al., 2021 ; Harrison, 2020 ; Laster-Loftus & Cooper, 2019 ; Yi et al., 2019 ). Particularly, researchers recognized that students’ thoughts and behaviors related to the decision to use and further interact with instructional videos were not understood (Bordes et al., 2021 ; Laster-Loftus & Cooper, 2019 ; Pal & Patra, 2021 ). Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students at community colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The technology acceptance model (TAM) was chosen as the framework for this study because the perceptions that contribute to the use of instructional videos needed to be explored. The version of the TAM used in this study suggests that the use of a technology is influenced by potential user’s perceptions related to ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment (Davis et al., 1992 ). Therefore, research participants described their use of instructional videos and their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos. Literature Review The need for this study is established by the historical and current literature related to the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students. The value of various forms of audiovisual media, such as films, in educational settings has been researched for over a century (Subsidies for Investigations, 1922 ). Currently, research studies are focusing on identifying principles and designs that increase learning from videos (Mayer, 2021 ). Park and Shea ( 2020 ) conducted a study to determine research trends related to online, distance, and blended learning, and the authors suggest that future research focus on the characteristics of online learners and the best combinations of technology and pedagogy. When the TAM was first proposed by Fred Davis in 1985, it included only two factors, ease of use and usefulness. The TAM is a well-established theory (Al-Maatouk et al., 2020 ; Cibaroğl et al., 2021 ), but there are different versions, which include different factors. The TAM used in this study includes three major factors: ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment (Davis et al., 1992 ). According to the TAM, potential users are more likely to use technology that they perceive as easy to use, useful, and enjoyable. Ease of use refers to the accessibility and usability of the technology (Ali & Ali, 2019 ) and is related to the potential user’s self-efficacy (Ali & Ali, 2019 ; Nagy, 2018 ; Turan & Cetintas, 2020 ). Ease of use was not related to the use of instructional videos in studies by Nagy ( 2018 ) and Turan and Cetintas ( 2020 ). Nagy explained that questions about the ease of use were asked after use, so participants may not have reported concerns at that point. Turan and Cetintas argued that students access videos with ease daily, so ease of use would not influence the intention to use instructional videos. Research related to the enjoyment of instructional videos is limited. Although students prefer instructional videos to other distance learning methods (Campbell et al., 2019 ; Jayaratne & Moore, 2017 ), students have reported that they prefer in-person learning (Mustafa et al., 2021 ; Rosenthal & Walker, 2020 ). Students have also stated that they do not enjoy video recordings of face-to-face classes (Chorianopoulos, 2018 ). Students stated that they preferred a video format that allowed eye contact between the instructor and the camera (Fiorella et al., 2019 ). These studies relate to the enjoyment of instructional videos, but these studies were not about the enjoyment of instructional videos. The enjoyment of instructional videos needs further exploration. As far as the relationship between perceived usefulness and the use of instructional videos, Pal and Patra ( 2021 ) and Nagy ( 2018 ) found that usefulness was related to use; however, Turan and Cetintas did not. The study conducted by Turan and Cetintas involved students in a flipped classroom, so they may not have valued the information in the video if they would be exposed to it during the face-to-face session. According to Pereira and Tam ( 2021 ), enjoyment predicts the use of technology more than usefulness if the technology provides pleasure. The usefulness of instructional videos includes the effectiveness of the videos in achieving learning outcomes and other positive outcomes. Beheshti et al. ( 2018 ) stated that instructional videos provide auditory and visual information, increasing recall; however, it is difficult to identify specific aspects of instructional videos that increase usefulness due to differences in pedagogy and production (Chorianopoulos, 2018 ). Mayer et al. ( 2020 ) identified five principles that seem to increase learning from instructional videos, the dynamic drawing principle (instructor draws while lecturing), gaze guidance principle (instructor shifts gaze between the students and the board), generative activity principle (students are asked to summarize, explain, or demonstrate learning during the video), perspective principle (demonstrations are videoed from the perspective of the demonstrator), and subtitle principle (subtitles are helpful for nonnative speakers). Mayer et al. recommended that research be conducted to understand the particular circumstances that may influence these principles. Mayer ( 2021 ) discussed 14 strategies to improve learning from instructional videos predicated on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which is based on the principles of dual channels, cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., 2019 ), and active learning combined with Atkinson and Shiffrin’s ( 1968 ) model of memory. To decrease cognitive overload, Mayer makes suggestions, such as presenting essential information only, signaling the information that is being discussed, avoiding redundancy by not adding captions that are the same as the spoken information, segmenting information into smaller chunks, and adding narration instead of text to describe images. To increase generative processing, Mayer suggests that videos use a human voice rather than a computer-generated voice and that instructors use first- and second-person conversational language, make eye contact with the camera, and use gestures. Mayer ( 2021 ) recommended additional research to confirm these principles, especially studies that are conducted within natural learning environments and studies that focus on the cognitive and motivational processes that are involved. Other strategies to improve learning have been proposed, but some of them seem to be contradictory. For example, Beheshti et al. ( 2018 ) emphasize the importance of adding text, which seems to contradict Mayer’s ( 2021 ) redundancy and modality principles, which discourage the use of text. Beheshti et al. encourage short videos, while Bordes et al. ( 2021 ) argue that the preferred length varies. In addition, several research studies have investigated the influence of instructor presence and have reported mixed findings (Fiorella et al., 2019 ; Kizilcec et al., 2015 ; Stull et al., 2018 ; Wang et al., 2020 ; Yi et al., 2019 ). Multiple factors, such as the type of video (Rosenthal & Walker, 2020 ), student gender (Castro-Alonso et al., 2019 ; Pal & Patra, 2021 ), student motivation (Schrader et al., 2021 ), and student prior knowledge (Li, 2019 ; Wang et al., 2018 ), may also influence the usefulness of instructional videos making it difficult to understand the aspects that influence the usefulness of instructional videos. In addition, Fyfield et al. ( 2019 ) state that negative outcomes due to extra information have been found for laboratory experiments but not natural learning environments, so results from laboratory studies may not accurately reflect students’ experiences. Besides investigating outcomes based on the video design and the student, researchers have also investigated the overall effectiveness of video learning. Some researchers have found that instructional videos increased learning (Fyfield et al., 2019 ; Henderson, 2019 ; Martin et al., 2019 ), but others have not found an increase in learning outcomes (Laster-Loftus & Cooper, 2019 ; Laugerman & Saunders, 2019 ; Schnee et al., 2019 ). Although the video deficit phenomenon has been observed in young children, Strouse and Samson ( 2021 ) argue that adults may also demonstrate decreased learning from videos due to the lack of pedagogical cues and less effort from the student when learning from a screen versus a person. In addition, Strouse and Samson suggest that video learning may be more difficult for more challenging tasks. The use of instructional videos as a teaching tool has increased since videos are now cheaper, easier, and readily available for online use (Fyfield et al., 2019 ). The use of instructional videos is different than the use of audiovisual media in traditional, face-to-face classrooms. Online students choose whether to use instructional videos and how they will use them. Students reported that they liked and used instructional videos, but they also stated reasons for not using them (Harrison, 2020 ). Students said they would use videos to prepare for classes, but they often did not (Bordes et al., 2021 ). Pal and Patra ( 2021 ) used the TAM and the task technology model to explain 64.6% of the variance in the use of instructional videos. Students interact with instructional videos in different ways. Students speed up (Wilson et al., 2018 ), fast-forward (Campbell et al., 2019 ), and play videos while multitasking (Campbell et al., 2019 ). Although the majority of research on instructional videos relates to the usefulness of the videos, the use of instructional videos needs to be understood because videos cannot be useful if they are not used. The many different types of instructional videos must be considered when conducting research on instructional videos (Fyfield et al., 2019 ; Harrison, 2020 ; Mayer, 2021 ; Miner & Stefaniak, 2018 ). Instructional videos may be created by the teacher or another person or group. Teacher-made instructional videos include narrated PowerPoints, videos of class lectures, screen recordings of math solutions, videos of lab techniques, and many other types. Students rated narrated PowerPoints as their first choice, other instructional videos as their second choice, and videos of class lectures as their third choice (Jayaratne & Moore, 2017 ), which shows that students have different perceptions about different types of videos. These differences between instructional videos make it more difficult to consolidate research findings (Bétrancourt & Benetos, 2018 ; Chorianopoulos, 2018 ). Although instructional videos are used for face-to-face, blended, and online classes, instructional videos are often a supplemental teaching tool for face-to-face classes versus the primary teaching tool for online classes (Mayer, 2021 ). Therefore, the characteristics of online students and the demands of online classes need to be considered to promote a better understanding of online students’ perceptions and behaviors related to their use of instructional videos. Online students ranked student attributes, technical skills, and time management as most important for online students (Martin et al., 2020 ). These students felt that their attributes and technical skills were better than their time-management skills (Martin et al., 2020 ). Online students also need to be disciplined and motivated (Dutton et al., 2019 ). Unfortunately, online students have demonstrated lower motivation than face-to-face students (Stark, 2019 ), but students have reported that instructional videos increased their motivation (Caskurlu et al., 2021 ). Berga et al. ( 2021 ) stated that instructional videos increase self-efficacy, and Fyfield et al. ( 2019 ) stated that instructional videos may increase motivation and engagement. Students often choose to take online classes because they need accessibility and flexibility (Ilgaz & Gulbahar, 2017 ; Jayaratne & Moore, 2017 ), and instructional videos provide the information needed in an asynchronous format. Instructional videos can benefit students in several ways, so the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students needs to be understood. Methods The lack of understanding related to the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students needed to be addressed using a qualitative study to identify nuances, increase clarity, and generate new ideas. A qualitative descriptive design was used to accurately reflect the participants’ thoughts and experiences (Power et al., 2022 ) by eliciting their descriptions related to the phenomenon (Capper et al., 2021 ). For this qualitative descriptive study, interviews and focus groups were used to collect participants’ descriptions of their perceptions, experiences, and behaviors. These descriptions were used to answer the two research questions for this study: RQ1: How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos? RQ2: How do online undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos? The researcher developed the interview and focus group protocols to gather descriptions from the participants that would answer the research questions. Input from students and experts and field tests were used to improve the protocols. A research proposal, including the protocols, informed consent form, and demographics questionnaire, was submitted to obtain IRB approval. Participants were initially recruited from two community colleges that provided site authorization; however, few students responded to the recruitment email. Therefore, additional participants were recruited using convenience and snowball sampling. The researcher provided information about the research study on her personal Facebook page and encouraged participants to let others know about the opportunity. The recruitment information contained the link to an online survey. When potential participants clicked the link, the informed consent form and inclusion questions appeared. Participants had to be at least 18 years of age and had taken an online undergraduate course that used instructional videos at a college in the southeastern United States. After providing consent and meeting the inclusion criteria, participants answered a few demographic questions and provided their email and availability for an interview or focus group. The researcher then emailed the interview or focus group information. Individual interviews and focus groups were conducted online and recorded using Zoom, an online conference platform. Although the informed consent form had stated that the interviews and focus groups would be recorded, participants were asked again if they consented to be recorded. After the interview or focus group, participants were sent a $ 20 online gift card. Interviews and focus groups took place February through June of 2023. Transcripts were written using Microsoft Word’s transcription tool. Transcripts were verified for accuracy by the researcher, identifying information was removed, and transcripts were sent to participants for member checking. Participants did not reply to the email with any corrections. Interview transcripts were identified with pseudonyms, and focus group transcripts were identified with numbers. Transcripts were uploaded to MAXQDA, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. Participants This study included 20 research participants. Participants chose to participate in an individual interview or a focus group. Eleven participants discussed their use of instructional videos during semi-structured individual interviews, and nine participants attended one of three focus groups. Unfortunately, attendance at the focus groups was low, so the three focus groups had two, four, and three participants. Interview participants attended eight different schools and included eight females and three males. Ten participants were between 18 and 24 years old, while one was 55–64. Six interviewees reported a GPA of 3.6-4.0, four reported a GPA of 3.1–3.5, and one reported a GPA of 2.6-3.0. Five participants reported that they had taken over 30 classes, one reported 26–30 classes, one reported 16–20 classes, three reported 10–15 classes, and one reported less than 5 classes. Focus group participants were similar to interview participants. Focus group participants attended seven different colleges. Six out of nine were female, and eight out of nine were 18–24 years of age. Six focus group participants reported GPAs of 3.6-4.0, and all were 2.6 or above. Six participants had taken more than 30 classes, and all had taken at least 16 classes. Therefore, the 20 participants in this study were mostly 18–24-year-old females. Most participants had high GPAs and had taken many college classes. Data Analysis Reflexive thematic data analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ) was used. The researcher acknowledged that she had preconceptions based on her literature review and her roles as a college instructor and online student. To mitigate the influence of these preconceptions, line-by-line inductive coding was employed. Memoing was also used to identify and limit possible biases. The researcher had to adjust her definitions for ease of use and enjoyment because participants discussed usability and accessibility when discussing ease of use, and participants described interesting and gratifying experiences when discussing enjoyability. Reflexive thematic data analysis begins with the researcher becoming familiar with the data (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ). This step was accomplished as the researcher conducted the interviews and focus groups, verified the transcripts for accuracy, and reviewed the transcripts. The second step involves the initial coding of the data (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ). First, a deductive approach, structural coding, was used to label the sections as types of videos or one of the TAM’s constructs. MAXQDA’s autocode feature was also used for types of videos and TAM’s constructs. Then, an inductive coding approach, line-by-line descriptive coding, was used. Examples of initial descriptive codes include the “required to watch” and “decision to watch” codes as illustrated by a participant’s statement, “unless it's required, I’m not gonna watch it.” The “just listen” and “multitask” codes were used to describe a participant’s response, “Sometimes I would cook supper if it was, depending on the content, just something that I just needed to listen to.” In addition, in vivo coding was used. Autocoding was used for words and phrases that were identified during descriptive and in vivo coding. For example, “boring” was autocoded because a participant used that descriptor. During the coding process, codes were renamed and merged as appropriate. The code matrix browser in MAXQDA, which shows the presence and degree of a code for each transcript, was used to identify codes that needed to be collated and codes that may have been missed when coding a document. The third step of Braun and Clarke’s ( 2021 ) thematic analysis involves second-cycle coding. An example of a second-cycle code is “prepare for assignment/test,” which encompasses statements about using videos to complete assignments and review for exams. Related codes and patterns among codes were identified as codes were placed into hierarchies, consolidated, and moved using MAXQDA’s drag and drop tool. The Creative Coding tool was also used to visualize connections between codes. Second-cycle codes, categories, and themes were identified during this process. The progression from codes to categories and themes is illustrated in Table 1 . Table 1 Examples of Progression of Codes to Categories to Themes Initial code Second-cycle code Category Theme Already know Already have knowledge/info Decision to use Use Interesting Interesting/care about topic Decision to use Use Speed up Speed up How use Use Just listen Just listen How use Use Provide info Provide info/explain/demo Helpful Usefulness Relevant Relevant/relatable/stories real life Helpful Usefulness Outdated info Outdated info Not helpful Usefulness Unimportant information Unimportant information Not helpful Usefulness During the fourth step, the researcher reflects on the identified themes (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ). MAXQDA’s code relations browser tool, which displays the degree of overlap in transcripts between two codes or themes, was used to provide additional insight on relationships. For example, “use” and “usefulness” were frequently coded together. The focus group data was analyzed using the same steps as used for the interview data; however, ChatGPT, an online, artificial intelligence program, was used to enhance data analysis. Step one, familiarity with the data (Braun & Clarke, 2021 ), was accomplished by conducting the focus groups, verifying the accuracy of the transcripts, and reading the transcripts multiple times. Familiarity was increased by reviewing summaries of each focus group as provided by ChatGPT. ChatGPT was also used to provide additional reflection on themes during step four. Segments from transcripts related to a specific theme were uploaded to ChatGPT, and ChatGPT was asked to provide a definition and summary of the theme and to identify commonalities, exemplars, and exceptions. This process was repeated for each theme, and the ChatGPT results were reviewed to increase understanding. Results Seven themes were identified for the individual interview data: use, ease of use, enjoyment, usefulness, length of video, video characteristics, and student factors. The same seven themes were identified for the focus group data. The themes and definitions are provided in Table 2 . Quotes from the participants for each theme are provided in the appendix . Although each theme will be discussed separately below, the themes interact, so some themes will be discussed in more than one section. Table 2 Themes for The Use of Instructional Videos Themes Definition Use How students interact with instructional videos The Use theme includes why and how students use instructional videos and student behaviors that relate to how they use instructional videos. Ease of use Usability of instructional videos The Ease-of-use theme includes the accessibility and functionality of instructional videos and all issues that hinder performance. Usefulness Benefits of instructional videos The Usefulness theme includes ways that instructional videos are helpful to students in accomplishing their educational goals, directly or indirectly. Enjoyment Gratification from instructional videos The Enjoyment theme includes experiences watching instructional videos that students consider to be interesting, entertaining, or positive. Length of video Time required to watch an instructional video The Length of video theme includes how long the video is and students’ perceptions related to the length of the video. Video characteristics Various characteristics of instructional videos The Video characteristics theme includes specific aspects of instructional videos, including the type of instructional video. Student factors Various characteristics of undergraduate students The student factors theme includes preferences, characteristics, behaviors, and motivations of undergraduate students. Use The use theme includes why and how students use instructional videos and addresses research question one: “How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?” Students decide whether to use an instructional video, and they seem to make their decision based on two main questions, “Do I need to use this video to get the grade I want?” and “Do I want to spend my time watching this video?” If a student does not need to use the video, the student will usually not watch the video. Occasionally, students will watch the video, even if not necessary, if they have the time and are very interested in the topic. If a student needs to use the video, the student will most likely use it; however, how the student uses it depends on whether the student wants to spend the time required to watch it. If the student wants to spend their time watching the video, the student is likely to be fully engaged with the video. If the student does not want to spend their time watching the video, the student will probably employ time-saving strategies, such as speeding up the video. The two considerations, the need to use the video and the desire to watch the video, are evidenced by the following statements. Allie stated, “I think the number one thing is grade wise, but if it’s a topic that interests me, that’s all the more reason for me to watch it.” Sarah said, “I think it’s true with all of my friends and classmates that I’ve ever spoken to, at the end of the day, if you’re accountable for it, you’ll watch it. If you’re not, probably not going to unless you’re like super interested in the topic.” Lindsey talked about her passion for theatre, but when she was asked to watch a video for her theatre class, she said, “I watched it just because I had to write about it, but otherwise I probably would not have watched it.” When the interviewer asked Lindsey for clarification, Lindsey explained that she did not think she needed to watch the video because she had prior knowledge on the topic and it was a YouTube video that was not specific for her class. Students often consider their current grade, the difficulty of the class, and whether the video is needed to maintain the grade that they desire. When Tommy was asked about factors that influence his decision to watch an instructional video, he said, “I think like the student’s opinion of the difficulty of the course. If there are – if any percentage of the course grade is tied to actually watching the video.” The course grade is often influenced by participation in the class and understanding of the material. Tommy further explained his decision-making process when he said, “So if it’s an attendance-based video, and there’s a way to check that I’m watching it, I’m going to watch it. And if it’s a hard class that I feel like I need extra help on, I’m definitely going to watch it. If it’s an easy class, there’s no attendance, probably not going to watch it.” Dillon said, “If I’m really unfamiliar with it, and it’s something I need to know, like the teacher says there’s going to be a quiz, or this will be on your test, make sure you know it. Then, I’ll absolutely sit down and watch it.” Students have limited time for all their required schoolwork, jobs, and extracurricular activities, so the length of the video is an important part of their decision to watch an instructional video. Students reported that they are more likely to watch instructional videos that are useful and short. When asked how she decides whether to watch a video, Erin said, “The length of the video. Also, like the importance of the video.” Jessica responded, “How long it is. If it’s a long video, I’ll probably close my laptop and say I’ll come back to this later.” To decide whether to watch an instructional video, students may check out the video to see if it will meet their needs and is worth their time. Jessica said, “Usually I always click the link, and I may watch a few minutes, and if then I decide this is kind of boring, or I’ve already learned this or something like that…it’s monotonous, then I am more likely to X out of it.” Students may choose to discontinue use if they realize they do not need to watch the video because they already know the information or the video is not enjoyable. Even if a video is needed for a class, students reported that they cannot watch boring videos. Melissa stated, “It was so monotone and so boring that I just could not…I needed the help in the class but to actually hear the guy talk on the video was absolutely boring, so I had to look at my…I looked to get the help that I needed elsewhere.” Melissa also stated that videos need to be appealing and said, “It could be excellent content, but if it doesn’t catch you in some way, it doesn’t matter the content because you’re not going to watch it.” Participants reported that instructional videos are more engaging when the videos include an enthusiastic speaker and dynamic visuals. Other aspects that influence the use of instructional videos are related to the online environment. When taking an online class, students are not confined to a physical classroom. Jessica gave an example of when she may stop using an instructional video. She said, “If I started the video and something else happened, like if I started the video and a roommate came and knocked on my door and said, hey we’re ordering pizza.” When taking an online class, students are not attending class at a specific time, so there is not a specific time set aside to watch instructional videos. Lindsey explained that she did not want to watch a video because it was late, and she wanted to take a shower and go to bed. Students also said that they may not watch a video because they are rushing to complete their assignments that are due. When focus group participant (FGP)1 was asked if he ever chose not to watch a video although he needed the information, he responded, “If I’m rushing to finish an assignment, maybe yeah, but usually I’ll try to watch them.” Students are more likely to watch instructional videos if they are taking an online class because they consider instructional videos to be the primary teaching tool. As FGP2 stated, “If it’s completely online, like you have to use instructional videos.” FGP2 also said, “If it’s like a 100% online class, I watch like every video unless it’s like an extra video for like practice, and I really understand it. Then I won’t. But if it’s like a in-person and half online, then half the time I won’t watch the videos unless I don’t understand.” Sarah reported that she is most likely to watch an instructional video for a flipped class if she knows that the class will be discussing the video during their next class. Students’ decision to use instructional videos is influenced by the class format. Besides choosing whether to use instructional videos, students choose how to use them. For example, Leslie said, “There’s different ways I will watch a video. The first time I’ll watch it, and I’ll give it my full attention, and like I’ll take notes.” Then, Leslie talked about replaying it, but this time she would only listen to it. Leslie explained that she uses instructional videos based on her needs. She stated, “It depends on how deep the course material is. Like, I might not have to rewatch a video on economics, the way I would have to anatomy. Anatomy – it’s a lot of deep concepts. It’s a lot of things to remember. That’s something I’ll watch over and over and over.” There are several time-saving strategies that students use when they need to use a video to fulfill class requirements, but they do not want to spend their time watching the videos. Students often speed up playback, especially for long videos. Dillon said, “If they become too long, then I either put it on 1.5 times and speed it up or times 2 because I start to feel like I lose focus. If it’s really, really long, I’ll just make it really fast so I can just hit the highlights.” Although a few students reported slowing down playback speed, most students said that they consistently play videos at higher speeds. Students try to find the perfect speed that produces the most efficient learning session while also avoiding the high-pitched “chipmunk” voice. Students will employ other strategies as well to complete the task quicker. For example, FGP2 said, “I do put mine in fast speed too, and I’ll turn like the closed captioning on so I can just read it faster.” Jessica stated that she would “pull up the transcript, and I would control F looking for the keywords that I needed to find” so that she could complete the attached assignment. Students admitted that in certain situations, they click the play link, and then they walk away. Students do this if they are required to watch a video, but they do not feel that the video is necessary. When Erin was asked if she used the click and leave strategy, she responded, “Yeah, like every time.” Jessica described when she used the click and leave strategy, “I would turn it on and walk away and go do who knows what.” FGP4 reported that he was sometimes required to watch videos that did not allow students to fast forward. He said, “So sometimes I’ll just let it play all the way through. Go do whatever I want, and then when I’m done, I’ll go back through and then watch instead of the whole hour-long video, I’ll watch the 10, 15 minutes of the stuff that I really needed to know.” Students reported that they often use instructional videos as podcasts, especially if the visual component is not essential for understanding or if the video is long or boring. Students will listen to videos as they do other homework, use their phone, do chores, play games, listen to music, eat, do an activity with their hands, or commute. If they hear something that they need to know, they may pause the video and write down the important information. Participants reported that they use instructional videos to achieve their goals. Participants use different strategies to obtain the information that they need and have time for other activities. Sarah stated this explicitly, “And so for me, my goal is to get the information that I need in the time, like the least amount of time that it can, so that I can also fill my other obligations. But that being said, I'm always going to do the exact amount of work it takes to, like make an A which I think clearly is seen, in my opinion, towards videos and stuff, like... If it's needed, I want to watch it. If it's not, then I don't.” Ease of Use Participants reported that they expected instructional videos to be easy to use, so they did not consider ease of use when deciding whether to watch a video. As FGP1 said, “I think they’re pretty easy. Usually, they’re integrated into the class, so you don’t have to go to an outside link or anything, usually pretty quickly you can watch the videos.” However, students who have experienced difficulties with accessibility reported frustration. For example, FGP7 said, “it just gets so frustrating like, well, I don’t even want to watch this video anymore, like it was so hard to get to in the first place.” In response to this statement, FGP8 said, “Mine have always been really easy to find.” Challenges with accessibility were often related to specific platforms or third-party sites that were difficult to navigate. Fortunately, most students reported that most of their instructors provide user-friendly links that are embedded in their learning management system on the online class webpage. Leslie talked about missing instructional videos that were embedded because she did not realize the link was for a video. She said that had she known the links were videos, she would have watched them. Leslie recommended posting a thumbnail picture because “If I see that, and it’s like grabbing my attention, I am actually more likely to click on it.” Erin reported Wi-Fi issues in her area and said that long videos were sometimes difficult to load. Lindsey suggested that instructors provide alternative YouTube links if possible, in case the embedded link does not work. Besides being accessible and user-friendly, videos need to be functional. Although most students reported that they could easily see and hear the information, students reported that they have experienced videos that would pause due to technical issues with the video or that were difficult to see and hear. For example, if an instructor writes on a board in a classroom, the writing may be too small to read on a video, or captions may cover the information at the bottom of the screen. If an instructor provides commentary during an existing video, the audio needs to be adjusted appropriately. FGP3 stated, “sometimes those are really just terrible quality because they’re trying to screen record a YouTube video, and you can’t hear anything that they’re saying.” Tommy talked about static in the microphone, the volume being too high or too low, and difficulty understanding the instructor because the instructor was talking too fast. He suggested reviewing a video after recording it to make sure it is well done. If the video quality is poor, the students are more likely to discontinue watching the video. Ease of use includes the accessibility and usability of instructional videos. Instructional videos are accessible if the videos can be easily played without any issues. Instructional videos are usable if the information on the video can be clearly seen and heard. Enjoyment Most participants stated that they preferred instructional videos over other learning methods. When Mandy was asked if she enjoyed instructional videos, she responded, “I do. I prefer them over reading a textbook.” Mandy also said, “I like the visuals, and I also like somebody explaining it, so I tend to enjoy having the videos over just a written body of text.” However, even if a student enjoys instructional videos, some videos are not enjoyable, so the student may choose to stop watching the video. Allie said, “I always click on the videos just to see. I can’t think of a time that I don’t, just cause I enjoy watching videos, but sometimes, if they talk really slow, or they …it’s kind of bland information, then I will not watch the video.” Jessica said that she would not watch an instructional video “if I turn it on and whoever speaking has just an annoying voice, or if it’s just hard to listen to them, hard to pay attention because some people just don’t have good remote-learning voices.” Understanding what students mean when they discuss enjoying videos is difficult because the term enjoyment has different meanings. People may enjoy an experience because it is fun, interesting, positive, or helpful. For example, Lindsey said, “I don’t enjoy instructional videos. It’s school,” but she later said, “I enjoy them and the fact that I can learn how to do what I need to do to raise my grade.” FGP3 stated, “the ones that I find useful and that I enjoy are the videos that provide like a big picture overview of whatever concepts I’m learning in detail in a textbook.” Students may also have a mindset that schoolwork is not supposed to be enjoyable. When Isaiah was asked if he enjoyed instructional videos, he immediately responded, “No;” however, he later said, “Actually, I’m going to recant the previous statement. I have watched calculus videos for fun because I love calculus. I think it’s very interesting.” He did not watch the calculus videos for a class, and he said that he does not usually watch supplemental videos for a class. Students may approach online classwork as a series of tasks that must be completed regardless of whether the tasks will be enjoyable. As Jessica said, “With the PowerPoint, you know you’re there to learn, and you know that this is a topic that I’ve got to get through for this class.” Research participants described aspects that contribute to enjoyable videos. Students reported that they enjoyed videos that were about interesting topics. Allie said, “If it’s a topic that interests me, that’s all the more reason for me to watch it, and I’ll actually enjoy watching it, rather than stressing I need to get this information, I need to retain this information, if it’s a grade.” Leslie said, “I look up other instructional videos for fun, like just to see, like to learn what I want to know.” These examples demonstrate that students find some instructional videos to be interesting. Real-life applications increase enjoyment. For example, students enjoy hearing real-life stories. Jessica talked about an instructor who was a great storyteller as he described his experiences in the real world, and she said, “It felt like I was talking to somebody and learning somebody’s life experience.” Students also enjoy seeing real-life applications. Tommy stated, “I was motivated to watch it to help further motivate myself in the class, to see applications in the real world.” Tommy also stated that “It’s been entertaining” to watch videos of real-life applications. Students prefer videos that are short and fun. When asked if she enjoyed instructional videos, Jessica said, “Yeah, ones especially that put a fun spin on it, like the Crash Course videos. There’s fun - fun animations, fun storytelling; the narrator is super engaging.” When Erin was asked if she enjoyed anything about an instructional video, she stated, “if it’s like a subject I’m really interested in. I will also like if a professor’s dog shows up. It’s like 10 out of 10.” When discussing video links not working, Mandy said, “I guess if it’s like an additional fun video, it’s not the end of the world because it’s not needed to do an assignment or not really needed to retain certain information that we need for the topic, it’s just more of like a fun thing, like the theater videos were more just like for fun.” Most codes for enjoyment were related to the instructor’s presentation style. Students prefer instructors who demonstrate enthusiasm for their topic by speaking with excitement. Isaiah said, “I think that voice is the biggest factor for these online videos for sure.” Leslie stated, “it’s something about the voice too, like if they’re understanding, like if they sound like a compassionate person.” Instructors need to be intentional about demonstrating that they care about the students and the topic. Jessica stated, “So I feel like a lot of times teachers don’t put a lot of effort for me” and “There’s not a lot of effort put in to make it fun and engaging.” On the other hand, FGP7 said, “You’re not just doing it cause you’re drawing a paycheck, you’re doing it because you want to teach us something you know. You put your time and effort into this.” Tommy stated, “When they’re good, good thought is put into them, and the professor actually cares about it, they’re really good.” Dillon provided an example of a video that was enjoyable when he said, “like the guy shocking himself in our favorite videos. Those are pretty enjoyable because I mean not only am I learning about the physics behind it and like circuits and things, but, you know, he brings a lot of humor into it too, which is really enjoyable.” FGP9 said, “I would have professors that would use GIFs on different slides to like make it funny and like that always made me really happy.” Adding these elements makes watching instructional videos a more positive experience. In contrast, most students talked about boring and monotonous instructional videos. Students do not like to hear instructors using a monotone voice or reading off of a PowerPoint. When describing an instructor who was difficult to listen to, Melissa said, “Didn’t seem like his mindset was I’m talking to my students. I’m just talking to my screen.” Students do not like monotonous videos or when instructors repeat themselves because the students can rewatch if they need something repeated. As Leslie explained, “Wasting time is when they’re repeating something over and over. I know that’s how you remember, but I’m going to go back and watch this video again.” Students may not expect to be entertained by instructional videos, but they enjoy videos that are helpful. Participants reported that they enjoyed videos that included real-life applications. The enjoyment of instructional videos is increased when the instructor sounds enthusiastic about the topic, includes humor, incorporates dynamic visuals, and seems to care about the students. Usefulness Students consider instructional videos useful if the instructional videos serve a purpose, such as helping students achieve their learning goals. Students consider instructional videos to not only be useful but a necessary component of online education because the instructional video substitutes for the face-to-face class lecture. Melissa said, “I think in this day and age, it’s probably not even an extra anymore or a supplement. I think it’s a…go with…so you have your textbook, but you need the video, some sort of videos to go with.” Mandy stated that she expected to receive instructional videos for a class “But it’s more of a self, you have to learn it yourself through the textbook, or they’ll send you a PowerPoint slide that you have to read and take notes on, but there’s not usually an instructor doing any type of teaching with that.” Research participants described many ways that instructional videos are useful. Instructional videos provide information, explanations, and demonstrations. Instructional videos help students earn the grade that they desire, and they allow students to individualize their learning sessions. Instructional videos may also increase student motivation and engagement and decrease anxiety. Research participants reported that instructional videos are useful for providing the information that students need to be successful in their classes. For example, when Leslie described videos that were very good and had been “hand cherry picked” by her instructor, she said that videos “all had like different styles, but like they had the most information, and they had the best way of relaying it.” Students appreciate the usefulness of videos in explaining concepts in ways that text cannot. FGP2 stated, “Sometimes the problems in the book aren’t as explanatory, they’re kind of harder to figure out.” Students use instructional videos to clarify and enhance understanding quickly because instructional videos can provide step-by-step explanations, demonstrations, and animations of complex processes. Mandy said that certain videos are useful, “Especially ones that have like visuals in it, like my theater class when they’re showing what they’re talking about or in the biology class where they’re showing the process of the energy flow in an organism and explaining it. I’m seeing it happen at the same time they’re talking.” Although instructional videos have the benefit of showing processes, instructors must also explain the concepts and processes well for instructional videos to be the most useful. Jessica described a favorite instructor by saying, “He was really great at breaking it down in simple words and giving really great analogies and relating it to previous topics.” Tommy said that he appreciates instructors’ videos in which “the lectures have been very good, and so I’ve known I can trust them for the test and to pass the course, and I don’t need the textbook.” Students consider instructional videos to be optimally useful if the information in the video is specifically needed for the learning objectives for their class. Students do not want extra, unnecessary information. In addition, students prefer that the video covers all the information that is needed on the topic. Students do not want to guess what else they need to know and search for more information. Videos that provide only the information needed and all the information needed is considered valuable. Therefore, students are more likely to watch videos that were recorded by their teacher. Students expect that their teacher will cover the specific material that their teacher wants them to know. As FGP4 said, “I would rather have someone tell me how to do something when they’re going to be grading that same thing a week later, rather than some online video covering every single topic when I don’t even know if everything on that video is going to be on the exam or final.” Instructional videos are useful for increasing student engagement. Leslie repeatedly mentioned engagement as important, and she described how she experienced engagement when she stated, “I didn’t have to actually physically engage with the video. I just had to listen, but it doesn’t feel like I’m just sitting there listening. I feel involved, by the drawings, and you know they might ask a question.” Dillon also repeatedly mentioned that instructional videos need to be engaging. Dillon said, “But if they can add some sort of like animation to the PowerPoints, those are pretty helpful. They again keep you engaged.” Mandy also emphasized engagement and stated, “With a video, I feel like I’m constantly engaged, especially ones that have like visuals in it.” When Jessica described an engaging speaker, she said, “He had really great charisma with the camera, like he looked at the camera, looked directly at it when he was talking to the camera. I felt like he was talking at you, felt like you were sitting in a class.” FGP2 recommended that instructors provide worksheets to go with their instructional videos to increase engagement. Interacting with students, adding animations, looking at the camera, and providing worksheets may increase engagement. Instructional videos may also be useful for motivating students to learn. Tommy talked about watching videos of professionals applying concepts in his major, and he stated, “It’s been entertaining and kind of a motivator to like want to understand what all is going on.” Other participants talked about videos that portrayed real-life applications, which inspired them to learn more. In addition, instructional videos provide students with access to experts, specialized equipment or environments, and other experiences. Instructional videos may be useful for decreasing anxiety. For example, Mandy stated that she wished there were videos for labs that she is required to do for her online biology class. She said, “There’s no video explaining like, or showing what like, I wish there was a picture to show you what the mixture should look like after you combined everything, or like, just at certain points, especially like what it’s supposed to look like because if I did it wrong, I don’t know. I just kind of like hope I did it right and take a picture and be like OK, I hope this is right.” She later stated, “I had a lot of anxiety about that.” Instructional videos are also useful because students can use them to individualize their learning. Isaiah said, “I was able to press play and watch it at my own pace and take notes at my own pace.” Students can choose to rewatch, rewind, skip parts, and pause, depending on their needs. Students can focus on concepts that they do not know, while skipping concepts that they already know. When students were asked whether instructional videos were useful, they stated that some videos were not useful. Jessica said, “There’s definitely some that I’ve seen that I got to the end of the video, and I had to go right back to the beginning and try to watch it again because I realized I didn’t pay attention at all.” Instructional videos are not considered useful if the student does not need to watch the video to achieve the student’s educational goal. Students also feel that instructional videos are not useful for teaching certain subjects adequately. Isaiah said, “Sometimes the professors’ videos are not great, like they’re not useful enough to understand the material or the problems, and they might not give you the conceptual understanding you need. So that’s what I think about when I think of, hey, was their video actually useful to you? And sometimes they’re not.” Students may perceive an instructional video as not useful if they already know the material or if they already have the information. FGP5 said, “I guess it has a lot to do with like 1. Do I already know it?” Students said that some classes were mostly discussions and did not require them to learn specific, new information, so videos were not needed. The information may be redundant because the instructor provided the information in another form, such as a document or PowerPoint. Students appreciate when instructors provide their PowerPoints with and without narration. If the PowerPoint slides without narration are self-explanatory, then students will sometimes choose not to watch the PowerPoint with narration. If the student’s grade would not be affected by watching the instructional video, the student may perceive the video as not useful. Mandy explained, “I think it depends on the student too because some students would just kind of glance over instructional videos, be like it’s not really important, I’ll just read the textbook,” while other students prefer to learn from videos. If a student watches a video, and then the video is not discussed or used for test questions, the student may feel that they wasted their time. FGP9 said that she would not watch future videos for the class “even if other ones are useful” if she felt like she wasted her time previously. Students must balance the perceived usefulness of the video and the time that they are willing to spend on a class. If they are doing well in a class, they may choose to skip the video since it is not necessary for reaching their educational goals. Students do not feel the need to watch supplemental instructional videos, especially ones that do not have new information, and students become frustrated when mandated to spend their time watching them. Lindsey stated, “And if I can just figure out how to write about it without having to watch the video, I’ll just write about it and not watch the video because I’ve got other classes.” Students reported that instructional videos were not useful for certain subjects. Students feel that some subjects need hands-on learning, like nursing. Students reported difficulty with engaging with certain instructional videos. For example, a focus group participant and an interviewee talked about taking yoga online. Using a video for yoga class did not feel the same as doing yoga at a relaxing and spacious yoga studio. Instructional videos are not useful if the instruction is not adequate. Students do not appreciate or use instructional videos with instructors who speak with a monotone voice and are not passionate about their topics. When discussing instructors who demonstrate no enthusiasm, FGP7 explained, “If you don’t want to be doing it, why do you think I want to be learning it?” Students dislike when instructors do not explain and break down the concepts. An instructional video is not useful if the instructor provides incorrect information, outdated information, or does not provide information that aligns with standardized tests. Leslie said, “I’ve only had a few videos I’ll go, umm, I’m sorry this is not helping me.” She was referring to videos that have a static picture that does not adequately portray the complex concept. Leslie later stated, “I can’t waste 30 minutes on something I will not remember.” Students recognize that instructional videos are useful, but they also recognize that some videos are more useful than others, and some seem unnecessary. Overall, students consider instructional videos to be a necessary component of online learning. As Lindsey said, “I would rather somebody explain it to me, than, OK, read the notes. Let me know.” She also stated, “You can watch the video, or they can turn you loose with the lecture notes and hope.” Allie stated, “For me personally, they’re useful because I struggle to learn many other ways…reading is difficult for me, so I would 100% prefer videos because they keep my interest better.” Video learning also increases emotional understanding. Melissa described an instructional video and said, “it was about play therapy and how to reach these kids that have been abused, so even though I wouldn’t call it enjoyable, it was relevant and memorable and probably taught better than the textbook, just reading it because you get the, I think too, with the videos, you get the emotion.” Compared to other learning methods, instructional videos offer an increased understanding of complex processes and lived experiences. Students also appreciate having free personal tutors 24 hours a day. Jessica stated, “There was a couple of guys that I would watch all the time just because they were so knowledgeable on the topic, and they explained it so clearly, so they were always my go-to videos.” Instructional videos are useful because they provide learning opportunities that other learning methods do not. On the other hand, there are negatives for video learning. Lindsey stated, “You can’t replicate the face to face.” She went on to explain that in face-to-face situations, the instructor and the student can work together if the student is having difficulty, but with videos, “We’re going to cover everything, and we’re going to hope” because there is no opportunity for questions. Sarah discussed the automatic encoding that occurs in casual face-to-face conversations versus the challenges of learning from instructional videos, and she said, “I feel like eye contact’s something big you’re missing and at least personally, I definitely feel the deficit. I feel like I have to work harder to like focus in on the information and retain the information.” Participants reported that instructional videos can be very useful; however, some instructional videos are not useful. Useful videos provide the specific information needed, and videos can help students understand complex concepts and processes. Instructional videos allow students to individualize their learning and may increase students’ motivation and confidence. However, instructional videos that do not provide new and necessary information in an engaging way are not useful. Length of Video According to the research participants’ statements, the length of instructional videos influences the use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos. Students prefer short videos and are more likely to use short videos. Students’ definitions of short and long videos vary. FGP2 said that instructional videos are long if they are “longer than 5 minutes or 10.” Dillon said, “Long is probably anything longer than 15–20 minutes. Once you start getting past that, I think it’s pretty long. Short would be 6–7 minutes or less.” Based on the data for this study, students consider short videos to be 5–30 minutes. When students log into their online class, they look to see how long the assigned videos are. Students tend to postpone or ignore longer videos. Jessica said, “Sitting there trying to watch an hour-long video or even a 30-minute-long video, just I always felt like there was other things I could be doing.” Students also reported that they are more likely to get on their phones if they are watching a long video. Most participants reported that they would prefer six 5-minute videos instead of one 30-minute video; however, several preferred the longer video. Students who prefer multiple, shorter videos reported that they could manage their time better with shorter videos, and they could check off the videos as they watched them. In addition, students would not have to complete the video in one sitting or try to decide when to pause a long video since there may not be a natural break. Students also like the idea of multiple short videos on specific topics. Students like topic-specific videos because it is easier to go back and reference by topic, and students believe that instructors are more likely to stay on topic when making short videos on a specific topic. Leslie said, “I know it’s going to be more effective if it’s sectioned. It’s going to be more information. It’s going to be worth listening to.” Jessica said, “It was just that one specific topic or that one specific part of the problem that I was watching, so it’s easier to digest and easier to pay attention and focus.” As far as the difference in total time for the one long video versus multiple shorter videos, Melissa stated, “It’s stupid because yeah, time wise it took longer. It’s just that I had those 20-minute segments to watch, instead of an hour segment to watch.” However, other students prefer one link because they feel it is less overwhelming. FGP8 pointed out that she could put a longer video at double speed and finish more quickly. These students feel that it easier to manage their time for one video, and they can pause and time stamp the video. Tommy said, “If it’s going to be the same total amount either way, I’d rather have it just wrapped into one video.” Erin said, “If I see like too many videos like on my screen, I’m not going to watch all of them. I’m being honest, like I’m not going to sit there and watch all of them.” Students do not feel that instructional videos should be as long as in-person lectures. They feel that sitting in front of a computer for multiple classes is difficult. Students pointed out that during in-person lectures, there are breaks and distractions, such as when other students ask questions, or the class does an activity. Students also have a different mindset for in-person classes. For in-person classes, they sign up for a specific class time, so they expect to be in class for that length of time. However, students expect instructional videos to be shorter since they also have other activities to do in addition to the lecture. During focus group three, FGP8 emphatically stated that professors should not make lecture videos that exceed the allotted time for the seated class, and her group members agreed. Students feel that they are better able to sustain attention and will retain more information for a short video rather than a long video. FGP9 stated, “I feel like any video that was 15 minutes or shorter or even 20 minutes or shorter, I feel like I got more out of, and I learned a lot more from versus the videos that were an hour long, even if there was more information because it was just like, I don’t know, I feel like my brain was able to retain more from those shorter videos.” FGP7 said, “I’m gonna get every piece of information from this while I’m watching this 10-minute video versus like, OK, I got 45 minutes to watch this. And you know, maybe I look at my phone while it’s playing cause I’m still going to see most of it.” Research participants often talked about the length of instructional videos. During focus group 1, FGP1 mentioned time-saving strategies including fast forwarding and speeding up the playback speed and said that a long video was “longer than five minutes or 10.” When the two participants in focus group 1 were asked what they disliked about instructional videos, FGP2 said, “just don’t make them an hour long.” During focus group 2, participants were asked what factors contribute to whether they choose to use an instructional video, and FGP3 stated that he decided based on whether it is required “and number two, like how long is the video.” FGP5 said, “If like I’m slammed, midterms are coming up, I don’t have time to watch an hour-long video on something.” FGP4 talked about using time-saving strategies. During focus group 3, the length of the video was brought up by FGP7 and later by FGP9. FGP7 emphatically nodded her head when FGP8 talked about the length of the video. This moderator then asked about length since two of the three participants had mentioned it. There were nine contributions related to length and then the conversation turned to multi-tasking, which is also related to time. Students suggest that instructional videos be as concise as possible. Some students prefer that instructors eliminate or keep the introduction to a minimum and eliminate the time taken to state the objectives. These students want the instructor to get to the point, quickly explain the topic, and end the video. Students suggest that instructors do one example, and then put more examples and other extra help in a supplemental optional video. On the other hand, one interviewee, who was an education major, disagreed because she stated that she likes objectives and believes they are important. Although students said that they can speed through unimportant parts if needed, most students agreed that it would be great if instructors edit out fumbling, retrieving items, turning the camera on and off, or other unnecessary parts. However, Sarah said, “Obviously, there’s very good reasons to edit videos, but if there’s not a necessarily needed reason, and you need to go take a sip of water, or like move something, or grab a sheet of paper, I think you should leave it in so that it feels more true to how actual like in-person classes are.” The length of the video influences how students use instructional videos, so this theme addresses research question one, “How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?” When instructional videos are long, students choose not to watch them, they use strategies to speed them up, and they are more likely to do another unrelated activity while listening to the video. Because students do not like long videos and may choose not to use them, the usefulness of the video is affected. Therefore, this theme also addresses research question two, “How do online undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos?” In addition, students’ enjoyment of instructional videos is influenced by students’ preferences for short, concise, and topic-specific videos. Video Characteristics The theme, video characteristics, describes different aspects of instructional videos, including the type of instructional video. These characteristics relate to students’ perceptions about usefulness and enjoyment. These characteristics also influence how students interact with instructional videos. Students reported watching many types of instructional videos, including teacher-made videos and nonteacher-made videos. The nonteacher-made videos included videos that were professionally made and videos made by other instructors or lecturers. Students reported that the type of instructional video that they watched the most was narrated PowerPoints. The instructor’s face was sometimes shown but often the instructor was not seen. Other types of teacher-made instructional videos that the participants had been exposed to include narrated reviews of documents, classroom lectures, teacher talking with no text, recorded online conference (Zoom) sessions, lab demonstrations, composite videos with the instructor on one side of the screen and the slideshow on the other side, videos with the instructor narrating over a preexisting video, assignment videos, videos that provided an overview of a chapter or unit, problem-solving videos using a whiteboard, smartboard, or other screen, and videos that combined narrated PowerPoint slides with a whiteboard feature. Nonteacher-made videos included videos from other instructors or colleges, videos from online textbooks, TV shows, movies, performances, Crash Course, Khan academy, YouTube, TedTalks, Nearpod, videos of real-life applications, videos that utilize computer-assisted drawings during narration, videos that incorporate songs to aid memorization, and animations. Students prefer videos that were specifically made for online viewing as opposed to videos that were recorded during a classroom lecture. With classroom lecture videos, online viewers may not be able to see and hear well. Also, the instructor is pacing the class specifically for the in-person students, and the instructor is interacting with the face-to-face students rather than the online students. Students reported that teacher-made, course-specific instructional videos are particularly useful. For example, Erin stated, “If it’s like my weekly instructions, then I’ll watch it. But if it’s like a, like if you post the lecture slides, but then you also post a video of you going through the lecture slides, I’m not going to watch.” FGP3 said, “The ones I find useful and that I enjoy are the videos that provide like a big picture overview.” FGP3 added, “saying this is a topic for this chapter and here’s a definition that might be confusing, and I’ll explain it, and then here’s the topic for the next chapter. And that usually just helps me like frame like, what do I need to pay attention to once I actually begin reading.” Participants said they will watch videos that explain upcoming assignments or provide weekly instructions, but students may prefer that the information is provided in a quick email if that is all that is needed. For the most part, students prefer videos that are made by their instructor. Students feel that their instructor will emphasize the concepts that they need to know, and test questions will be based on the information provided by the instructor. Also, the instructor may personalize the information for that specific group of students and provide explanations based on the students’ knowledge. However, sometimes students need to hear a different instructor explain a concept. As Jessica said, “Sometimes the way the professor explained it just was not how my brain worked.” Students may use the teacher-made videos to understand which concepts they need to know, and then they search for instructional videos that explain those concepts in a different way. If students are required to pass a standardized test, then they may prefer to learn from another source that will best prepare them for the exam. Therefore, in certain circumstances, students find nonteacher-made videos more useful. Students also appreciate when their instructor narrates over a pre-existing video. Their instructor can explain and clarify based on the students’ current understanding and backgrounds. Students also perceive this extra step as indicative of their instructor’s belief that the information in the video is important. Sarah said, “Prove that you care about the video. Either add yourself in it, add your thoughts, write something about it, but the lack of a personal touch makes it feel like my time is being wasted because you don’t care about it either.” Some instructional videos are more enjoyable than others. Participants reported positive learning experiences while watching Khan academy, some YouTube videos, TedTalks, and videos of real-life applications. An interviewee who was an education major talked about the advantages of using Nearpod because it provides interactive questions and activities throughout the video. Students like animations that help them understand and learn complex concepts and processes. Students also like lab videos because they feel more confident in their ability to complete the activity correctly. Students said that they like narrated PowerPoints, especially if animation is added. Students are more likely to watch the narrated PowerPoint if the instructor annotates by highlighting and pointing to things while talking. However, students will often not watch narrated PowerPoint videos if they have the PowerPoint slides that are self-explanatory. Some narrated PowerPoints show the teacher, while others do not. Research participants were divided between those who prefer to see the teacher, prefer not to see the teacher, or do not care. Some students said that they only want to see the information, and the instructor’s presence would be distracting. Others said that showing the instructor helps them to feel more connected with the instructor. Allie said, “Facial expressions go a long way, so if they like make a joke about something or explaining something, like seeing how passionate they are about their subject helps a lot. And just being able to see what the teacher looks like, to put a face to the name helps with online school especially.” Tommy pointed out that it is difficult to “get a feel for the professor when all it is is just a voice and then slides that are prewritten.” Students also like videos with step-by-step problem-solving displayed on a screen, such as a whiteboard. Instructors may solve mathematical problems using pre-drawn steps or by writing each step as they are solving the problem. FGP4 said, “It solely depends on the instructor and their handwriting, but yeah, I’d prefer if they did the steps because if they just show the steps, I know my eyes will generally go straight to the solution, and then I’ll get confused.” Jessica said, “The ones where I was watching problems be worked out, I was more likely to watch, whereas ones that were PowerPoint, and it was like a printed, like you would see the equation pop up, and then you’d see the next step and the next step, but it wasn’t them actually working it out. It was just the next slide. Those I always put on double speed and just zoomed through.” Students who prefer the steps to be written ahead point out that the steps are easy to read and are organized. Students prefer videos with text. For example, students like videos that have closed captioning or subtitles. Students also prefer PowerPoints to have as much text as possible so that the students can follow along as the instructor is talking. Students appreciate having this text to help them focus on the lecture. Jessica said, “I have to have subtitles on because it just keeps me so much more focused in on it.” Having text also helps when instructors are difficult to understand. Jessica stated, “I had one professor, I just didn’t watch his videos. I knew I wasn’t gonna understand what he was saying, so I skipped out on ‘em.” She stated that if text had been provided, she may have watched the videos. As FGP7 stated, “If a professor had a really thick accent, and I had a like, a difficult time understanding all the words that he was saying, I can look at the PowerPoints, kind of be like, OK, this is exactly what he’s talking about.” Students had several suggestions to improve instructional videos. Leslie stated, “I am more likely to click on it if I have a title, like if they’re telling me what I’m about to watch.” For labs, instructors should show the main steps and any tricky parts while making the video as short as possible. Students said that they do not like videos from online textbooks because the audio is often computer generated. Students do not like videos with static visuals or no visuals besides the instructor. Melissa said instructors should consider the background for the video because backgrounds can be distracting. Students think that some types of instructional videos are more useful than others, and some are more enjoyable than others. Types of instructional videos that are more useful are those that include information that is only available in the video, such as weekly assignment videos. Teacher-made instructional videos are useful because the content is more likely to match learning objectives; however, non-teacher made instructional videos may provide better explanations. As far as enjoyment, students prefer videos that have text and dynamic visuals, so they do not enjoy videos of the teacher talking without any text or pictures. Students also do not enjoy classroom lecture videos as much as videos that were made for online students. Student Factors Other influences on the use of instructional videos are related to student factors. Student factors include preferences, characteristics, behaviors, and motivations of undergraduate students. Participants frequently mentioned their time management and personal goals. Participants talked about not having time and not wasting time. For educational activities, students try to use time wisely and behave in ways that are the most efficient use of their time. Lindsey stated, “So if I can only spend, you know, like 20 minutes a day, maybe an hour a day, trying to get to the work that I have to do for that class, I don’t have to think about it the rest of the week.” Students want instructors to value their time. They do not want to have to watch unnecessary videos that are considered a waste of time. As FGP9 stated, “If this is like gonna waste my time, it cannot be a priority” to which FGP7 responded, “I agree.” Although students do not like being mandated to watch unnecessary videos, they appreciate having supplemental resources if needed. Students discussed multitasking, which relates to students’ time. Students acknowledged that multitasking is not always effective; however, they also claimed that sometimes multitasking helps them to focus. Allie said, “It’s difficult for me to just sit and watch the video unless it’s like very animated and like interesting. It’s hard for me to just sit and watch a video without doing anything.” Melissa stated, “In order to stay awake during the listening to a longer video especially, I would play the card games while I listen to whatever.” Depending on the task, multitasking while listening to an instructional video may or may not be helpful. Students who are more goal-oriented and set their goals high, such as earning an A in a class versus merely passing the class, are more likely to watch instructional videos. Students vary on their personal goals. Mandy stated, “Some people, I know for a fact they don’t, they don’t really care about you know passing a class or like whatever. It’s not the end of the world. If I get a D, I get a D, or if I get a C, I get a C.” However, other students want to earn an A. As FGP2 stated, “For making better grades, you’re probably watching everything and reading everything.” Participants in this study reported that they search for information or additional videos when needed. Tommy said, “So students who are self-motivated, who really want to get the good grade and to get a lot done, I think they’ll benefit a lot from instructional video setup courses,” but he also acknowledged that he has had friends that “will almost forget that they have an online course and slip up.” Personal goals may be more difficult to attain without accountability. Because online students are not sitting in a class with the instructor, the student does not feel pressured to look toward and focus on the instructor. The student can look at her phone without any disappointing looks from the instructor. Tommy said, “In person, you’re kind of forced to listen, but online you can turn the volume down. You can zone out, and you don’t have to take it in as well as you probably should.” Mandy stated, “I know some friends who will not watch the video, like they just do not want to watch the video, and I think it’s because they aren’t being held responsible in this sense to watch the video compared to like if you’re in-person and the teacher’s right in front of you, and you don’t have a notebook out, you don’t have a pencil out.” She goes on to say, “But with a lecture video that’s at home, you’re held responsible to watch that video to get the information. Nobody else is going to make you do it.” Student factors influence the use of instructional videos. Students decide whether to use instructional videos partly based on how much of their time that they are willing to spend on the video. Students’ personal goals, subsequent motivation, and lack of accountability influence their use of instructional videos. Discussion This qualitative descriptive study increased understanding of the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students. According to the TAM, ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment dictate usage of a technology; however, for the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students, it seems that usefulness and length are often the deciding factors. The TAM sometimes includes a distinction between the intention to use and actual use of a technology. To further understand the use of instructional videos, the intention to use and actual use of instructional videos need to be considered. The intention to use instructional videos is directly influenced by the usefulness, length, and occasionally, the expected enjoyment of the videos. Actual usage is influenced by the intention to use, ease of use if there are difficulties, and is further influenced by actual enjoyment. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the intention to use and actual use of instructional videos. Figure 1 Intention to Use and Actual Use of Instructional Videos Ease of use does not seem to be a deciding factor for the intention to use instructional videos because students expect videos to play without any problems. However, students described several situations that have occurred that impacted the accessibility or usability of instructional videos. Therefore, ease of use may influence actual use if challenges arise. In addition to considering intention to use and actual use, there are other influences to consider. Video characteristics influence usefulness and enjoyment. Instructor characteristics influence enjoyment and therefore usefulness. Student factors, including time availability and personal goals, influence the decision to use instructional videos. These influences on the use of instructional videos are illustrated in Fig. 2. Figure 2 Influences on the Use of Instructional Videos Use The use of instructional videos by online undergraduate students was not understood and needed to be explored to explain confusing and unexpected findings. Bordes et al. ( 2021 ) found that students did not actually use the instructional videos that they requested. Based on the participants in this current study, students do not use instructional videos if they already know the information or have access to the information in another format that requires less of their time. Therefore, it is not surprising that the students in the study by Bordes et al. did not use the instructional videos because the students were in a flipped classroom, so they were exposed to the information during their face-to-face sessions. In the study by Laster-Loftus and Cooper ( 2019 ), the researchers failed to find a statistically significant difference in grades between students who did and did not have access to videos. Again, based on the findings from this current study, students who had the information in other formats may not have used the videos. Also, 38.7% of the students who did not have access to the videos made an A in the class. If students did not perceive the class as difficult, they would not have watched the videos. Laugerman and Saunders ( 2019 ) found a negative correlation between the minutes spent using instructional videos and grades; however, when ACT scores were controlled, there was a weak positive correlation. Therefore, the researchers postulated that the students who had higher levels of math and reading comprehension were less likely to watch instructional videos for that class. This current study provided evidence for that conclusion since students reported that they do not watch instructional videos if they already know the information. Since the students in Laugerman and Saunders’s study were in a traditional face-to-face classroom, the students were exposed to the information during class. In the study by Harrison ( 2020 ), students reported that the talking head type of instructional video was the most effective, but the students watched that format the least. The talking head video was described as “short videos of academics talking to camera from a script on a subject” (Harrison, 2020 , p. 267). Although this researcher did not see an example of the type of video being described, the description implies that the videos displayed a speaker with no screens or other dynamic visuals. Based on the findings from this current study, students dislike instructional videos with only the instructor’s face visible. Students will not watch a video if it is considered boring, even if the information in the video is needed. Therefore, the findings in this study are consistent with Harrison’s finding that students may not watch a certain type of video even if students believe that it contains the information needed. Finally, Mayer et al. ( 2020 ) recommended that additional research on instructional videos be conducted in the natural environment to determine the aspects of instructional videos that contribute to increases in learning. The dynamic drawing principle (Mayer et al., 2020 ) was supported by this current study since students usually prefer that instructors draw steps as they explain them. However, a student who prefers pre-drawn steps stated that the instructor’s handwriting could influence the experience. For laboratory studies, researchers would need to include quick drawings that may not be as well organized or as clearly written since students may experience these conditions in actual instructional videos. Ease of Use The ease of use of instructional videos depends on accessibility and functionality. Nagy ( 2018 ) and Turan & Cetintas ( 2020 ) found that ease of use was not related to the use of instructional videos. The findings from this study also suggest that ease of use does not influence the intention to use. Enjoyment There is limited research on students’ enjoyment of instructional videos. According to Campbell et al. ( 2019 ), students often prefer instructional videos over other types of learning methods. Most of the research participants in this study agree. Rosenthal and Walker ( 2020 ) stated that students in their study reported more positive experiences for in-person learning. Participants in this current study described positives and negatives for in-person versus video learning. Based on the large number of participants’ responses related to instructor characteristics, instructors have a large impact on students’ enjoyment of instructional videos. This finding aligns with Utz and Wolfers ( 2020 ) and Harrison ( 2020 ). Utz and Wolfers found that the strongest predictor of perceived usefulness and intention to use YouTube how-to videos was instructor quality. Harrison reported that instructor quality was the most important factor. Participants in this study reported that they would not watch a video even if they needed to watch it if the instructor used a monotone voice and did not engage with the students making the video boring. Usefulness Findings from this study strongly suggest that the usefulness of instructional videos is a deciding factor for the use of instructional videos. Therefore, the relationship between usefulness and use shown in the TAM is supported by this study. Pal and Patra ( 2021 ) and Nagy ( 2018 ) found that usefulness was related to use; however, Turan and Cetintas (202) did not. Turan and Cetintas conducted their study with students in a flipped classroom, so the students were exposed to concepts during their face-to-face sessions. Therefore, students may not have valued the information and may have been reluctant to spend their time outside of class watching videos. The findings from this study suggest that students consider most instructional videos to be useful. The data from this study supports other studies since participants suggested that instructional videos increase motivation (Caskurlu et al., 2021 ; Fyfield et al., 2019 ; Laugerman & Saunders, 2019 ), confidence (Laugerman & Saunders, 2019 ), and engagement (Fyfield et al., 2019 ). On the other hand, participants said that some instructional videos are not useful. For example, videos are not useful if students already know the information or have the information. The findings from this study can also be used to support principles related to the usefulness of instructional videos. Mayer ( 2021 ) used the cognitive load theory to develop principles related to the usefulness of instructional videos. To decrease extraneous overload, Mayer suggested that instructors highlight information as they explain concepts. The benefit of cueing students toward important information is called the signaling principle (Mayer, 2021 ). The findings in this study support the signaling principle. To decrease essential overload, Mayer suggests dividing information into smaller topics. The findings from this study also support Mayer’s segmenting principle. To increase generative processing, Mayer ( 2021 ) suggests the personalization, voice, and image principles. The personalization principle proposes that students benefit when instructors use first and second person to create a more personal style of teaching. The voice principle promotes using a human voice, and the image principle encourages instructors to use gestures and look at the camera to establish eye contact. The findings from this study support all of these principles. Mayer ( 2021 ) and Beheshti et al. ( 2018 ) seem to disagree on the amount of text that should be on videos. Mayer says that the modality principle suggests that instructors use narration rather than extra text to provide information. Mayer et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that subtitles be used for students who have a different native language. Beheshti et al. promote text and captions. The findings from this study support Beheshti et al. Students prefer to have text on PowerPoints so that they know what to write down and can follow along. This preference may relate to extraneous overload as students try to filter through the narration provided by their instructors searching for the important details. Mayer ( 2021 ) acknowledges that his principles are mostly based on laboratory experiments, so Mayer encourages studies that are conducted in natural environments. In this current study that asks students about their thoughts and behaviors in real online classes, students said that following along with text on PowerPoints or subtitles helps students to focus on the information in the video. In a natural environment, students may not be as focused while being at home with the many distractions that occur. In a laboratory setting, students may find it easier to temporarily focus while participating in an experiment. Therefore, the debate about adding text to slides may be related to differences in laboratory and natural environments. Unfortunately, this study was not able to provide clarification on the topic of teacher presence. Some participants prefer the teacher to be seen and heard, while others prefer that the camera focuses solely on the information. Some participants want to feel connected to the instructor, while others want to focus on the material. Although many research studies have investigated the impact of teacher presence, findings have been mixed. Therefore, the findings in this study are consistent with the literature. This study may provide an explanation for the mixed results found in studies that compare the retention of information for in-person learning versus video learning. Martin et al. ( 2019 ) reported that individuals performed better with video learning. Schnee et al. ( 2019 ) found that students were more successful in in-person classes. The study by Martin et al. ( 2019 ) was a one-day laboratory experiment, while the study by Schnee et al. ( 2019 ) used a natural environment. In the study by Schnee et al., students had to watch lengthy videos on their own time. The findings from this study would suggest that the students may not have watched the video if they did not think it was needed or if it was lengthy. Therefore, the participants in the study by Schnee et al. may not have performed as well because in a natural environment, participants are less likely to watch the video. The differences in in-person and video learning were discussed by the research participants in this study. Participates said that video learning can be superior to face-to-face learning because students can individualize their learning sessions. However, research participants also said that learning from videos requires more intentional effort. As a participant stated, students in in-person classes are expected to look at the instructor and listen, while students online can look at their phones and do other tasks while the video lecture plays. If little effort is put into learning, students will learn more in the in-person environment because they see and hear the instructor during the designated class time. This observation could explain the differences in learning between studies that require individuals to try to complete short learning tasks in a laboratory during a set time and studies that investigate learning in more natural environments with no set time to watch the videos. In addition, the video deficit effect may contribute to the decrease in video learning. Some scholars report that the video deficit effect is only applicable to very young children; however, others have suggested that some aspects may continue to influence learning into adulthood (Strouse & Samson, 2021 ). One of the research participants talked about learning from information shared by other people in social situations. Her comments support the cooperation principle for communication, in which people enter a social partnership. She also mentioned the importance of eye contact. As Strouse and Samson ( 2021 ) point out, learning is more difficult without cues that indicate what information is important. Research participants in this study discussed the importance of these cues, and they stated that they prefer when their instructors provide these cues. Length of Video The length of videos has been discussed as an important factor in the literature related to the use of instructional videos (Beheshti et al., 2018 ; Bordes et al., 2021 ; Harrison, 2020 ), but the length is not a construct in the TAM. Because the TAM applies to any type of technology, length is not a component. If Pal and Patra ( 2021 ), who used the TAM and TTF model to investigate the use of instructional videos, had included length as a factor, they may have explained a higher amount of the variance. Participants in this study reported that they often speed up instructional videos, which aligns with the findings in a study by Wilson et al. ( 2018 ). Research participants said they are reluctant to watch long videos. Research participants prefer short videos, as corroborated by other studies (Bordes et al., 2021 ; Mustafa et al., 2021 ). As Bordes et al. ( 2021 ) found, research participants’ preferences for the length of instructional videos varied in this study too. Students want short videos, but they also want all the information needed. Video Characteristics Video characteristics refer to specific aspects of instructional videos and to the different types of instructional videos. According to Chorianopoulos ( 2018 ), students do not like videos of face-to-face class lectures. Participants in this study also expressed a dislike for videos of class lectures. A participant explained that instructors in videos of in-person class lectures are focused on the students in the class, and they pace the lecture based on those students. Student Factors Student factors focused on time management and motivation toward goals. As Martin et al. ( 2020 ) reported, time management is considered an important skill for online students. During this study, participants frequently discussed strategies related to time management that allowed students to use instructional videos in the most efficient way. In addition, participants said that being successful with video learning requires effort, which aligns with Dutton et al. ( 2019 ). Participants reported that they gained confidence when using instructional videos, which supports the increase in self-efficacy (Berga et al., 2021 ). Finally, participants reported increased motivation as discussed by Caskurlu et al. ( 2021 ) and Fyfield et al. ( 2019 ) and increased engagement (Fyfield et al., 2019 ). Limitations Only one student from each of the two community colleges completed an interview despite the combined number of students at these community colleges being close to 15,000 students. Using the various recruitment strategies, 34 potential participants clicked on the participation link, but only 20 completed an interview or focus group. Therefore, the 20 individuals who participated in an interview or focus group may not be representative of the population of undergraduate students. The students who agreed to participate and followed through with the online interview or focus group may have more initiative, motivation, and may be more likely to follow through with commitments than other individuals. This characterization is further supported by the sample’s data. Most participants had high GPAs and had taken many college classes. Therefore, a limitation of this study is that the sample may have low heterogeneity, which does not allow for a thorough exploration of the use of instructional videos. Conclusion This qualitative descriptive study on the use of instructional videos by online undergraduate students has produced important insights that contribute to the literature on this topic, provided effective strategies for instructors to better meet the needs of online students, and suggested future research to further the understanding of the use of instructional videos. As a result, instructional videos may become more useful and enjoyable, and thus, students may become more motivated and engaged. If online students have more positive experiences with instructional videos, their success may increase, and their drop-out rate could decrease. The findings from this study may be used to enhance learning experiences. There are some aspects that vary by student, such as teacher presence, multiple segmented videos or a single video, and the best length for instructional videos. However, there are other findings that are consistent across students. When using instructional videos, students should feel that their time is being well spent and that the instructor values the students’ time. Instructional videos should be specific to the learning objectives, contain all the information needed, and only the information needed. Therefore, teacher-made instructional videos are often preferred since the instructor can personalize the content. Videos should be as short and concise as possible. If an instructor uses a preexisting video, the instructor should narrate over it or provide notes about it to convey the importance of the video. Instructional videos should be designed so that they are visually appealing with dynamic visuals and animations. Text should be added to help students stay focused. Videos should provide real-life footage or stories. Speakers need to be enthusiastic about their topic and try to engage and interact with the online students, speaking to them as if they were talking to them in person. Instructors should make the videos enjoyable by adding creativity and humor. When instructors put in extra effort, students feel like their instructors care about the students and the topic. Finally, educators need to understand that students use multiple strategies to meet requirements without watching assigned videos. Therefore, instructors need to help students understand the value of the videos. Educators may want to consider how to motivate their students to engage with the videos, rather than trying to mandate usage by monitoring their usage behaviors, which may not be an accurate reflection of their actual behaviors. Future Research Future research should further explore these findings to confirm their accuracy and transferability. This study should be replicated with a different and more diverse sample. In addition, data analysis could be conducted by someone who is not familiar with the literature on the use of instructional videos. Then, the findings should be compared. In addition, a quantitative study could be conducted to investigate how much variance in the use of instructional videos can be explained using the influences identified in this study: usefulness, length, enjoyment, ease of use, video characteristics, and student factors. A study that uses a smartphone app to collect data at the time of the decision to use or not use an instructional video would be helpful. Finally, the findings from this study suggest that the video deficit effect may apply to adults as well as young children. To investigate this possibility, researchers could conduct an experiment that compares automatic encoding from a video and automatic encoding from an in-person conversation. Statements and Declarations The author has no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to this article. Excerpts from the data collected for this study are provided in the text and the appendix in this published article. 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(2022). “Stranger in a mask” midwives’ experiences of providing perinatal bereavement care to parents during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland: A qualitative descriptive study. Midwifery, 111. https://doi-org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.midw.2022.103356 Robinson, T. (2019). Using the technology acceptance model to examine technology acceptance of online learning technologies by non-traditional students. Journal of Educational Technology , 16 (1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.16.1.15826 Rosenthal, S., & Walker, Z. (2020). Experiencing live composite video lectures: Comparisons with traditional lectures and common video lecture methods. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14 (1). https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2020.140108 Schnee, D., Ward, T., Philips, E., Torkos, S., Mullakary, J., Tataronis, G., & Felix-Getzik, E. (2019). Effect of live attendance and video capture viewing on student examination performance. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 83 (6), 1200–1206. https://doi-org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.5688/ajpe6897 Schrader, C., Seufert, T., & Zander, S. (2021, May 28). Learning from instructional videos: Learner gender does matter; speaker gender does not. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 (655720). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655720 Stark, E. (2019). Examining the role of motivation and learning strategies in the success of online vs. face-to-face students. Online Learning, 23 (3). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i3.1556 Strouse, G. A., & Samson, J. E. (2021). Learning from video: A meta-analysis of the video deficit in children ages 0 to 6 years. Child Development, 92 (1), e20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13429 Stull, A. T., Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). An eye-tracking analysis of instructor presence in video lectures. Computers in Human Behavior, 88 , 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.019 Subsidies for Investigations. (1922). Elementary School Journal, 22 (9), 653. https://www.jstor.org/stable/995689 Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31 (2), 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 Turan, Z., & Cetintas, H. B. (2020). Investigating university students’ adoption of video lessons. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 35 (2), 122-139. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2019.1691518 Utz, S., & Wolfers, L. N. (2020). How-to videos on YouTube: The role of the instructor. Information, Communication & Society. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2020.1804984 Wang, F., Mayer, R. E., Li, W., & Liu, H. (2018). Animated pedagogical agents as aids in multimedia learning: Effects on eye-fixations during learning and learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110 (2), 250-268. https://doi-org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/edu0000221 Wang, J., Antonenko, P., & Dawson, K. (2020). Does visual attention to the instructor in online video affect learning and learner perceptions? An eye-tracking analysis. Computers & Education, 146 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103779 Wilson, K. E., Martin, L., Smilek, D., & Risko, E. F. (2018). The benefits and costs of speed watching video lectures. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 4 (4), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000127.supp Yi, T., Yang, X., Pi, Z., Huang, L., & Yang, J. (2019). Teachers’ continuous vs. intermittent presence in procedural knowledge instructional videos. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 56 (4), 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2018.1470020 Zielinski, D., Matthews, R., Koman, C., Jezik, K., & Kiel, E. (2018). College student feedback about librarian-created instructional videos: Why aren’t they using them? Journal of Library & Information Services in Distance Learning, 12 (1-2), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533290X.2018.1467811 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3832576","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":265055871,"identity":"e48879f6-34c0-4970-8470-d05e2c89f103","order_by":0,"name":"Belinda P. McFerren","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAyD+AGaxNzAceAAT5sGvhXEGRNUBhgMJpGmRAKonSou52OGHDR/33JMzl3xjeCDhj00ef/sBxgdv23BrsZydZtg441mxseXsHIMDiW1pxRJnEpgN5+LRYnA7h/0xz4GExA23czccSGw4nLhBgoFNmhe/FsbmPwcS6jfcPLsB6DCwFvbfBLUAgyrB4AYvUAsbxBZmfFrAfuk5kGC44Uz+B5BfEmecSWyWnHMOtxZz6eSHDT8OJMgbHD+W/OHDH5vE/vbDBz+8KcOtBRtgbCBN/SgYBaNgFIwCDAAAhaVcgvuL++MAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1209-7404","institution":"Wilson Community College","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Belinda","middleName":"P.","lastName":"McFerren","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-03 18:57:05","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":49238620,"identity":"9251544e-9e4f-4188-9038-c2771948ef38","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:12:46","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIntention to Use and Actual Use of Instructional Videos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832576/v1/97a995e400746fd9c27d92af.png"},{"id":49238619,"identity":"f3c6e795-16c6-456a-a0e1-aa3cf1b2848f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:12:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32293,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInfluences on the Use of Instructional Videos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832576/v1/41417876136c76cded88e8d5.png"},{"id":49382925,"identity":"34fcf716-68a2-4fc3-b5e0-307f342ef281","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-09 19:36:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":425857,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832576/v1/4c410afc-d7e2-46b2-8e63-97fb2ed02afd.pdf"},{"id":49238618,"identity":"693fc090-3617-433a-98f4-2b45d8c19105","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-05 18:12:46","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":24500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3832576/v1/fa8fa2bf11fbdcc6977eb3da.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eQualitative Descriptive Study on the Use of Instructional Videos by Undergraduate Students\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eInstructional videos provide many benefits (Beheshti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Estriegana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), are often preferred by students (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jayaratne \u0026amp; Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), and are the primary teaching tool for online classes (Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, studies on the effectiveness of instructional videos have reported mixed findings (Breneiser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Laugerman \u0026amp; Saunders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pal \u0026amp; Patra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Zielinski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Most research studies on this topic have been quantitative, but unexpected findings have led researchers to recommend qualitative studies to provide clarity (Bordes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Laster-Loftus \u0026amp; Cooper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly, researchers recognized that students\u0026rsquo; thoughts and behaviors related to the decision to use and further interact with instructional videos were not understood (Bordes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Laster-Loftus \u0026amp; Cooper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pal \u0026amp; Patra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students at community colleges and universities in the southeastern United States.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe technology acceptance model (TAM) was chosen as the framework for this study because the perceptions that contribute to the use of instructional videos needed to be explored. The version of the TAM used in this study suggests that the use of a technology is influenced by potential user\u0026rsquo;s perceptions related to ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment (Davis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, research participants described their use of instructional videos and their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe need for this study is established by the historical and current literature related to the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students. The value of various forms of audiovisual media, such as films, in educational settings has been researched for over a century (Subsidies for Investigations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1922\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, research studies are focusing on identifying principles and designs that increase learning from videos (Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Park and Shea (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study to determine research trends related to online, distance, and blended learning, and the authors suggest that future research focus on the characteristics of online learners and the best combinations of technology and pedagogy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen the TAM was first proposed by Fred Davis in 1985, it included only two factors, ease of use and usefulness. The TAM is a well-established theory (Al-Maatouk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cibaroğl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but there are different versions, which include different factors. The TAM used in this study includes three major factors: ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment (Davis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). According to the TAM, potential users are more likely to use technology that they perceive as easy to use, useful, and enjoyable. Ease of use refers to the accessibility and usability of the technology (Ali \u0026amp; Ali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and is related to the potential user\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy (Ali \u0026amp; Ali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Nagy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Turan \u0026amp; Cetintas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Ease of use was not related to the use of instructional videos in studies by Nagy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Turan and Cetintas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Nagy explained that questions about the ease of use were asked after use, so participants may not have reported concerns at that point. Turan and Cetintas argued that students access videos with ease daily, so ease of use would not influence the intention to use instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch related to the enjoyment of instructional videos is limited. Although students prefer instructional videos to other distance learning methods (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jayaratne \u0026amp; Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), students have reported that they prefer in-person learning (Mustafa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rosenthal \u0026amp; Walker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Students have also stated that they do not enjoy video recordings of face-to-face classes (Chorianopoulos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Students stated that they preferred a video format that allowed eye contact between the instructor and the camera (Fiorella et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These studies relate to the enjoyment of instructional videos, but these studies were not about the enjoyment of instructional videos. The enjoyment of instructional videos needs further exploration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs far as the relationship between perceived usefulness and the use of instructional videos, Pal and Patra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Nagy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that usefulness was related to use; however, Turan and Cetintas did not. The study conducted by Turan and Cetintas involved students in a flipped classroom, so they may not have valued the information in the video if they would be exposed to it during the face-to-face session. According to Pereira and Tam (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), enjoyment predicts the use of technology more than usefulness if the technology provides pleasure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe usefulness of instructional videos includes the effectiveness of the videos in achieving learning outcomes and other positive outcomes. Beheshti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) stated that instructional videos provide auditory and visual information, increasing recall; however, it is difficult to identify specific aspects of instructional videos that increase usefulness due to differences in pedagogy and production (Chorianopoulos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Mayer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) identified five principles that seem to increase learning from instructional videos, the dynamic drawing principle (instructor draws while lecturing), gaze guidance principle (instructor shifts gaze between the students and the board), generative activity principle (students are asked to summarize, explain, or demonstrate learning during the video), perspective principle (demonstrations are videoed from the perspective of the demonstrator), and subtitle principle (subtitles are helpful for nonnative speakers). Mayer et al. recommended that research be conducted to understand the particular circumstances that may influence these principles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) discussed 14 strategies to improve learning from instructional videos predicated on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which is based on the principles of dual channels, cognitive load theory (Sweller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and active learning combined with Atkinson and Shiffrin\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1968\u003c/span\u003e) model of memory. To decrease cognitive overload, Mayer makes suggestions, such as presenting essential information only, signaling the information that is being discussed, avoiding redundancy by not adding captions that are the same as the spoken information, segmenting information into smaller chunks, and adding narration instead of text to describe images. To increase generative processing, Mayer suggests that videos use a human voice rather than a computer-generated voice and that instructors use first- and second-person conversational language, make eye contact with the camera, and use gestures. Mayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) recommended additional research to confirm these principles, especially studies that are conducted within natural learning environments and studies that focus on the cognitive and motivational processes that are involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther strategies to improve learning have been proposed, but some of them seem to be contradictory. For example, Beheshti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) emphasize the importance of adding text, which seems to contradict Mayer\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) redundancy and modality principles, which discourage the use of text. Beheshti et al. encourage short videos, while Bordes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) argue that the preferred length varies. In addition, several research studies have investigated the influence of instructor presence and have reported mixed findings (Fiorella et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kizilcec et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Stull et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple factors, such as the type of video (Rosenthal \u0026amp; Walker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), student gender (Castro-Alonso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pal \u0026amp; Patra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), student motivation (Schrader et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and student prior knowledge (Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), may also influence the usefulness of instructional videos making it difficult to understand the aspects that influence the usefulness of instructional videos. In addition, Fyfield et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) state that negative outcomes due to extra information have been found for laboratory experiments but not natural learning environments, so results from laboratory studies may not accurately reflect students\u0026rsquo; experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides investigating outcomes based on the video design and the student, researchers have also investigated the overall effectiveness of video learning. Some researchers have found that instructional videos increased learning (Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Henderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), but others have not found an increase in learning outcomes (Laster-Loftus \u0026amp; Cooper, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Laugerman \u0026amp; Saunders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Schnee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Although the video deficit phenomenon has been observed in young children, Strouse and Samson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) argue that adults may also demonstrate decreased learning from videos due to the lack of pedagogical cues and less effort from the student when learning from a screen versus a person. In addition, Strouse and Samson suggest that video learning may be more difficult for more challenging tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of instructional videos as a teaching tool has increased since videos are now cheaper, easier, and readily available for online use (Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The use of instructional videos is different than the use of audiovisual media in traditional, face-to-face classrooms. Online students choose whether to use instructional videos and how they will use them. Students reported that they liked and used instructional videos, but they also stated reasons for not using them (Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Students said they would use videos to prepare for classes, but they often did not (Bordes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Pal and Patra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) used the TAM and the task technology model to explain 64.6% of the variance in the use of instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents interact with instructional videos in different ways. Students speed up (Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), fast-forward (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and play videos while multitasking (Campbell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Although the majority of research on instructional videos relates to the usefulness of the videos, the use of instructional videos needs to be understood because videos cannot be useful if they are not used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe many different types of instructional videos must be considered when conducting research on instructional videos (Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Miner \u0026amp; Stefaniak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Instructional videos may be created by the teacher or another person or group. Teacher-made instructional videos include narrated PowerPoints, videos of class lectures, screen recordings of math solutions, videos of lab techniques, and many other types. Students rated narrated PowerPoints as their first choice, other instructional videos as their second choice, and videos of class lectures as their third choice (Jayaratne \u0026amp; Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which shows that students have different perceptions about different types of videos. These differences between instructional videos make it more difficult to consolidate research findings (B\u0026eacute;trancourt \u0026amp; Benetos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Chorianopoulos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough instructional videos are used for face-to-face, blended, and online classes, instructional videos are often a supplemental teaching tool for face-to-face classes versus the primary teaching tool for online classes (Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the characteristics of online students and the demands of online classes need to be considered to promote a better understanding of online students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and behaviors related to their use of instructional videos. Online students ranked student attributes, technical skills, and time management as most important for online students (Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These students felt that their attributes and technical skills were better than their time-management skills (Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Online students also need to be disciplined and motivated (Dutton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, online students have demonstrated lower motivation than face-to-face students (Stark, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), but students have reported that instructional videos increased their motivation (Caskurlu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Berga et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) stated that instructional videos increase self-efficacy, and Fyfield et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) stated that instructional videos may increase motivation and engagement. Students often choose to take online classes because they need accessibility and flexibility (Ilgaz \u0026amp; Gulbahar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Jayaratne \u0026amp; Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), and instructional videos provide the information needed in an asynchronous format. Instructional videos can benefit students in several ways, so the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students needs to be understood.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe lack of understanding related to the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students needed to be addressed using a qualitative study to identify nuances, increase clarity, and generate new ideas. A qualitative descriptive design was used to accurately reflect the participants\u0026rsquo; thoughts and experiences (Power et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) by eliciting their descriptions related to the phenomenon (Capper et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For this qualitative descriptive study, interviews and focus groups were used to collect participants\u0026rsquo; descriptions of their perceptions, experiences, and behaviors. These descriptions were used to answer the two research questions for this study:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ1: How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ2: How do online undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The researcher developed the interview and focus group protocols to gather descriptions from the participants that would answer the research questions. Input from students and experts and field tests were used to improve the protocols. A research proposal, including the protocols, informed consent form, and demographics questionnaire, was submitted to obtain IRB approval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were initially recruited from two community colleges that provided site authorization; however, few students responded to the recruitment email. Therefore, additional participants were recruited using convenience and snowball sampling. The researcher provided information about the research study on her personal Facebook page and encouraged participants to let others know about the opportunity. The recruitment information contained the link to an online survey. When potential participants clicked the link, the informed consent form and inclusion questions appeared. Participants had to be at least 18 years of age and had taken an online undergraduate course that used instructional videos at a college in the southeastern United States. After providing consent and meeting the inclusion criteria, participants answered a few demographic questions and provided their email and availability for an interview or focus group. The researcher then emailed the interview or focus group information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividual interviews and focus groups were conducted online and recorded using Zoom, an online conference platform. Although the informed consent form had stated that the interviews and focus groups would be recorded, participants were asked again if they consented to be recorded. After the interview or focus group, participants were sent a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 online gift card. Interviews and focus groups took place February through June of 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTranscripts were written using Microsoft Word\u0026rsquo;s transcription tool. Transcripts were verified for accuracy by the researcher, identifying information was removed, and transcripts were sent to participants for member checking. Participants did not reply to the email with any corrections. Interview transcripts were identified with pseudonyms, and focus group transcripts were identified with numbers. Transcripts were uploaded to MAXQDA, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study included 20 research participants. Participants chose to participate in an individual interview or a focus group. Eleven participants discussed their use of instructional videos during semi-structured individual interviews, and nine participants attended one of three focus groups. Unfortunately, attendance at the focus groups was low, so the three focus groups had two, four, and three participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterview participants attended eight different schools and included eight females and three males. Ten participants were between 18 and 24 years old, while one was 55\u0026ndash;64. Six interviewees reported a GPA of 3.6-4.0, four reported a GPA of 3.1\u0026ndash;3.5, and one reported a GPA of 2.6-3.0. Five participants reported that they had taken over 30 classes, one reported 26\u0026ndash;30 classes, one reported 16\u0026ndash;20 classes, three reported 10\u0026ndash;15 classes, and one reported less than 5 classes. Focus group participants were similar to interview participants. Focus group participants attended seven different colleges. Six out of nine were female, and eight out of nine were 18\u0026ndash;24 years of age. Six focus group participants reported GPAs of 3.6-4.0, and all were 2.6 or above. Six participants had taken more than 30 classes, and all had taken at least 16 classes. Therefore, the 20 participants in this study were mostly 18\u0026ndash;24-year-old females. Most participants had high GPAs and had taken many college classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eReflexive thematic data analysis (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) was used. The researcher acknowledged that she had preconceptions based on her literature review and her roles as a college instructor and online student. To mitigate the influence of these preconceptions, line-by-line inductive coding was employed. Memoing was also used to identify and limit possible biases. The researcher had to adjust her definitions for ease of use and enjoyment because participants discussed usability and accessibility when discussing ease of use, and participants described interesting and gratifying experiences when discussing enjoyability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReflexive thematic data analysis begins with the researcher becoming familiar with the data (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This step was accomplished as the researcher conducted the interviews and focus groups, verified the transcripts for accuracy, and reviewed the transcripts. The second step involves the initial coding of the data (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). First, a deductive approach, structural coding, was used to label the sections as types of videos or one of the TAM\u0026rsquo;s constructs. MAXQDA\u0026rsquo;s autocode feature was also used for types of videos and TAM\u0026rsquo;s constructs. Then, an inductive coding approach, line-by-line descriptive coding, was used. Examples of initial descriptive codes include the \u0026ldquo;required to watch\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;decision to watch\u0026rdquo; codes as illustrated by a participant\u0026rsquo;s statement, \u0026ldquo;unless it's required, I\u0026rsquo;m not gonna watch it.\u0026rdquo; The \u0026ldquo;just listen\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;multitask\u0026rdquo; codes were used to describe a participant\u0026rsquo;s response, \u0026ldquo;Sometimes I would cook supper if it was, depending on the content, just something that I just needed to listen to.\u0026rdquo; In addition, in vivo coding was used. Autocoding was used for words and phrases that were identified during descriptive and in vivo coding. For example, \u0026ldquo;boring\u0026rdquo; was autocoded because a participant used that descriptor. During the coding process, codes were renamed and merged as appropriate. The code matrix browser in MAXQDA, which shows the presence and degree of a code for each transcript, was used to identify codes that needed to be collated and codes that may have been missed when coding a document.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe third step of Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) thematic analysis involves second-cycle coding. An example of a second-cycle code is \u0026ldquo;prepare for assignment/test,\u0026rdquo; which encompasses statements about using videos to complete assignments and review for exams. Related codes and patterns among codes were identified as codes were placed into hierarchies, consolidated, and moved using MAXQDA\u0026rsquo;s drag and drop tool. The Creative Coding tool was also used to visualize connections between codes. Second-cycle codes, categories, and themes were identified during this process. The progression from codes to categories and themes is illustrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eExamples of Progression of Codes to Categories to Themes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond-cycle code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlready know\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlready have knowledge/info\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecision to use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteresting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteresting/care about topic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecision to use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeed up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeed up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJust listen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJust listen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide info\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide info/explain/demo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelpful\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsefulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelevant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelevant/relatable/stories real life\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHelpful\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsefulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutdated info\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutdated info\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot helpful\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsefulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnimportant information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnimportant information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot helpful\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsefulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the fourth step, the researcher reflects on the identified themes (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). MAXQDA\u0026rsquo;s code relations browser tool, which displays the degree of overlap in transcripts between two codes or themes, was used to provide additional insight on relationships. For example, \u0026ldquo;use\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;usefulness\u0026rdquo; were frequently coded together.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe focus group data was analyzed using the same steps as used for the interview data; however, ChatGPT, an online, artificial intelligence program, was used to enhance data analysis. Step one, familiarity with the data (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), was accomplished by conducting the focus groups, verifying the accuracy of the transcripts, and reading the transcripts multiple times. Familiarity was increased by reviewing summaries of each focus group as provided by ChatGPT. ChatGPT was also used to provide additional reflection on themes during step four. Segments from transcripts related to a specific theme were uploaded to ChatGPT, and ChatGPT was asked to provide a definition and summary of the theme and to identify commonalities, exemplars, and exceptions. This process was repeated for each theme, and the ChatGPT results were reviewed to increase understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eSeven themes were identified for the individual interview data: use, ease of use, enjoyment, usefulness, length of video, video characteristics, and student factors. The same seven themes were identified for the focus group data. The themes and definitions are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Quotes from the participants for each theme are provided in the \u003cspan refid=\"Sec27\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eappendix\u003c/span\u003e. Although each theme will be discussed separately below, the themes interact, so some themes will be discussed in more than one section.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThemes for The Use of Instructional Videos\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefinition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow students interact with instructional videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Use theme includes why and how students use instructional videos and student behaviors that relate to how they use instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEase of use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsability of instructional videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Ease-of-use theme includes the accessibility and functionality of instructional videos and all issues that hinder performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsefulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenefits of instructional videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Usefulness theme includes ways that instructional videos are helpful to students in accomplishing their educational goals, directly or indirectly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnjoyment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGratification from instructional videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Enjoyment theme includes experiences watching instructional videos that students consider to be interesting, entertaining, or positive.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLength of video\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime required to watch an instructional video\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Length of video theme includes how long the video is and students\u0026rsquo; perceptions related to the length of the video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVideo characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious characteristics of instructional videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Video characteristics theme includes specific aspects of instructional videos, including the type of instructional video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious characteristics of undergraduate students\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe student factors theme includes preferences, characteristics, behaviors, and motivations of undergraduate students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUse\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use theme includes why and how students use instructional videos and addresses research question one: \u0026ldquo;How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?\u0026rdquo; Students decide whether to use an instructional video, and they seem to make their decision based on two main questions, \u0026ldquo;Do I need to use this video to get the grade I want?\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Do I want to spend my time watching this video?\u0026rdquo; If a student does not need to use the video, the student will usually not watch the video. Occasionally, students will watch the video, even if not necessary, if they have the time and are very interested in the topic. If a student needs to use the video, the student will most likely use it; however, how the student uses it depends on whether the student wants to spend the time required to watch it. If the student wants to spend their time watching the video, the student is likely to be fully engaged with the video. If the student does not want to spend their time watching the video, the student will probably employ time-saving strategies, such as speeding up the video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe two considerations, the need to use the video and the desire to watch the video, are evidenced by the following statements. Allie stated, \u0026ldquo;I think the number one thing is grade wise, but if it\u0026rsquo;s a topic that interests me, that\u0026rsquo;s all the more reason for me to watch it.\u0026rdquo; Sarah said, \u0026ldquo;I think it\u0026rsquo;s true with all of my friends and classmates that I\u0026rsquo;ve ever spoken to, at the end of the day, if you\u0026rsquo;re accountable for it, you\u0026rsquo;ll watch it. If you\u0026rsquo;re not, probably not going to unless you\u0026rsquo;re like super interested in the topic.\u0026rdquo; Lindsey talked about her passion for theatre, but when she was asked to watch a video for her theatre class, she said, \u0026ldquo;I watched it just because I had to write about it, but otherwise I probably would not have watched it.\u0026rdquo; When the interviewer asked Lindsey for clarification, Lindsey explained that she did not think she needed to watch the video because she had prior knowledge on the topic and it was a YouTube video that was not specific for her class.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents often consider their current grade, the difficulty of the class, and whether the video is needed to maintain the grade that they desire. When Tommy was asked about factors that influence his decision to watch an instructional video, he said, \u0026ldquo;I think like the student\u0026rsquo;s opinion of the difficulty of the course. If there are \u0026ndash; if any percentage of the course grade is tied to actually watching the video.\u0026rdquo; The course grade is often influenced by participation in the class and understanding of the material. Tommy further explained his decision-making process when he said, \u0026ldquo;So if it\u0026rsquo;s an attendance-based video, and there\u0026rsquo;s a way to check that I\u0026rsquo;m watching it, I\u0026rsquo;m going to watch it. And if it\u0026rsquo;s a hard class that I feel like I need extra help on, I\u0026rsquo;m definitely going to watch it. If it\u0026rsquo;s an easy class, there\u0026rsquo;s no attendance, probably not going to watch it.\u0026rdquo; Dillon said, \u0026ldquo;If I\u0026rsquo;m really unfamiliar with it, and it\u0026rsquo;s something I need to know, like the teacher says there\u0026rsquo;s going to be a quiz, or this will be on your test, make sure you know it. Then, I\u0026rsquo;ll absolutely sit down and watch it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents have limited time for all their required schoolwork, jobs, and extracurricular activities, so the length of the video is an important part of their decision to watch an instructional video. Students reported that they are more likely to watch instructional videos that are useful and short. When asked how she decides whether to watch a video, Erin said, \u0026ldquo;The length of the video. Also, like the importance of the video.\u0026rdquo; Jessica responded, \u0026ldquo;How long it is. If it\u0026rsquo;s a long video, I\u0026rsquo;ll probably close my laptop and say I\u0026rsquo;ll come back to this later.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo decide whether to watch an instructional video, students may check out the video to see if it will meet their needs and is worth their time. Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;Usually I always click the link, and I may watch a few minutes, and if then I decide this is kind of boring, or I\u0026rsquo;ve already learned this or something like that\u0026hellip;it\u0026rsquo;s monotonous, then I am more likely to X out of it.\u0026rdquo; Students may choose to discontinue use if they realize they do not need to watch the video because they already know the information or the video is not enjoyable. Even if a video is needed for a class, students reported that they cannot watch boring videos. Melissa stated, \u0026ldquo;It was so monotone and so boring that I just could not\u0026hellip;I needed the help in the class but to actually hear the guy talk on the video was absolutely boring, so I had to look at my\u0026hellip;I looked to get the help that I needed elsewhere.\u0026rdquo; Melissa also stated that videos need to be appealing and said, \u0026ldquo;It could be excellent content, but if it doesn\u0026rsquo;t catch you in some way, it doesn\u0026rsquo;t matter the content because you\u0026rsquo;re not going to watch it.\u0026rdquo; Participants reported that instructional videos are more engaging when the videos include an enthusiastic speaker and dynamic visuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther aspects that influence the use of instructional videos are related to the online environment. When taking an online class, students are not confined to a physical classroom. Jessica gave an example of when she may stop using an instructional video. She said, \u0026ldquo;If I started the video and something else happened, like if I started the video and a roommate came and knocked on my door and said, hey we\u0026rsquo;re ordering pizza.\u0026rdquo; When taking an online class, students are not attending class at a specific time, so there is not a specific time set aside to watch instructional videos. Lindsey explained that she did not want to watch a video because it was late, and she wanted to take a shower and go to bed. Students also said that they may not watch a video because they are rushing to complete their assignments that are due. When focus group participant (FGP)1 was asked if he ever chose not to watch a video although he needed the information, he responded, \u0026ldquo;If I\u0026rsquo;m rushing to finish an assignment, maybe yeah, but usually I\u0026rsquo;ll try to watch them.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents are more likely to watch instructional videos if they are taking an online class because they consider instructional videos to be the primary teaching tool. As FGP2 stated, \u0026ldquo;If it\u0026rsquo;s completely online, like you have to use instructional videos.\u0026rdquo; FGP2 also said, \u0026ldquo;If it\u0026rsquo;s like a 100% online class, I watch like every video unless it\u0026rsquo;s like an extra video for like practice, and I really understand it. Then I won\u0026rsquo;t. But if it\u0026rsquo;s like a in-person and half online, then half the time I won\u0026rsquo;t watch the videos unless I don\u0026rsquo;t understand.\u0026rdquo; Sarah reported that she is most likely to watch an instructional video for a flipped class if she knows that the class will be discussing the video during their next class. Students\u0026rsquo; decision to use instructional videos is influenced by the class format.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides choosing whether to use instructional videos, students choose how to use them. For example, Leslie said, \u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s different ways I will watch a video. The first time I\u0026rsquo;ll watch it, and I\u0026rsquo;ll give it my full attention, and like I\u0026rsquo;ll take notes.\u0026rdquo; Then, Leslie talked about replaying it, but this time she would only listen to it. Leslie explained that she uses instructional videos based on her needs. She stated, \u0026ldquo;It depends on how deep the course material is. Like, I might not have to rewatch a video on economics, the way I would have to anatomy. Anatomy \u0026ndash; it\u0026rsquo;s a lot of deep concepts. It\u0026rsquo;s a lot of things to remember. That\u0026rsquo;s something I\u0026rsquo;ll watch over and over and over.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are several time-saving strategies that students use when they need to use a video to fulfill class requirements, but they do not want to spend their time watching the videos. Students often speed up playback, especially for long videos. Dillon said, \u0026ldquo;If they become too long, then I either put it on 1.5 times and speed it up or times 2 because I start to feel like I lose focus. If it\u0026rsquo;s really, really long, I\u0026rsquo;ll just make it really fast so I can just hit the highlights.\u0026rdquo; Although a few students reported slowing down playback speed, most students said that they consistently play videos at higher speeds. Students try to find the perfect speed that produces the most efficient learning session while also avoiding the high-pitched \u0026ldquo;chipmunk\u0026rdquo; voice. Students will employ other strategies as well to complete the task quicker. For example, FGP2 said, \u0026ldquo;I do put mine in fast speed too, and I\u0026rsquo;ll turn like the closed captioning on so I can just read it faster.\u0026rdquo; Jessica stated that she would \u0026ldquo;pull up the transcript, and I would control F looking for the keywords that I needed to find\u0026rdquo; so that she could complete the attached assignment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents admitted that in certain situations, they click the play link, and then they walk away. Students do this if they are required to watch a video, but they do not feel that the video is necessary. When Erin was asked if she used the click and leave strategy, she responded, \u0026ldquo;Yeah, like every time.\u0026rdquo; Jessica described when she used the click and leave strategy, \u0026ldquo;I would turn it on and walk away and go do who knows what.\u0026rdquo; FGP4 reported that he was sometimes required to watch videos that did not allow students to fast forward. He said, \u0026ldquo;So sometimes I\u0026rsquo;ll just let it play all the way through. Go do whatever I want, and then when I\u0026rsquo;m done, I\u0026rsquo;ll go back through and then watch instead of the whole hour-long video, I\u0026rsquo;ll watch the 10, 15 minutes of the stuff that I really needed to know.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents reported that they often use instructional videos as podcasts, especially if the visual component is not essential for understanding or if the video is long or boring. Students will listen to videos as they do other homework, use their phone, do chores, play games, listen to music, eat, do an activity with their hands, or commute. If they hear something that they need to know, they may pause the video and write down the important information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants reported that they use instructional videos to achieve their goals. Participants use different strategies to obtain the information that they need and have time for other activities. Sarah stated this explicitly, \u0026ldquo;And so for me, my goal is to get the information that I need in the time, like the least amount of time that it can, so that I can also fill my other obligations. But that being said, I'm always going to do the exact amount of work it takes to, like make an A which I think clearly is seen, in my opinion, towards videos and stuff, like... If it's needed, I want to watch it. If it's not, then I don't.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEase of Use\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants reported that they expected instructional videos to be easy to use, so they did not consider ease of use when deciding whether to watch a video. As FGP1 said, \u0026ldquo;I think they\u0026rsquo;re pretty easy. Usually, they\u0026rsquo;re integrated into the class, so you don\u0026rsquo;t have to go to an outside link or anything, usually pretty quickly you can watch the videos.\u0026rdquo; However, students who have experienced difficulties with accessibility reported frustration. For example, FGP7 said, \u0026ldquo;it just gets so frustrating like, well, I don\u0026rsquo;t even want to watch this video anymore, like it was so hard to get to in the first place.\u0026rdquo; In response to this statement, FGP8 said, \u0026ldquo;Mine have always been really easy to find.\u0026rdquo; Challenges with accessibility were often related to specific platforms or third-party sites that were difficult to navigate. Fortunately, most students reported that most of their instructors provide user-friendly links that are embedded in their learning management system on the online class webpage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeslie talked about missing instructional videos that were embedded because she did not realize the link was for a video. She said that had she known the links were videos, she would have watched them. Leslie recommended posting a thumbnail picture because \u0026ldquo;If I see that, and it\u0026rsquo;s like grabbing my attention, I am actually more likely to click on it.\u0026rdquo; Erin reported Wi-Fi issues in her area and said that long videos were sometimes difficult to load. Lindsey suggested that instructors provide alternative YouTube links if possible, in case the embedded link does not work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides being accessible and user-friendly, videos need to be functional. Although most students reported that they could easily see and hear the information, students reported that they have experienced videos that would pause due to technical issues with the video or that were difficult to see and hear. For example, if an instructor writes on a board in a classroom, the writing may be too small to read on a video, or captions may cover the information at the bottom of the screen. If an instructor provides commentary during an existing video, the audio needs to be adjusted appropriately. FGP3 stated, \u0026ldquo;sometimes those are really just terrible quality because they\u0026rsquo;re trying to screen record a YouTube video, and you can\u0026rsquo;t hear anything that they\u0026rsquo;re saying.\u0026rdquo; Tommy talked about static in the microphone, the volume being too high or too low, and difficulty understanding the instructor because the instructor was talking too fast. He suggested reviewing a video after recording it to make sure it is well done. If the video quality is poor, the students are more likely to discontinue watching the video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEase of use includes the accessibility and usability of instructional videos. Instructional videos are accessible if the videos can be easily played without any issues. Instructional videos are usable if the information on the video can be clearly seen and heard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnjoyment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost participants stated that they preferred instructional videos over other learning methods. When Mandy was asked if she enjoyed instructional videos, she responded, \u0026ldquo;I do. I prefer them over reading a textbook.\u0026rdquo; Mandy also said, \u0026ldquo;I like the visuals, and I also like somebody explaining it, so I tend to enjoy having the videos over just a written body of text.\u0026rdquo; However, even if a student enjoys instructional videos, some videos are not enjoyable, so the student may choose to stop watching the video. Allie said, \u0026ldquo;I always click on the videos just to see. I can\u0026rsquo;t think of a time that I don\u0026rsquo;t, just cause I enjoy watching videos, but sometimes, if they talk really slow, or they \u0026hellip;it\u0026rsquo;s kind of bland information, then I will not watch the video.\u0026rdquo; Jessica said that she would not watch an instructional video \u0026ldquo;if I turn it on and whoever speaking has just an annoying voice, or if it\u0026rsquo;s just hard to listen to them, hard to pay attention because some people just don\u0026rsquo;t have good remote-learning voices.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding what students mean when they discuss enjoying videos is difficult because the term enjoyment has different meanings. People may enjoy an experience because it is fun, interesting, positive, or helpful. For example, Lindsey said, \u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t enjoy instructional videos. It\u0026rsquo;s school,\u0026rdquo; but she later said, \u0026ldquo;I enjoy them and the fact that I can learn how to do what I need to do to raise my grade.\u0026rdquo; FGP3 stated, \u0026ldquo;the ones that I find useful and that I enjoy are the videos that provide like a big picture overview of whatever concepts I\u0026rsquo;m learning in detail in a textbook.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents may also have a mindset that schoolwork is not supposed to be enjoyable. When Isaiah was asked if he enjoyed instructional videos, he immediately responded, \u0026ldquo;No;\u0026rdquo; however, he later said, \u0026ldquo;Actually, I\u0026rsquo;m going to recant the previous statement. I have watched calculus videos for fun because I love calculus. I think it\u0026rsquo;s very interesting.\u0026rdquo; He did not watch the calculus videos for a class, and he said that he does not usually watch supplemental videos for a class. Students may approach online classwork as a series of tasks that must be completed regardless of whether the tasks will be enjoyable. As Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;With the PowerPoint, you know you\u0026rsquo;re there to learn, and you know that this is a topic that I\u0026rsquo;ve got to get through for this class.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch participants described aspects that contribute to enjoyable videos. Students reported that they enjoyed videos that were about interesting topics. Allie said, \u0026ldquo;If it\u0026rsquo;s a topic that interests me, that\u0026rsquo;s all the more reason for me to watch it, and I\u0026rsquo;ll actually enjoy watching it, rather than stressing I need to get this information, I need to retain this information, if it\u0026rsquo;s a grade.\u0026rdquo; Leslie said, \u0026ldquo;I look up other instructional videos for fun, like just to see, like to learn what I want to know.\u0026rdquo; These examples demonstrate that students find some instructional videos to be interesting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReal-life applications increase enjoyment. For example, students enjoy hearing real-life stories. Jessica talked about an instructor who was a great storyteller as he described his experiences in the real world, and she said, \u0026ldquo;It felt like I was talking to somebody and learning somebody\u0026rsquo;s life experience.\u0026rdquo; Students also enjoy seeing real-life applications. Tommy stated, \u0026ldquo;I was motivated to watch it to help further motivate myself in the class, to see applications in the real world.\u0026rdquo; Tommy also stated that \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s been entertaining\u0026rdquo; to watch videos of real-life applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents prefer videos that are short and fun. When asked if she enjoyed instructional videos, Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;Yeah, ones especially that put a fun spin on it, like the Crash Course videos. There\u0026rsquo;s fun - fun animations, fun storytelling; the narrator is super engaging.\u0026rdquo; When Erin was asked if she enjoyed anything about an instructional video, she stated, \u0026ldquo;if it\u0026rsquo;s like a subject I\u0026rsquo;m really interested in. I will also like if a professor\u0026rsquo;s dog shows up. It\u0026rsquo;s like 10 out of 10.\u0026rdquo; When discussing video links not working, Mandy said, \u0026ldquo;I guess if it\u0026rsquo;s like an additional fun video, it\u0026rsquo;s not the end of the world because it\u0026rsquo;s not needed to do an assignment or not really needed to retain certain information that we need for the topic, it\u0026rsquo;s just more of like a fun thing, like the theater videos were more just like for fun.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost codes for enjoyment were related to the instructor\u0026rsquo;s presentation style. Students prefer instructors who demonstrate enthusiasm for their topic by speaking with excitement. Isaiah said, \u0026ldquo;I think that voice is the biggest factor for these online videos for sure.\u0026rdquo; Leslie stated, \u0026ldquo;it\u0026rsquo;s something about the voice too, like if they\u0026rsquo;re understanding, like if they sound like a compassionate person.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructors need to be intentional about demonstrating that they care about the students and the topic. Jessica stated, \u0026ldquo;So I feel like a lot of times teachers don\u0026rsquo;t put a lot of effort for me\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s not a lot of effort put in to make it fun and engaging.\u0026rdquo; On the other hand, FGP7 said, \u0026ldquo;You\u0026rsquo;re not just doing it cause you\u0026rsquo;re drawing a paycheck, you\u0026rsquo;re doing it because you want to teach us something you know. You put your time and effort into this.\u0026rdquo; Tommy stated, \u0026ldquo;When they\u0026rsquo;re good, good thought is put into them, and the professor actually cares about it, they\u0026rsquo;re really good.\u0026rdquo; Dillon provided an example of a video that was enjoyable when he said, \u0026ldquo;like the guy shocking himself in our favorite videos. Those are pretty enjoyable because I mean not only am I learning about the physics behind it and like circuits and things, but, you know, he brings a lot of humor into it too, which is really enjoyable.\u0026rdquo; FGP9 said, \u0026ldquo;I would have professors that would use GIFs on different slides to like make it funny and like that always made me really happy.\u0026rdquo; Adding these elements makes watching instructional videos a more positive experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, most students talked about boring and monotonous instructional videos. Students do not like to hear instructors using a monotone voice or reading off of a PowerPoint. When describing an instructor who was difficult to listen to, Melissa said, \u0026ldquo;Didn\u0026rsquo;t seem like his mindset was I\u0026rsquo;m talking to my students. I\u0026rsquo;m just talking to my screen.\u0026rdquo; Students do not like monotonous videos or when instructors repeat themselves because the students can rewatch if they need something repeated. As Leslie explained, \u0026ldquo;Wasting time is when they\u0026rsquo;re repeating something over and over. I know that\u0026rsquo;s how you remember, but I\u0026rsquo;m going to go back and watch this video again.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents may not expect to be entertained by instructional videos, but they enjoy videos that are helpful. Participants reported that they enjoyed videos that included real-life applications. The enjoyment of instructional videos is increased when the instructor sounds enthusiastic about the topic, includes humor, incorporates dynamic visuals, and seems to care about the students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUsefulness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents consider instructional videos useful if the instructional videos serve a purpose, such as helping students achieve their learning goals. Students consider instructional videos to not only be useful but a necessary component of online education because the instructional video substitutes for the face-to-face class lecture. Melissa said, \u0026ldquo;I think in this day and age, it\u0026rsquo;s probably not even an extra anymore or a supplement. I think it\u0026rsquo;s a\u0026hellip;go with\u0026hellip;so you have your textbook, but you need the video, some sort of videos to go with.\u0026rdquo; Mandy stated that she expected to receive instructional videos for a class \u0026ldquo;But it\u0026rsquo;s more of a self, you have to learn it yourself through the textbook, or they\u0026rsquo;ll send you a PowerPoint slide that you have to read and take notes on, but there\u0026rsquo;s not usually an instructor doing any type of teaching with that.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch participants described many ways that instructional videos are useful. Instructional videos provide information, explanations, and demonstrations. Instructional videos help students earn the grade that they desire, and they allow students to individualize their learning sessions. Instructional videos may also increase student motivation and engagement and decrease anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch participants reported that instructional videos are useful for providing the information that students need to be successful in their classes. For example, when Leslie described videos that were very good and had been \u0026ldquo;hand cherry picked\u0026rdquo; by her instructor, she said that videos \u0026ldquo;all had like different styles, but like they had the most information, and they had the best way of relaying it.\u0026rdquo; Students appreciate the usefulness of videos in explaining concepts in ways that text cannot. FGP2 stated, \u0026ldquo;Sometimes the problems in the book aren\u0026rsquo;t as explanatory, they\u0026rsquo;re kind of harder to figure out.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents use instructional videos to clarify and enhance understanding quickly because instructional videos can provide step-by-step explanations, demonstrations, and animations of complex processes. Mandy said that certain videos are useful, \u0026ldquo;Especially ones that have like visuals in it, like my theater class when they\u0026rsquo;re showing what they\u0026rsquo;re talking about or in the biology class where they\u0026rsquo;re showing the process of the energy flow in an organism and explaining it. I\u0026rsquo;m seeing it happen at the same time they\u0026rsquo;re talking.\u0026rdquo; Although instructional videos have the benefit of showing processes, instructors must also explain the concepts and processes well for instructional videos to be the most useful. Jessica described a favorite instructor by saying, \u0026ldquo;He was really great at breaking it down in simple words and giving really great analogies and relating it to previous topics.\u0026rdquo; Tommy said that he appreciates instructors\u0026rsquo; videos in which \u0026ldquo;the lectures have been very good, and so I\u0026rsquo;ve known I can trust them for the test and to pass the course, and I don\u0026rsquo;t need the textbook.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents consider instructional videos to be optimally useful if the information in the video is specifically needed for the learning objectives for their class. Students do not want extra, unnecessary information. In addition, students prefer that the video covers all the information that is needed on the topic. Students do not want to guess what else they need to know and search for more information. Videos that provide only the information needed and all the information needed is considered valuable. Therefore, students are more likely to watch videos that were recorded by their teacher. Students expect that their teacher will cover the specific material that their teacher wants them to know. As FGP4 said, \u0026ldquo;I would rather have someone tell me how to do something when they\u0026rsquo;re going to be grading that same thing a week later, rather than some online video covering every single topic when I don\u0026rsquo;t even know if everything on that video is going to be on the exam or final.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructional videos are useful for increasing student engagement. Leslie repeatedly mentioned engagement as important, and she described how she experienced engagement when she stated, \u0026ldquo;I didn\u0026rsquo;t have to actually physically engage with the video. I just had to listen, but it doesn\u0026rsquo;t feel like I\u0026rsquo;m just sitting there listening. I feel involved, by the drawings, and you know they might ask a question.\u0026rdquo; Dillon also repeatedly mentioned that instructional videos need to be engaging. Dillon said, \u0026ldquo;But if they can add some sort of like animation to the PowerPoints, those are pretty helpful. They again keep you engaged.\u0026rdquo; Mandy also emphasized engagement and stated, \u0026ldquo;With a video, I feel like I\u0026rsquo;m constantly engaged, especially ones that have like visuals in it.\u0026rdquo; When Jessica described an engaging speaker, she said, \u0026ldquo;He had really great charisma with the camera, like he looked at the camera, looked directly at it when he was talking to the camera. I felt like he was talking at you, felt like you were sitting in a class.\u0026rdquo; FGP2 recommended that instructors provide worksheets to go with their instructional videos to increase engagement. Interacting with students, adding animations, looking at the camera, and providing worksheets may increase engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructional videos may also be useful for motivating students to learn. Tommy talked about watching videos of professionals applying concepts in his major, and he stated, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s been entertaining and kind of a motivator to like want to understand what all is going on.\u0026rdquo; Other participants talked about videos that portrayed real-life applications, which inspired them to learn more. In addition, instructional videos provide students with access to experts, specialized equipment or environments, and other experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructional videos may be useful for decreasing anxiety. For example, Mandy stated that she wished there were videos for labs that she is required to do for her online biology class. She said, \u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s no video explaining like, or showing what like, I wish there was a picture to show you what the mixture should look like after you combined everything, or like, just at certain points, especially like what it\u0026rsquo;s supposed to look like because if I did it wrong, I don\u0026rsquo;t know. I just kind of like hope I did it right and take a picture and be like OK, I hope this is right.\u0026rdquo; She later stated, \u0026ldquo;I had a lot of anxiety about that.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructional videos are also useful because students can use them to individualize their learning. Isaiah said, \u0026ldquo;I was able to press play and watch it at my own pace and take notes at my own pace.\u0026rdquo; Students can choose to rewatch, rewind, skip parts, and pause, depending on their needs. Students can focus on concepts that they do not know, while skipping concepts that they already know.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen students were asked whether instructional videos were useful, they stated that some videos were not useful. Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s definitely some that I\u0026rsquo;ve seen that I got to the end of the video, and I had to go right back to the beginning and try to watch it again because I realized I didn\u0026rsquo;t pay attention at all.\u0026rdquo; Instructional videos are not considered useful if the student does not need to watch the video to achieve the student\u0026rsquo;s educational goal. Students also feel that instructional videos are not useful for teaching certain subjects adequately. Isaiah said, \u0026ldquo;Sometimes the professors\u0026rsquo; videos are not great, like they\u0026rsquo;re not useful enough to understand the material or the problems, and they might not give you the conceptual understanding you need. So that\u0026rsquo;s what I think about when I think of, hey, was their video actually useful to you? And sometimes they\u0026rsquo;re not.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents may perceive an instructional video as not useful if they already know the material or if they already have the information. FGP5 said, \u0026ldquo;I guess it has a lot to do with like 1. Do I already know it?\u0026rdquo; Students said that some classes were mostly discussions and did not require them to learn specific, new information, so videos were not needed. The information may be redundant because the instructor provided the information in another form, such as a document or PowerPoint. Students appreciate when instructors provide their PowerPoints with and without narration. If the PowerPoint slides without narration are self-explanatory, then students will sometimes choose not to watch the PowerPoint with narration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIf the student\u0026rsquo;s grade would not be affected by watching the instructional video, the student may perceive the video as not useful. Mandy explained, \u0026ldquo;I think it depends on the student too because some students would just kind of glance over instructional videos, be like it\u0026rsquo;s not really important, I\u0026rsquo;ll just read the textbook,\u0026rdquo; while other students prefer to learn from videos. If a student watches a video, and then the video is not discussed or used for test questions, the student may feel that they wasted their time. FGP9 said that she would not watch future videos for the class \u0026ldquo;even if other ones are useful\u0026rdquo; if she felt like she wasted her time previously.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents must balance the perceived usefulness of the video and the time that they are willing to spend on a class. If they are doing well in a class, they may choose to skip the video since it is not necessary for reaching their educational goals. Students do not feel the need to watch supplemental instructional videos, especially ones that do not have new information, and students become frustrated when mandated to spend their time watching them. Lindsey stated, \u0026ldquo;And if I can just figure out how to write about it without having to watch the video, I\u0026rsquo;ll just write about it and not watch the video because I\u0026rsquo;ve got other classes.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents reported that instructional videos were not useful for certain subjects. Students feel that some subjects need hands-on learning, like nursing. Students reported difficulty with engaging with certain instructional videos. For example, a focus group participant and an interviewee talked about taking yoga online. Using a video for yoga class did not feel the same as doing yoga at a relaxing and spacious yoga studio.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstructional videos are not useful if the instruction is not adequate. Students do not appreciate or use instructional videos with instructors who speak with a monotone voice and are not passionate about their topics. When discussing instructors who demonstrate no enthusiasm, FGP7 explained, \u0026ldquo;If you don\u0026rsquo;t want to be doing it, why do you think I want to be learning it?\u0026rdquo; Students dislike when instructors do not explain and break down the concepts. An instructional video is not useful if the instructor provides incorrect information, outdated information, or does not provide information that aligns with standardized tests. Leslie said, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;ve only had a few videos I\u0026rsquo;ll go, umm, I\u0026rsquo;m sorry this is not helping me.\u0026rdquo; She was referring to videos that have a static picture that does not adequately portray the complex concept. Leslie later stated, \u0026ldquo;I can\u0026rsquo;t waste 30 minutes on something I will not remember.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents recognize that instructional videos are useful, but they also recognize that some videos are more useful than others, and some seem unnecessary. Overall, students consider instructional videos to be a necessary component of online learning. As Lindsey said, \u0026ldquo;I would rather somebody explain it to me, than, OK, read the notes. Let me know.\u0026rdquo; She also stated, \u0026ldquo;You can watch the video, or they can turn you loose with the lecture notes and hope.\u0026rdquo; Allie stated, \u0026ldquo;For me personally, they\u0026rsquo;re useful because I struggle to learn many other ways\u0026hellip;reading is difficult for me, so I would 100% prefer videos because they keep my interest better.\u0026rdquo; Video learning also increases emotional understanding. Melissa described an instructional video and said, \u0026ldquo;it was about play therapy and how to reach these kids that have been abused, so even though I wouldn\u0026rsquo;t call it enjoyable, it was relevant and memorable and probably taught better than the textbook, just reading it because you get the, I think too, with the videos, you get the emotion.\u0026rdquo; Compared to other learning methods, instructional videos offer an increased understanding of complex processes and lived experiences. Students also appreciate having free personal tutors 24 hours a day. Jessica stated, \u0026ldquo;There was a couple of guys that I would watch all the time just because they were so knowledgeable on the topic, and they explained it so clearly, so they were always my go-to videos.\u0026rdquo; Instructional videos are useful because they provide learning opportunities that other learning methods do not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, there are negatives for video learning. Lindsey stated, \u0026ldquo;You can\u0026rsquo;t replicate the face to face.\u0026rdquo; She went on to explain that in face-to-face situations, the instructor and the student can work together if the student is having difficulty, but with videos, \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;re going to cover everything, and we\u0026rsquo;re going to hope\u0026rdquo; because there is no opportunity for questions. Sarah discussed the automatic encoding that occurs in casual face-to-face conversations versus the challenges of learning from instructional videos, and she said, \u0026ldquo;I feel like eye contact\u0026rsquo;s something big you\u0026rsquo;re missing and at least personally, I definitely feel the deficit. I feel like I have to work harder to like focus in on the information and retain the information.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants reported that instructional videos can be very useful; however, some instructional videos are not useful. Useful videos provide the specific information needed, and videos can help students understand complex concepts and processes. Instructional videos allow students to individualize their learning and may increase students\u0026rsquo; motivation and confidence. However, instructional videos that do not provide new and necessary information in an engaging way are not useful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLength of Video\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the research participants\u0026rsquo; statements, the length of instructional videos influences the use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos. Students prefer short videos and are more likely to use short videos. Students\u0026rsquo; definitions of short and long videos vary. FGP2 said that instructional videos are long if they are \u0026ldquo;longer than 5 minutes or 10.\u0026rdquo; Dillon said, \u0026ldquo;Long is probably anything longer than 15\u0026ndash;20 minutes. Once you start getting past that, I think it\u0026rsquo;s pretty long. Short would be 6\u0026ndash;7 minutes or less.\u0026rdquo; Based on the data for this study, students consider short videos to be 5\u0026ndash;30 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen students log into their online class, they look to see how long the assigned videos are. Students tend to postpone or ignore longer videos. Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;Sitting there trying to watch an hour-long video or even a 30-minute-long video, just I always felt like there was other things I could be doing.\u0026rdquo; Students also reported that they are more likely to get on their phones if they are watching a long video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost participants reported that they would prefer six 5-minute videos instead of one 30-minute video; however, several preferred the longer video. Students who prefer multiple, shorter videos reported that they could manage their time better with shorter videos, and they could check off the videos as they watched them. In addition, students would not have to complete the video in one sitting or try to decide when to pause a long video since there may not be a natural break.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents also like the idea of multiple short videos on specific topics. Students like topic-specific videos because it is easier to go back and reference by topic, and students believe that instructors are more likely to stay on topic when making short videos on a specific topic. Leslie said, \u0026ldquo;I know it\u0026rsquo;s going to be more effective if it\u0026rsquo;s sectioned. It\u0026rsquo;s going to be more information. It\u0026rsquo;s going to be worth listening to.\u0026rdquo; Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;It was just that one specific topic or that one specific part of the problem that I was watching, so it\u0026rsquo;s easier to digest and easier to pay attention and focus.\u0026rdquo; As far as the difference in total time for the one long video versus multiple shorter videos, Melissa stated, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s stupid because yeah, time wise it took longer. It\u0026rsquo;s just that I had those 20-minute segments to watch, instead of an hour segment to watch.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, other students prefer one link because they feel it is less overwhelming. FGP8 pointed out that she could put a longer video at double speed and finish more quickly. These students feel that it easier to manage their time for one video, and they can pause and time stamp the video. Tommy said, \u0026ldquo;If it\u0026rsquo;s going to be the same total amount either way, I\u0026rsquo;d rather have it just wrapped into one video.\u0026rdquo; Erin said, \u0026ldquo;If I see like too many videos like on my screen, I\u0026rsquo;m not going to watch all of them. I\u0026rsquo;m being honest, like I\u0026rsquo;m not going to sit there and watch all of them.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents do not feel that instructional videos should be as long as in-person lectures. They feel that sitting in front of a computer for multiple classes is difficult. Students pointed out that during in-person lectures, there are breaks and distractions, such as when other students ask questions, or the class does an activity. Students also have a different mindset for in-person classes. For in-person classes, they sign up for a specific class time, so they expect to be in class for that length of time. However, students expect instructional videos to be shorter since they also have other activities to do in addition to the lecture. During focus group three, FGP8 emphatically stated that professors should not make lecture videos that exceed the allotted time for the seated class, and her group members agreed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents feel that they are better able to sustain attention and will retain more information for a short video rather than a long video. FGP9 stated, \u0026ldquo;I feel like any video that was 15 minutes or shorter or even 20 minutes or shorter, I feel like I got more out of, and I learned a lot more from versus the videos that were an hour long, even if there was more information because it was just like, I don\u0026rsquo;t know, I feel like my brain was able to retain more from those shorter videos.\u0026rdquo; FGP7 said, \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m gonna get every piece of information from this while I\u0026rsquo;m watching this 10-minute video versus like, OK, I got 45 minutes to watch this. And you know, maybe I look at my phone while it\u0026rsquo;s playing cause I\u0026rsquo;m still going to see most of it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch participants often talked about the length of instructional videos. During focus group 1, FGP1 mentioned time-saving strategies including fast forwarding and speeding up the playback speed and said that a long video was \u0026ldquo;longer than five minutes or 10.\u0026rdquo; When the two participants in focus group 1 were asked what they disliked about instructional videos, FGP2 said, \u0026ldquo;just don\u0026rsquo;t make them an hour long.\u0026rdquo; During focus group 2, participants were asked what factors contribute to whether they choose to use an instructional video, and FGP3 stated that he decided based on whether it is required \u0026ldquo;and number two, like how long is the video.\u0026rdquo; FGP5 said, \u0026ldquo;If like I\u0026rsquo;m slammed, midterms are coming up, I don\u0026rsquo;t have time to watch an hour-long video on something.\u0026rdquo; FGP4 talked about using time-saving strategies. During focus group 3, the length of the video was brought up by FGP7 and later by FGP9. FGP7 emphatically nodded her head when FGP8 talked about the length of the video. This moderator then asked about length since two of the three participants had mentioned it. There were nine contributions related to length and then the conversation turned to multi-tasking, which is also related to time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents suggest that instructional videos be as concise as possible. Some students prefer that instructors eliminate or keep the introduction to a minimum and eliminate the time taken to state the objectives. These students want the instructor to get to the point, quickly explain the topic, and end the video. Students suggest that instructors do one example, and then put more examples and other extra help in a supplemental optional video. On the other hand, one interviewee, who was an education major, disagreed because she stated that she likes objectives and believes they are important.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough students said that they can speed through unimportant parts if needed, most students agreed that it would be great if instructors edit out fumbling, retrieving items, turning the camera on and off, or other unnecessary parts. However, Sarah said, \u0026ldquo;Obviously, there\u0026rsquo;s very good reasons to edit videos, but if there\u0026rsquo;s not a necessarily needed reason, and you need to go take a sip of water, or like move something, or grab a sheet of paper, I think you should leave it in so that it feels more true to how actual like in-person classes are.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe length of the video influences how students use instructional videos, so this theme addresses research question one, \u0026ldquo;How do online undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?\u0026rdquo; When instructional videos are long, students choose not to watch them, they use strategies to speed them up, and they are more likely to do another unrelated activity while listening to the video. Because students do not like long videos and may choose not to use them, the usefulness of the video is affected. Therefore, this theme also addresses research question two, \u0026ldquo;How do online undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos?\u0026rdquo; In addition, students\u0026rsquo; enjoyment of instructional videos is influenced by students\u0026rsquo; preferences for short, concise, and topic-specific videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eVideo Characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theme, video characteristics, describes different aspects of instructional videos, including the type of instructional video. These characteristics relate to students\u0026rsquo; perceptions about usefulness and enjoyment. These characteristics also influence how students interact with instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents reported watching many types of instructional videos, including teacher-made videos and nonteacher-made videos. The nonteacher-made videos included videos that were professionally made and videos made by other instructors or lecturers. Students reported that the type of instructional video that they watched the most was narrated PowerPoints. The instructor\u0026rsquo;s face was sometimes shown but often the instructor was not seen.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther types of teacher-made instructional videos that the participants had been exposed to include narrated reviews of documents, classroom lectures, teacher talking with no text, recorded online conference (Zoom) sessions, lab demonstrations, composite videos with the instructor on one side of the screen and the slideshow on the other side, videos with the instructor narrating over a preexisting video, assignment videos, videos that provided an overview of a chapter or unit, problem-solving videos using a whiteboard, smartboard, or other screen, and videos that combined narrated PowerPoint slides with a whiteboard feature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonteacher-made videos included videos from other instructors or colleges, videos from online textbooks, TV shows, movies, performances, Crash Course, Khan academy, YouTube, TedTalks, Nearpod, videos of real-life applications, videos that utilize computer-assisted drawings during narration, videos that incorporate songs to aid memorization, and animations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents prefer videos that were specifically made for online viewing as opposed to videos that were recorded during a classroom lecture. With classroom lecture videos, online viewers may not be able to see and hear well. Also, the instructor is pacing the class specifically for the in-person students, and the instructor is interacting with the face-to-face students rather than the online students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents reported that teacher-made, course-specific instructional videos are particularly useful. For example, Erin stated, \u0026ldquo;If it\u0026rsquo;s like my weekly instructions, then I\u0026rsquo;ll watch it. But if it\u0026rsquo;s like a, like if you post the lecture slides, but then you also post a video of you going through the lecture slides, I\u0026rsquo;m not going to watch.\u0026rdquo; FGP3 said, \u0026ldquo;The ones I find useful and that I enjoy are the videos that provide like a big picture overview.\u0026rdquo; FGP3 added, \u0026ldquo;saying this is a topic for this chapter and here\u0026rsquo;s a definition that might be confusing, and I\u0026rsquo;ll explain it, and then here\u0026rsquo;s the topic for the next chapter. And that usually just helps me like frame like, what do I need to pay attention to once I actually begin reading.\u0026rdquo; Participants said they will watch videos that explain upcoming assignments or provide weekly instructions, but students may prefer that the information is provided in a quick email if that is all that is needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the most part, students prefer videos that are made by their instructor. Students feel that their instructor will emphasize the concepts that they need to know, and test questions will be based on the information provided by the instructor. Also, the instructor may personalize the information for that specific group of students and provide explanations based on the students\u0026rsquo; knowledge. However, sometimes students need to hear a different instructor explain a concept. As Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;Sometimes the way the professor explained it just was not how my brain worked.\u0026rdquo; Students may use the teacher-made videos to understand which concepts they need to know, and then they search for instructional videos that explain those concepts in a different way. If students are required to pass a standardized test, then they may prefer to learn from another source that will best prepare them for the exam. Therefore, in certain circumstances, students find nonteacher-made videos more useful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents also appreciate when their instructor narrates over a pre-existing video. Their instructor can explain and clarify based on the students\u0026rsquo; current understanding and backgrounds. Students also perceive this extra step as indicative of their instructor\u0026rsquo;s belief that the information in the video is important. Sarah said, \u0026ldquo;Prove that you care about the video. Either add yourself in it, add your thoughts, write something about it, but the lack of a personal touch makes it feel like my time is being wasted because you don\u0026rsquo;t care about it either.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome instructional videos are more enjoyable than others. Participants reported positive learning experiences while watching Khan academy, some YouTube videos, TedTalks, and videos of real-life applications. An interviewee who was an education major talked about the advantages of using Nearpod because it provides interactive questions and activities throughout the video. Students like animations that help them understand and learn complex concepts and processes. Students also like lab videos because they feel more confident in their ability to complete the activity correctly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents said that they like narrated PowerPoints, especially if animation is added. Students are more likely to watch the narrated PowerPoint if the instructor annotates by highlighting and pointing to things while talking. However, students will often not watch narrated PowerPoint videos if they have the PowerPoint slides that are self-explanatory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome narrated PowerPoints show the teacher, while others do not. Research participants were divided between those who prefer to see the teacher, prefer not to see the teacher, or do not care. Some students said that they only want to see the information, and the instructor\u0026rsquo;s presence would be distracting. Others said that showing the instructor helps them to feel more connected with the instructor. Allie said, \u0026ldquo;Facial expressions go a long way, so if they like make a joke about something or explaining something, like seeing how passionate they are about their subject helps a lot. And just being able to see what the teacher looks like, to put a face to the name helps with online school especially.\u0026rdquo; Tommy pointed out that it is difficult to \u0026ldquo;get a feel for the professor when all it is is just a voice and then slides that are prewritten.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents also like videos with step-by-step problem-solving displayed on a screen, such as a whiteboard. Instructors may solve mathematical problems using pre-drawn steps or by writing each step as they are solving the problem. FGP4 said, \u0026ldquo;It solely depends on the instructor and their handwriting, but yeah, I\u0026rsquo;d prefer if they did the steps because if they just show the steps, I know my eyes will generally go straight to the solution, and then I\u0026rsquo;ll get confused.\u0026rdquo; Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;The ones where I was watching problems be worked out, I was more likely to watch, whereas ones that were PowerPoint, and it was like a printed, like you would see the equation pop up, and then you\u0026rsquo;d see the next step and the next step, but it wasn\u0026rsquo;t them actually working it out. It was just the next slide. Those I always put on double speed and just zoomed through.\u0026rdquo; Students who prefer the steps to be written ahead point out that the steps are easy to read and are organized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents prefer videos with text. For example, students like videos that have closed captioning or subtitles. Students also prefer PowerPoints to have as much text as possible so that the students can follow along as the instructor is talking. Students appreciate having this text to help them focus on the lecture. Jessica said, \u0026ldquo;I have to have subtitles on because it just keeps me so much more focused in on it.\u0026rdquo; Having text also helps when instructors are difficult to understand. Jessica stated, \u0026ldquo;I had one professor, I just didn\u0026rsquo;t watch his videos. I knew I wasn\u0026rsquo;t gonna understand what he was saying, so I skipped out on \u0026lsquo;em.\u0026rdquo; She stated that if text had been provided, she may have watched the videos. As FGP7 stated, \u0026ldquo;If a professor had a really thick accent, and I had a like, a difficult time understanding all the words that he was saying, I can look at the PowerPoints, kind of be like, OK, this is exactly what he\u0026rsquo;s talking about.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents had several suggestions to improve instructional videos. Leslie stated, \u0026ldquo;I am more likely to click on it if I have a title, like if they\u0026rsquo;re telling me what I\u0026rsquo;m about to watch.\u0026rdquo; For labs, instructors should show the main steps and any tricky parts while making the video as short as possible. Students said that they do not like videos from online textbooks because the audio is often computer generated. Students do not like videos with static visuals or no visuals besides the instructor. Melissa said instructors should consider the background for the video because backgrounds can be distracting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents think that some types of instructional videos are more useful than others, and some are more enjoyable than others. Types of instructional videos that are more useful are those that include information that is only available in the video, such as weekly assignment videos. Teacher-made instructional videos are useful because the content is more likely to match learning objectives; however, non-teacher made instructional videos may provide better explanations. As far as enjoyment, students prefer videos that have text and dynamic visuals, so they do not enjoy videos of the teacher talking without any text or pictures. Students also do not enjoy classroom lecture videos as much as videos that were made for online students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudent Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther influences on the use of instructional videos are related to student factors. Student factors include preferences, characteristics, behaviors, and motivations of undergraduate students. Participants frequently mentioned their time management and personal goals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Participants talked about not having time and not wasting time. For educational activities, students try to use time wisely and behave in ways that are the most efficient use of their time. Lindsey stated, \u0026ldquo;So if I can only spend, you know, like 20 minutes a day, maybe an hour a day, trying to get to the work that I have to do for that class, I don\u0026rsquo;t have to think about it the rest of the week.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents want instructors to value their time. They do not want to have to watch unnecessary videos that are considered a waste of time. As FGP9 stated, \u0026ldquo;If this is like gonna waste my time, it cannot be a priority\u0026rdquo; to which FGP7 responded, \u0026ldquo;I agree.\u0026rdquo; Although students do not like being mandated to watch unnecessary videos, they appreciate having supplemental resources if needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents discussed multitasking, which relates to students\u0026rsquo; time. Students acknowledged that multitasking is not always effective; however, they also claimed that sometimes multitasking helps them to focus. Allie said, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s difficult for me to just sit and watch the video unless it\u0026rsquo;s like very animated and like interesting. It\u0026rsquo;s hard for me to just sit and watch a video without doing anything.\u0026rdquo; Melissa stated, \u0026ldquo;In order to stay awake during the listening to a longer video especially, I would play the card games while I listen to whatever.\u0026rdquo; Depending on the task, multitasking while listening to an instructional video may or may not be helpful.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents who are more goal-oriented and set their goals high, such as earning an A in a class versus merely passing the class, are more likely to watch instructional videos. Students vary on their personal goals. Mandy stated, \u0026ldquo;Some people, I know for a fact they don\u0026rsquo;t, they don\u0026rsquo;t really care about you know passing a class or like whatever. It\u0026rsquo;s not the end of the world. If I get a D, I get a D, or if I get a C, I get a C.\u0026rdquo; However, other students want to earn an A. As FGP2 stated, \u0026ldquo;For making better grades, you\u0026rsquo;re probably watching everything and reading everything.\u0026rdquo; Participants in this study reported that they search for information or additional videos when needed. Tommy said, \u0026ldquo;So students who are self-motivated, who really want to get the good grade and to get a lot done, I think they\u0026rsquo;ll benefit a lot from instructional video setup courses,\u0026rdquo; but he also acknowledged that he has had friends that \u0026ldquo;will almost forget that they have an online course and slip up.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal goals may be more difficult to attain without accountability. Because online students are not sitting in a class with the instructor, the student does not feel pressured to look toward and focus on the instructor. The student can look at her phone without any disappointing looks from the instructor. Tommy said, \u0026ldquo;In person, you\u0026rsquo;re kind of forced to listen, but online you can turn the volume down. You can zone out, and you don\u0026rsquo;t have to take it in as well as you probably should.\u0026rdquo; Mandy stated, \u0026ldquo;I know some friends who will not watch the video, like they just do not want to watch the video, and I think it\u0026rsquo;s because they aren\u0026rsquo;t being held responsible in this sense to watch the video compared to like if you\u0026rsquo;re in-person and the teacher\u0026rsquo;s right in front of you, and you don\u0026rsquo;t have a notebook out, you don\u0026rsquo;t have a pencil out.\u0026rdquo; She goes on to say, \u0026ldquo;But with a lecture video that\u0026rsquo;s at home, you\u0026rsquo;re held responsible to watch that video to get the information. Nobody else is going to make you do it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent factors influence the use of instructional videos. Students decide whether to use instructional videos partly based on how much of their time that they are willing to spend on the video. Students\u0026rsquo; personal goals, subsequent motivation, and lack of accountability influence their use of instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis qualitative descriptive study increased understanding of the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students. According to the TAM, ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment dictate usage of a technology; however, for the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students, it seems that usefulness and length are often the deciding factors. The TAM sometimes includes a distinction between the intention to use and actual use of a technology. To further understand the use of instructional videos, the intention to use and actual use of instructional videos need to be considered. The intention to use instructional videos is directly influenced by the usefulness, length, and occasionally, the expected enjoyment of the videos. Actual usage is influenced by the intention to use, ease of use if there are difficulties, and is further influenced by actual enjoyment. Figure\u0026nbsp;1 provides a visual representation of the intention to use and actual use of instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 1\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIntention to Use and Actual Use of Instructional Videos\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEase of use does not seem to be a deciding factor for the intention to use instructional videos because students expect videos to play without any problems. However, students described several situations that have occurred that impacted the accessibility or usability of instructional videos. Therefore, ease of use may influence actual use if challenges arise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to considering intention to use and actual use, there are other influences to consider. Video characteristics influence usefulness and enjoyment. Instructor characteristics influence enjoyment and therefore usefulness. Student factors, including time availability and personal goals, influence the decision to use instructional videos. These influences on the use of instructional videos are illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 2\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInfluences on the Use of Instructional Videos\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUse\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of instructional videos by online undergraduate students was not understood and needed to be explored to explain confusing and unexpected findings. Bordes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that students did not actually use the instructional videos that they requested. Based on the participants in this current study, students do not use instructional videos if they already know the information or have access to the information in another format that requires less of their time. Therefore, it is not surprising that the students in the study by Bordes et al. did not use the instructional videos because the students were in a flipped classroom, so they were exposed to the information during their face-to-face sessions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study by Laster-Loftus and Cooper (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the researchers failed to find a statistically significant difference in grades between students who did and did not have access to videos. Again, based on the findings from this current study, students who had the information in other formats may not have used the videos. Also, 38.7% of the students who did not have access to the videos made an A in the class. If students did not perceive the class as difficult, they would not have watched the videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaugerman and Saunders (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found a negative correlation between the minutes spent using instructional videos and grades; however, when ACT scores were controlled, there was a weak positive correlation. Therefore, the researchers postulated that the students who had higher levels of math and reading comprehension were less likely to watch instructional videos for that class. This current study provided evidence for that conclusion since students reported that they do not watch instructional videos if they already know the information. Since the students in Laugerman and Saunders\u0026rsquo;s study were in a traditional face-to-face classroom, the students were exposed to the information during class.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study by Harrison (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), students reported that the talking head type of instructional video was the most effective, but the students watched that format the least. The talking head video was described as \u0026ldquo;short videos of academics talking to camera from a script on a subject\u0026rdquo; (Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, p. 267). Although this researcher did not see an example of the type of video being described, the description implies that the videos displayed a speaker with no screens or other dynamic visuals. Based on the findings from this current study, students dislike instructional videos with only the instructor\u0026rsquo;s face visible. Students will not watch a video if it is considered boring, even if the information in the video is needed. Therefore, the findings in this study are consistent with Harrison\u0026rsquo;s finding that students may not watch a certain type of video even if students believe that it contains the information needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, Mayer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) recommended that additional research on instructional videos be conducted in the natural environment to determine the aspects of instructional videos that contribute to increases in learning. The dynamic drawing principle (Mayer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) was supported by this current study since students usually prefer that instructors draw steps as they explain them. However, a student who prefers pre-drawn steps stated that the instructor\u0026rsquo;s handwriting could influence the experience. For laboratory studies, researchers would need to include quick drawings that may not be as well organized or as clearly written since students may experience these conditions in actual instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEase of Use\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ease of use of instructional videos depends on accessibility and functionality. Nagy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Turan \u0026amp; Cetintas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) found that ease of use was not related to the use of instructional videos. The findings from this study also suggest that ease of use does not influence the intention to use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnjoyment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is limited research on students\u0026rsquo; enjoyment of instructional videos. According to Campbell et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), students often prefer instructional videos over other types of learning methods. Most of the research participants in this study agree. Rosenthal and Walker (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) stated that students in their study reported more positive experiences for in-person learning. Participants in this current study described positives and negatives for in-person versus video learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the large number of participants\u0026rsquo; responses related to instructor characteristics, instructors have a large impact on students\u0026rsquo; enjoyment of instructional videos. This finding aligns with Utz and Wolfers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Harrison (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Utz and Wolfers found that the strongest predictor of perceived usefulness and intention to use YouTube how-to videos was instructor quality. Harrison reported that instructor quality was the most important factor. Participants in this study reported that they would not watch a video even if they needed to watch it if the instructor used a monotone voice and did not engage with the students making the video boring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUsefulness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings from this study strongly suggest that the usefulness of instructional videos is a deciding factor for the use of instructional videos. Therefore, the relationship between usefulness and use shown in the TAM is supported by this study. Pal and Patra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Nagy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) found that usefulness was related to use; however, Turan and Cetintas (202) did not. Turan and Cetintas conducted their study with students in a flipped classroom, so the students were exposed to concepts during their face-to-face sessions. Therefore, students may not have valued the information and may have been reluctant to spend their time outside of class watching videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study suggest that students consider most instructional videos to be useful. The data from this study supports other studies since participants suggested that instructional videos increase motivation (Caskurlu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Laugerman \u0026amp; Saunders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), confidence (Laugerman \u0026amp; Saunders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and engagement (Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, participants said that some instructional videos are not useful. For example, videos are not useful if students already know the information or have the information.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study can also be used to support principles related to the usefulness of instructional videos. Mayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) used the cognitive load theory to develop principles related to the usefulness of instructional videos. To decrease extraneous overload, Mayer suggested that instructors highlight information as they explain concepts. The benefit of cueing students toward important information is called the signaling principle (Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The findings in this study support the signaling principle. To decrease essential overload, Mayer suggests dividing information into smaller topics. The findings from this study also support Mayer\u0026rsquo;s segmenting principle.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo increase generative processing, Mayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) suggests the personalization, voice, and image principles. The personalization principle proposes that students benefit when instructors use first and second person to create a more personal style of teaching. The voice principle promotes using a human voice, and the image principle encourages instructors to use gestures and look at the camera to establish eye contact. The findings from this study support all of these principles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Beheshti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) seem to disagree on the amount of text that should be on videos. Mayer says that the modality principle suggests that instructors use narration rather than extra text to provide information. Mayer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that subtitles be used for students who have a different native language. Beheshti et al. promote text and captions. The findings from this study support Beheshti et al. Students prefer to have text on PowerPoints so that they know what to write down and can follow along. This preference may relate to extraneous overload as students try to filter through the narration provided by their instructors searching for the important details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMayer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) acknowledges that his principles are mostly based on laboratory experiments, so Mayer encourages studies that are conducted in natural environments. In this current study that asks students about their thoughts and behaviors in real online classes, students said that following along with text on PowerPoints or subtitles helps students to focus on the information in the video. In a natural environment, students may not be as focused while being at home with the many distractions that occur. In a laboratory setting, students may find it easier to temporarily focus while participating in an experiment. Therefore, the debate about adding text to slides may be related to differences in laboratory and natural environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnfortunately, this study was not able to provide clarification on the topic of teacher presence. Some participants prefer the teacher to be seen and heard, while others prefer that the camera focuses solely on the information. Some participants want to feel connected to the instructor, while others want to focus on the material. Although many research studies have investigated the impact of teacher presence, findings have been mixed. Therefore, the findings in this study are consistent with the literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study may provide an explanation for the mixed results found in studies that compare the retention of information for in-person learning versus video learning. Martin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) reported that individuals performed better with video learning. Schnee et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that students were more successful in in-person classes. The study by Martin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) was a one-day laboratory experiment, while the study by Schnee et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) used a natural environment. In the study by Schnee et al., students had to watch lengthy videos on their own time. The findings from this study would suggest that the students may not have watched the video if they did not think it was needed or if it was lengthy. Therefore, the participants in the study by Schnee et al. may not have performed as well because in a natural environment, participants are less likely to watch the video.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe differences in in-person and video learning were discussed by the research participants in this study. Participates said that video learning can be superior to face-to-face learning because students can individualize their learning sessions. However, research participants also said that learning from videos requires more intentional effort. As a participant stated, students in in-person classes are expected to look at the instructor and listen, while students online can look at their phones and do other tasks while the video lecture plays. If little effort is put into learning, students will learn more in the in-person environment because they see and hear the instructor during the designated class time. This observation could explain the differences in learning between studies that require individuals to try to complete short learning tasks in a laboratory during a set time and studies that investigate learning in more natural environments with no set time to watch the videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the video deficit effect may contribute to the decrease in video learning. Some scholars report that the video deficit effect is only applicable to very young children; however, others have suggested that some aspects may continue to influence learning into adulthood (Strouse \u0026amp; Samson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One of the research participants talked about learning from information shared by other people in social situations. Her comments support the cooperation principle for communication, in which people enter a social partnership. She also mentioned the importance of eye contact. As Strouse and Samson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) point out, learning is more difficult without cues that indicate what information is important. Research participants in this study discussed the importance of these cues, and they stated that they prefer when their instructors provide these cues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLength of Video\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe length of videos has been discussed as an important factor in the literature related to the use of instructional videos (Beheshti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Bordes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), but the length is not a construct in the TAM. Because the TAM applies to any type of technology, length is not a component. If Pal and Patra (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who used the TAM and TTF model to investigate the use of instructional videos, had included length as a factor, they may have explained a higher amount of the variance. Participants in this study reported that they often speed up instructional videos, which aligns with the findings in a study by Wilson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Research participants said they are reluctant to watch long videos. Research participants prefer short videos, as corroborated by other studies (Bordes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mustafa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As Bordes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found, research participants\u0026rsquo; preferences for the length of instructional videos varied in this study too. Students want short videos, but they also want all the information needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eVideo Characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVideo characteristics refer to specific aspects of instructional videos and to the different types of instructional videos. According to Chorianopoulos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), students do not like videos of face-to-face class lectures. Participants in this study also expressed a dislike for videos of class lectures. A participant explained that instructors in videos of in-person class lectures are focused on the students in the class, and they pace the lecture based on those students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudent Factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent factors focused on time management and motivation toward goals. As Martin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported, time management is considered an important skill for online students. During this study, participants frequently discussed strategies related to time management that allowed students to use instructional videos in the most efficient way. In addition, participants said that being successful with video learning requires effort, which aligns with Dutton et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Participants reported that they gained confidence when using instructional videos, which supports the increase in self-efficacy (Berga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, participants reported increased motivation as discussed by Caskurlu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Fyfield et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and increased engagement (Fyfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly one student from each of the two community colleges completed an interview despite the combined number of students at these community colleges being close to 15,000 students. Using the various recruitment strategies, 34 potential participants clicked on the participation link, but only 20 completed an interview or focus group. Therefore, the 20 individuals who participated in an interview or focus group may not be representative of the population of undergraduate students. The students who agreed to participate and followed through with the online interview or focus group may have more initiative, motivation, and may be more likely to follow through with commitments than other individuals. This characterization is further supported by the sample\u0026rsquo;s data. Most participants had high GPAs and had taken many college classes. Therefore, a limitation of this study is that the sample may have low heterogeneity, which does not allow for a thorough exploration of the use of instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis qualitative descriptive study on the use of instructional videos by online undergraduate students has produced important insights that contribute to the literature on this topic, provided effective strategies for instructors to better meet the needs of online students, and suggested future research to further the understanding of the use of instructional videos. As a result, instructional videos may become more useful and enjoyable, and thus, students may become more motivated and engaged. If online students have more positive experiences with instructional videos, their success may increase, and their drop-out rate could decrease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study may be used to enhance learning experiences. There are some aspects that vary by student, such as teacher presence, multiple segmented videos or a single video, and the best length for instructional videos. However, there are other findings that are consistent across students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen using instructional videos, students should feel that their time is being well spent and that the instructor values the students\u0026rsquo; time. Instructional videos should be specific to the learning objectives, contain all the information needed, and only the information needed. Therefore, teacher-made instructional videos are often preferred since the instructor can personalize the content. Videos should be as short and concise as possible. If an instructor uses a preexisting video, the instructor should narrate over it or provide notes about it to convey the importance of the video. Instructional videos should be designed so that they are visually appealing with dynamic visuals and animations. Text should be added to help students stay focused. Videos should provide real-life footage or stories. Speakers need to be enthusiastic about their topic and try to engage and interact with the online students, speaking to them as if they were talking to them in person. Instructors should make the videos enjoyable by adding creativity and humor. When instructors put in extra effort, students feel like their instructors care about the students and the topic. Finally, educators need to understand that students use multiple strategies to meet requirements without watching assigned videos. Therefore, instructors need to help students understand the value of the videos. Educators may want to consider how to motivate their students to engage with the videos, rather than trying to mandate usage by monitoring their usage behaviors, which may not be an accurate reflection of their actual behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFuture Research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should further explore these findings to confirm their accuracy and transferability. This study should be replicated with a different and more diverse sample. In addition, data analysis could be conducted by someone who is not familiar with the literature on the use of instructional videos. Then, the findings should be compared. In addition, a quantitative study could be conducted to investigate how much variance in the use of instructional videos can be explained using the influences identified in this study: usefulness, length, enjoyment, ease of use, video characteristics, and student factors. A study that uses a smartphone app to collect data at the time of the decision to use or not use an instructional video would be helpful. Finally, the findings from this study suggest that the video deficit effect may apply to adults as well as young children. To investigate this possibility, researchers could conduct an experiment that compares automatic encoding from a video and automatic encoding from an in-person conversation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Statements and Declarations","content":"\n\u003cp\u003eThe author has no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExcerpts from the data collected for this study are provided in the text and the appendix in this published article. Individual interview and focus group transcripts are not shared because to do so would violate Institutional Review Board approval.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAli, S. M., \u0026amp; Ali, A. Z. M. (2019). Perceived ease of use towards acceptance on focused educational video sharing site. \u003cem\u003eAsia-Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia, 8\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;15. https://doi.org/10.17576/apjitm-2019-0801-01\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl-Maatouk, Q., Othman, M. S., Aldraiweesh, A., Alturki, U., Al-Rahmi, W. M., \u0026amp; Aljeraiwi, A. A. (2020). Task-technology fit and technology acceptance model application to structure and evaluate the adoption of social media in academia. \u003cem\u003eIEEE Access, 8\u003c/em\u003e, 78427\u0026ndash;78440. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2990420\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAtkinson, R. C., \u0026amp; Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). 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Teachers\u0026rsquo; continuous vs. intermittent presence in procedural knowledge instructional videos. \u003cem\u003eInnovations in Education \u0026amp; Teaching International, 56\u003c/em\u003e(4), 481\u0026ndash;492. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2018.1470020\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZielinski, D., Matthews, R., Koman, C., Jezik, K., \u0026amp; Kiel, E. (2018). College student feedback about librarian-created instructional videos: Why aren\u0026rsquo;t they using them? \u003cem\u003eJournal of Library \u0026amp; Information Services in Distance Learning, 12\u003c/em\u003e(1-2), 56\u0026ndash;66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533290X.2018.1467811\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Grand Canyon University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"instructional videos, educational videos, online learning, technology acceptance model","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis qualitative descriptive study explored the use of instructional videos by undergraduate students at community colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The technology acceptance model (TAM) was used as the framework for this study. According to the TAM, the use of technology is influenced by perceptions related to the ease of use, enjoyment, and usefulness of the technology. Therefore, the research questions were, “How do undergraduate students describe their use of instructional videos?” and “How do undergraduate students describe their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and enjoyment of instructional videos?” The sample included 20 research participants. Eleven participants chose to be interviewed individually, and nine participants chose to attend one of three focus groups. Reflexive thematic analysis identified seven themes: use, usefulness, enjoyment, ease of use, length of video, video characteristics, and student factors. Usefulness, the most important determinant for use, is increased when the videos contain the specific information that is needed for success in the class. Students also consider the length, and occasionally enjoyment, when deciding whether to watch videos and how they watch videos. Students employ a variety of strategies, such as speeding up the video, to obtain the information needed using the least amount of time. The use of instructional videos is also influenced by certain video characteristics and student factors. Although ease of use does not influence intention to use, actual usage can be impacted by challenges related to ease of use. The findings from this study increase understanding related to the use of instructional videos and can be applied to increase the likelihood that students will use, and therefore benefit, from instructional videos.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Qualitative Descriptive Study on the Use of Instructional Videos by Undergraduate Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-05 18:12:41","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3832576/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"cb0e33ce-9eef-43f5-a267-ab46e3344284","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":28046591,"name":"Educational Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-01-05T18:12:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-05 18:12:41","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3832576","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3832576","identity":"rs-3832576","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}