Mentoring as Professional Support for Beginning Teachers in Kyrgyzstan

Mentoring as Professional Support for Beginning Teachers in Kyrgyzstan | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mentoring as Professional Support for Beginning Teachers in Kyrgyzstan Toichubek Kabylov, Suita Abdykadyrova, Rakhat Sagyndykova, Samara Pazylova, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8451993/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the role of mentoring in supporting the professional development and retention of beginning teachers in government schools in Kyrgyzstan. Using a mixed-methods design – semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and reflective journals from 30 teachers (mentors and novices)–the research reveals that novice teachers heavily rely on teacher-centered instructional practices, resorting to student-centered methods only rarely. These tendencies appear to be largely shaped by systemic constraints such as overload, insufficient pedagogical models, and limited institutional support. Mentoring has emerged as a critical resource that offers both pedagogical guidance and emotional support, helping novices navigate classroom management, workload demands, and adaptation to diverse learners. However, the quality of mentoring varies markedly across schools, reflecting broader systemic gaps such as uneven mentor preparation, restricted resources and inconsistent organisational structures. The findings underline the need for structured mentoring programmes that combine technical pedagogical training with relational, psychosocial support – a balance essential for improving teaching quality and reducing early-career teacher attrition in Kyrgyzstan and similar contexts. These results have significant implications for policy and practice, particularly regarding the design, support, and scaling of mentoring programs. mentoring beginning teachers teacher professional development teacher retention Kyrgyzstan educational policy Figures Figure 1 Introduction Beginning teachers commonly face significant challenges in bridging the gap between university-based theory and classroom practices. This transition, extensively discussed in the professional development literature, involves the need to establish a professional identity and develop pedagogical competence under demanding conditions. Researchers have described the professional growth of new teachers as a journey of adaptation to school settings and classroom interactions. Katz (1972), as cited in Ginns et al. (2001), identified four stages in the development of preschool educators: survival, consolidation, renewal, and maturity [13]. He suggested that the first two stages generally occur within the first two to three years of teaching. During the survival stage, teachers are primarily concerned with their own needs, such as handling daily responsibilities and short-term planning (Katz). As they progress to the consolidation stage, their attention shifts from themselves to their students. Some researchers describe the problem of a "reality shock," [29; 42], which new teachers often face when transitioning from higher education to full-time teaching roles. This period involves initial classroom challenges and uncertainties, ongoing experimentation, and a disparity between educational ideals and the real classroom environment. These challenges include managing both instruction and classroom discipline, navigating shifting dynamics between closeness and conflict with students, and dealing with insufficient teaching resources and disruptive student behavior. Scholars such as Luong (2025), Larsen (2023), Shanks (2017), and Cruz et al. (2023) have emphasized the importance of dedicated support systems for beginning teachers to enhance their immediate experiences and sustain long-term professional development and retention [12; 25; 27; 39]. Mentoring has emerged as a particularly effective form of support, providing structured guidance, encouragement, and professional modeling. Its purpose extends beyond advice-giving to empower beginning teachers to take ownership of their learning and progress toward professional autonomy. Smith R. (2022) describes mentoring as sharing knowledge, skills, and experience to encourage and empower another person, particularly in education, where the goal is to foster teacher autonomy and self-directed learning rather than to prescribe solutions [40]. Similarly, Cruz et al. (2023) viewed mentors as role models who demonstrate effective strategies and offer practical recommendations to help mentees address the challenges they face in the classroom [12]. Mentoring is inherently reciprocal and relational, requiring trust, collaboration and active engagement. As Pandey and Sharma (2022) argue, its success depends on the intentional, collaborative involvement of both mentors and mentees, with mentors guiding beginning teachers toward competence and confidence through shared knowledge and experience [34]. In Kyrgyzstan, mentoring is recognised as a vital component of teacher professional development, although its implementation is inconsistent [15]. While national education policies emphasize mentoring as an essential mechanism for supporting both novice and in-service teachers, the practical application of these policies varies significantly across regions and institutions. In many schools, mentoring is well-structured and supported by leadership, enabling teachers to receive continuous guidance, feedback, and classroom assistance [35]. However, in other contexts, mentoring practices tend to be informal, irregular, or reliant on the personal initiative of individual educators [5]. Such inconsistencies are often associated with disparities in school resources, administrative commitment, and access to trained mentors [38]. Consequently, teachers’ mentoring experiences vary significantly, affecting the quality of professional growth and the long-term sustainability of mentoring practices in the country’s education system. Strengthening the national mentoring framework and ensuring more consistent implementation remain critical priorities for advancing teachers’ professional development in Kyrgyzstan. Despite these efforts, teacher education programmes across Kyrgyzstan often fail to prepare teachers fully for the realities of contemporary classrooms. Large class sizes, often 50 to 60 students in government schools, combined with shortages of teaching and learning materials, create significant barriers to effective instruction. Despite advancements in information and communications technology (ICT), many public schools worldwide continue to use chalk sticks and chalkboards [28]. These conditions tend to perpetuate traditional, teacher-centred practices focused on reproducing textbook content rather than fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Government-organized in-service training programs tend to overlook teachers’ current knowledge and development, focusing instead on instructing them on what they need to learn. This approach is ineffective, as it fails to consider teachers' needs and existing beliefs, which are crucial for effective professional development. As noted by Speck and Knipe, cited in Bayrakçı, 2009, teachers are resistant to any professional training imposed by their superiors [6]. Instruction in most government schools remains predominantly teacher-centred, characterized by lectures and passive student listening. This approach persists partly due to limited ongoing in-service training and weak professional networking. Additionally, low salaries and insufficient institutional support contribute to high attrition rates, especially among beginning teachers who find the demands of the profession to be overwhelming. Addressing these challenges requires targeted professional support to improve the quality and retention of teaching. Mentoring is increasingly recognised as a key mechanism for supporting new teachers through structured guidance that addresses diverse classroom challenges [25]. This study investigates the role of mentoring in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in government schools in Kyrgyzstan. By examining the experiences of beginning teachers and mentors, it provides insights into professional development needs, the effectiveness of existing support structures, and the priorities for policy and practice. Through a nuanced analysis of mentoring’s contributions, challenges, and outcomes, the study aims to inform broader efforts to create more supportive environments for beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan and similar developing countries. Statement of the problem During the Soviet era, formal mentoring systems played a strategic role in supporting and retaining beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan. Recent analyses, however, show that in many post-Soviet states, including Kyrgyzstan, mentor training remains inconsistent, poorly supported and often inadequately evaluated [26]. This shift has weakened early-career teacher induction structures that previously served as essential scaffolding for professional growth. Contemporary studies on school workplace cultures emphasise persistent fragmentation and generational divides among teachers. While Hargreaves’ (1992) concept of “Balkanisation” remains relevant [14], recent scholarship highlights that such divisions often intensify when institutional support structures are weak or unevenly implemented [37]. In this climate, some experienced teachers may feel overburdened or unsupported in their own roles, reducing their willingness or capacity to mentor novices. Beginning teachers report that the absence of structured support results in professional isolation, limited opportunities for reflective practice, and difficulty developing confidence in classroom management and instructional decision-making. These gaps mirror global evidence showing that poorly structured induction can undermine teacher efficacy and increase early attrition, particularly in resource-constrained contexts [41; 45]. Rationale and significance of the study Mentoring is widely recognised as essential for teacher development and retention, with contemporary research emphasising its dual role in providing both pedagogical and emotional support [25; 27]. A mentor acts not only as a pedagogical guide but also as a source of stability and encouragement during the challenging early career transition Walker and Kutsyuruba (2019 ), add that the encouragement of beginner teachers while executing tasks independently alongside their mentors leads to improved self-efficacy, professional identity development, independence and confidence [43]. Recent studies in developing and low-resource contexts show that there are inconsistencies in support mechanism such as mentoring standards and, as a result, beginning teachers may feel isolated and unsupported with a growing dissatisfaction for teaching as a career [17]. This undermines early confidence, effectiveness, and long-term commitment to the profession. The present study is significant for three reasons: 1. Contribution to mentoring research in developing contexts: By analysing mentoring practices within Kyrgyzstan’s specific sociocultural and educational landscape, the study adds to current knowledge on how induction functions in under-resourced systems. 2. Insights into teaching quality and student learning: Recent global evidence highlights that mentoring improves instructional quality, classroom management, and learner engagement [41; 45]. This study examines how these benefits manifest in Kyrgyz classrooms. 3. Advancement of theory and practice: Findings extend current theoretical discussions on structured induction by demonstrating how mentoring influences novice teachers’ professional identity formation and resilience [44]. Method A mixed-methods design was employed to gain a comprehensive understanding of mentoring practices in Kyrgyzstani government schools. Such designs have become increasingly important in education research, allowing for deeper triangulation and more credible interpretation of findings [11]. Participants included 30 teachers (10 mentors and 20 novices) selected through purposive sampling to ensure information-rich cases aligned with the study’s aims (See Table 1 ). Recent literature supports purposive sampling in education research where depth of insight, rather than generalisation, is the primary objective [7]. Data collection occurred over seven months and included: • Semi-structured interviews: These enabled participants to articulate their experiences and challenges. The semi-structured design allowed for flexibility, depth, and comparability across interviews [9]. • Classroom observations: Conducted twice for each novice teacher using a structured protocol. Observational data are essential in early-career teaching research as they reveal instructional realities that interviews alone cannot capture [41]. • Reflective journals: Maintained by both mentors and novices, these provided longitudinal insight into professional growth and relationship dynamics. Ethical approval from Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7) ensured that confidentiality, voluntary participation, and data security were rigorously upheld. Table 1 summarises the participants and key demographic characteristics. Table 1 Demographic characteristics of participants Participant type Number Gender (M/F) Years of experience School type (Urban/Rural) Mentor teachers 10 1 / 9 10 + 6 / 4 Beginning teachers 20 2 / 18 1–3 12 / 8 Total 30 3 / 27 - 18 / 12 Data analysis Qualitative data (interviews and journals) were analysed using Naeem et al. (2023) thematic analysis, following the six-phase process of familiarisation, coding, theme development, review, definition, and reporting. This approach remains one of the most widely validated frameworks for qualitative analysis [31]. Two independent coders contributed to the analysis, with interrater agreement procedures enhancing reliability. Reflexive notes ensured transparency regarding researcher positionality. Quantitative observational data were analysed descriptively to determine the frequencies and percentages of instructional practices, classroom management approaches, and mentoring interactions. Descriptive statistics remain the standard in mixed-methods classroom research because of their clarity and utility [9]. Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative findings improved analytic robustness and allowed convergence across multiple data sources, producing a more holistic picture of mentoring practices and early career teacher challenges [41]. Trustworthiness and ethics Credibility was enhanced through member checking, in which the participants reviewed the interview transcripts and preliminary interpretations to confirm their accuracy. Reflexive notes maintained throughout the study supported transparency regarding the researchers’ assumptions. The ethical principles of confidentiality, voluntary participation, and secure data management were rigorously upheld throughout the research process in accordance with institutional guidelines and national ethical standards. Results Teaching practices of beginning teachers Classroom observations revealed that beginning teachers continued to rely predominantly on teacher-centred instructional practices. Quantitative analysis indicated that approximately 70% of lessons were lecture-based, with limited incorporation of student-centered methodologies, whereas only 30% involved active learning techniques (see Fig. 1). As a result, students had fewer opportunities to develop inquiry, collaboration, and problem-solving skills, which are central to contemporary pedagogical priorities. Conversely, student-centred strategies such as collaborative discussions, inquiry tasks, and group problem-solving appeared infrequently. Despite their limited use, these strategies align with emerging efforts to integrate constructivist pedagogy into pre-service training programs in Kyrgyzstan [41]. Interviews and reflective journals highlighted that novice teachers recognised the value of active learning, but felt constrained by large class sizes, limited materials, and insufficient modelling of these techniques during training. These findings corroborate recent evidence showing that early career teachers experience skill- and knowledge-based tensions during their initial years in the profession [32] and often prioritize structured, controlled approaches owing to uncertainties in classroom management. Systemic barriers, such as limited access to professional development, further reinforce the reliance on transmissive practices. Mentorship experiences To complement the observational findings, interview and journal data were analysed to explore teachers’ experiences with mentoring. This analysis identified five primary dimensions of mentorship: (a) guidance on lesson planning, (b) classroom management support, (c) feedback on teaching methods, (d) emotional support, and (e) career-related advice (see Table 2). These qualitative insights offer a deeper understanding of the contextual factors influencing novices' instructional practices, as introduced in the previous section. Mentors reportedly provided substantial support in lesson planning, behavior management, and assessment, enabling beginning teachers to design more coherent lessons and critically reflect on their instructional decisions. This practical scaffolding aligns with findings that mentoring plays a pivotal role in bridging the theory–practice gap [4; 18]. Emotional support also emerged as essential. Beginning teachers described mentors’ encouragement as critical for managing stress, coping with uncertainty, and developing confidence, an aspect of mentoring widely recognized for its protective influence during induction [19; 44]. Despite these strengths, mentorship experiences varied considerably among the participants. Some mentor–mentee pairs developed highly productive relationships characterised by regular dialogue, collaborative planning, and constructive feedback. Others reported minimal engagement due to time constraints, limited mentor training, or a lack of institutional direction. These discrepancies reflect international findings indicating that mentoring effectiveness depends heavily on structural support and institutional expectations [25]. Table 2 summarizes the mentees’ perceptions of mentor effectiveness across core dimensions. Table 2 Mentees’ Perceptions of Mentor Effectiveness (Likert Scale: 1 = Not Effective, 5 = Very Effective) Aspect of Mentorship Mean SD Providing lesson planning guidance 4.2 0.8 Classroom management support 4.0 0.9 Providing feedback on teaching methods 4.1 0.7 Emotional support 3.8 1.0 Career guidance / professional advice 3.9 0.9 Note: Scores reflect the mentees’ self-reported perceptions of mentor effectiveness. Professional challenges faced by beginning teachers Beginning teachers reported professional challenges, including classroom management, workload stress, and difficulties adapting instruction for diverse learners. Rural teachers additionally emphasised resource scarcity and professional isolation, mirroring the obstacles described in recent studies of developing-country school systems [8; 45]. Classroom management was the most frequently cited challenge, with 65% of participants reporting difficulties such as maintaining discipline and ensuring student engagement in the classroom. This finding reinforces the earlier observation that novice teachers rely on structured, teacher-centred methods to maintain control, a pattern consistent with the broader literature [22]. Workload balance was reported by 50% of the participants as a significant source of stress. Beginning teachers noted that lesson planning, administrative tasks, and extracurricular duties created substantial pressure, reflecting global concerns linking increased workload to burnout and early turnover [20, 23]. A further challenge involved adapting instruction to meet diverse learner needs. Participants expressed uncertainty about differentiating instruction for students with varying academic levels and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers in rural schools reported additional resource constraints and limited professional networks, which compounded these challenges [30]). Table 3 provides a detailed summary of these challenges. Table 3 Professional Challenges of Beginning Teachers (Likert Scale: 1 = Not Challenging, 5 = Extremely Challenging) Aspects of professional challenge Mean SD Description / Indicators Classroom management 4.4 0.7 Maintaining discipline, ensuring participation, establishing authority Workload balance 4.1 0.8 Managing lesson preparation, administrative duties, and extracurricular tasks Instructional adaptation to diverse learners 3.9 0.9 Differentiating instruction for varied academic levels, languages, and learning needs Note: Scores reflect beginning teachers’ self-reported challenges Triangulated findings To unify the themes emerging from the instructional observations, mentoring experiences, and professional challenges, the data were triangulated across all sources. This integrative approach enhanced the credibility of the findings and provided a more comprehensive understanding of beginning teachers’ experiences. Across various data streams, classroom management has consistently emerged as the most pressing challenge, underscoring its central importance in early career teaching [19]. However, perspectives diverged between mentors and mentees: mentors emphasised the structural limitations of existing mentoring arrangements, while mentees highlighted the emotional support provided by mentors. These differences reflect the dual conceptualizations of mentoring – structural versus relational – identified in previous scholarship [16, 36]. Taken together, the triangulated findings highlight the interdependence of instructional practices, professional challenges and mentorship quality. They underscore the need for more structured induction systems that integrate pedagogical guidance and sustained relational support. Table 4 provides a consolidated overview of these themes. Table 4 Triangulated Findings: Perspectives on Mentorship and Early-Career Challenges (Likert Scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree) Statement / Theme Mean SD Key Source of Evidence Classroom management is the most pressing challenge for beginning teachers. 4.5 0.6 Observations, interviews, journals There is a need for more structured and formalized mentoring programs at the institutional level. 4.3 0.7 Mentor interviews Mentorship currently lacks systemic guidelines and is often ad hoc. 4.1 0.8 Mentor interviews Beginning teachers highly value emotional support and sustained encouragement from mentors. 4.4 0.7 Mentee reflections, journals Structured induction systems should balance technical guidance with relational and emotional support. 4.6 0.5 Integrated analysis across data sources Note: Scores reflect the participants’ level of agreement. Discussion This study examined the experiences of beginning teachers and their mentors, focusing specifically on instructional practices, mentoring dynamics, and early-career professional challenges. The findings both confirm and extend existing research on teacher induction and professional development by highlighting the strengths of current mentoring practices while revealing persistent gaps that require targeted systemic intervention. The predominance of teacher-centred instruction among beginning teachers reflects global trends wherein novices default to structured, predictable pedagogies during their early years [10]. Multiple factors likely contribute to this trend, including limited pedagogical repertoires, heightened concerns about classroom management, and pressures related to curriculum coverage and high-stakes assessment [17]. At the same time, although student-centred practices were used sparingly, their presence indicates incremental shifts toward interactive learning, consistent with contemporary pedagogical reforms across developing countries [41]. This also implies that teacher preparation programs in Kyrgyzstan may be introducing the foundational elements of constructivist pedagogy, albeit unevenly across different contexts and candidates. Mentoring has emerged as a central mechanism for supporting novice teachers’ development. Its dual function, pedagogical and emotional, aligns with recent research emphasising its role in strengthening resilience, reducing burnout, and enhancing instructional decision-making. Significantly, mentoring facilitates adapting classroom practices, emphasising collaboration, lesson planning and promoting SDL – elements vital for ongoing professional development and resilience in the educational field [29; 44]. Pedagogical support includes feedback on lesson design, classroom management, and assessment practices, enabling novice teachers to refine their instructional decision-making [21]. Emotional support is equally important, helping beginning teachers manage stress and uncertainty, thereby fostering their resilience and confidence. However, the effectiveness of mentoring varied substantially among schools. These disparities are consistent with broader evidence indicating that mentoring is most impactful when supported by formal structures, mentor preparation, and designated collaboration time [25; 33]. At the same time, the study revealed significant variability in mentoring quality. Reported differences in communication frequency, depth, and focus ranged from sustained and productive collaboration to sporadic or superficial contact. These disparities highlight systemic constraints, including limited institutional prioritization of mentoring, insufficient mentor preparation, and competing professional demands that reduce the available collaboration time. Such patterns align with critiques of informal or ad hoc mentoring arrangements, which often lack a coherent structure and consequently underperform [15; 18]. The findings underscore a clear policy recommendation: develop structured, well-resourced mentoring programs that incorporate mentor training, protected time for collaboration, and institutional recognition. Challenges reported by novice teachers echo international findings in resource-constrained contexts: large class sizes, insufficient materials, emotional fatigue, and limited professional networks. Classroom management plays a crucial role in students' success in learning. Classroom management has emerged as the most pressing concern [2]. Workload imbalance also posed significant strain, as novice teachers struggled to manage lesson planning, administrative duties, and extracurricular responsibilities, all of which contribute to burnout and early attrition. Excessive administrative demands may generate workload stress, whereas a lack of collegial support can lead to emotional weariness [3; 23]. Additionally, adapting instructions for heterogeneous student populations is another critical challenge. Rural teachers, in particular, face heightened challenges, which aligns with the current literature documenting the inequities between urban and rural teaching environments [8]. Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative data revealed systematic divergence in mentoring priorities. Mentors emphasized structural features, such as formalized frameworks, clear expectations, and systemic support to ensure consistency and quality. In contrast, beginning teachers highlighted relational and emotional dimensions, emphasizing the importance of encouragement and sustained interpersonal support. This dual emphasis reflects the established distinctions between structural and relational mentoring functions and suggests that balanced program designs are necessary to address both [16, 36]. Overall, the findings highlight the need for structured induction systems that integrate pedagogical guidance and relational mentoring. Key priorities include institutionalizing mentoring through well-defined program structures and comprehensive mentor preparation, allocating dedicated time for collaboration, integrating technical feedback with strong emotional support, and strengthening professional learning communities. Addressing resource disparities, particularly in rural schools, is essential for improving teacher retention, instructional quality, and ultimately, student learning outcomes. Such systems would support teacher autonomy, improve classroom practices and enhance early career retention. Conclusion This study examined the instructional practices, mentoring experiences, and professional challenges of beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan. The results demonstrate that novice teachers in Kyrgyzstan predominantly employ teacher-centred instructional approaches, influenced by classroom management concerns, limited resources, and insufficient modelling of innovative pedagogies. Recent research similarly shows that early career teachers in comparable developing or resource-limited systems often rely on traditional, teacher-directed methods because of classroom management pressures and limited access to effective professional learning. Mentoring plays a vital role in supporting novices, but its inconsistent quality underscores the need for more coherent and structured mentoring programs. International evidence highlights that well designed mentoring, when implemented systematically, improves instructional quality, teacher self-efficacy, and retention rates. However, uneven mentoring quality, especially in decentralised systems, continues to impede effective induction in many contexts. Key challenges – classroom management, workload pressures, and instructional differentiation – mirror those reported internationally, but are intensified in rural and resource-constrained environments. Studies conducted after 2022 similarly identified classroom management, emotional labour, and workload intensification as core global challenges for beginning teachers, especially in under-resourced schools [2]. Triangulated findings revealed a systematic divergence between mentors’ focus on structural coherence and mentees’ prioritisation of relational and emotional support, a dynamic consistent with recent scholarship on mentoring “expectation mismatches” between novice and experienced teachers [24]. The findings reaffirm that sustainable teacher development requires robust and context-sensitive induction systems. Evidence from studies indicates that induction programs tailored to local needs, rather than generic, imported models, produce more lasting improvements in pedagogical practice and retention [1]. Overall, the evidence underscores the importance of structured mentoring, reflective practice, and context-sensitive induction systems in strengthening early career teaching effectiveness. Addressing these areas can improve instructional quality, enhance novice teachers’ confidence and well-being, and support retention in the profession. Future research should employ longitudinal and multi-method approaches to track professional growth over time and inform the development of more robust induction policies tailored to the Kyrgyz context that are more robust. Recent work emphasises that longitudinal designs provide the most reliable insights into novice teachers development and policy impact. Implications for Policy and Practice The findings of this study highlight several specific areas for improvement in teacher induction systems. These recommendations aim to assist policymakers, school leaders, and teacher educators in enhancing early career teaching experiences in Kyrgyzstan and similar contexts. 1. Institutionalising structured mentoring programs with clearly defined roles and expectations. - National or regional guidelines should be developed to clearly define the purpose, responsibilities, and expectations of mentoring programs. - Transitioning from informal, ad hoc arrangements to systematic mentoring structures integrated into school practices. - Develop clear documentation and tools, including mentoring frameworks, observation protocols and feedback templates. 2. Providing specialised mentor training focused on pedagogical coaching and emotional support. - Establish mandatory training programs for mentors that focus on pedagogical coaching, emotional support, and effective communication skills. - Provide ongoing professional development to ensure that mentors are well-equipped to support novice teachers effectively. - Recognise mentoring as a formal professional role and incorporate it into appraisal and promotion pathways. 3. Allocating protected time for mentor-mentee collaboration. - Reduce teaching loads or administrative duties for both mentors and mentees to facilitate regular meetings. - Integrate structured observation and feedback cycles into designated time slots within the school timetable. - Encourage school leaders to foster collaboration by integrating mentoring into regular professional activities. 4. Addressing rural inequities through additional resources and remote professional support networks. - Different mentoring models should be developed to address the specific needs of both urban and rural schools. - Provide additional resources, digital tools, and remote mentoring options for teachers who are geographically isolated. - Strengthening partnerships between rural schools and teacher education institutions to reduce professional isolation. 5. Supporting instructional innovation by modelling active learning strategies within teacher development programmes. - Provide professional learning opportunities that model student-centered approaches such as inquiry-based learning and collaborative dialogue. - Mentors should be encouraged to guide novices in gradually adopting active learning strategies. - Provide access to instructional resources and exemplar lesson plans that support diverse pedagogical approaches. 6. Develop professional learning communities (PLCs) within individual schools and across multiple schools. - Facilitate peer observation, joint planning, and collaborative reflection between beginning teachers and their mentors. - Establish cross-school networks or clusters to share expertise, particularly in regions with limited resources. - PLCs should be used as platforms for continuous mentoring and collaborative problem-solving. Declarations Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the manuscript preparation process During the preparation of this manuscript, the author(s) used ChatGPT (OpenAI) as a language support tool to improve clarity and coherence. The tool was not used to generate original scientific content, data, or interpretations. All content was reviewed and approved by the author(s), who take full responsibility for the manuscript. Data availability The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical considerations and the need to protect participant confidentiality. Anonymised data may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Ethics statement The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7). All procedures were carried out in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee and with relevant national and institutional guidelines governing educational research. Consent to publish Informed consent for publication was obtained from all participants. Participants were informed that anonymised data from the study could be used in academic publications. Ethical approval The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7). The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee and with relevant national and institutional regulations governing educational research. Consent to participate Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. Consent to publish Informed consent for publication of anonymised data was obtained from all participants. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the participating schools, mentors, and beginning teachers for their time and willingness to contribute to this study. We also acknowledge the support of university library staff for providing access to relevant academic resources. The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which helped improve the quality of the manuscript. Author information Authors and Affiliations Toichubek Kabylov, Suita Abdykadyrova, Rakhat Sagyndykova, Samara Pazylova, Nurgul Ypyshova, Nargiza Namatova and Rakhat Bekmuratova. Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communications, Osh state university, Osh, Kyrgyzstan. Kurmanzhan Datra Street 250, Osh 723500, Kyrgyzstan Contributions All authors contributed to data curation, formal analysis, and investigation, as well as to the drafting of the original manuscript. 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S., Diotti, R., Hudon, K., & Ransom, J. C. (2020). The role of feedback in teacher mentoring: How coaches, peers, and students affect teacher change. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 28 (2), 126–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2020.1749345 König J., Blömeke S., Jentsch A., Schlesinger L., Felske née Nehls C., Musekamp F., & Kaiser G. (2021). The links between pedagogical competence, instructional quality, and mathematics achievement in the lower secondary classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics. Volume 107, pages 189–212, (2021). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10649-020-10021-0 Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher Stress: Directions for Future Research. Educational Review, 53(1) , 27-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131910120033628 Langdon, F., Daly, C., Milton, E., Jones, K. & Palmer, M. (2019). Challenges for principled induction and mentoring of new teachers: Lessons from New Zealand and Wales. London Review of Education, 17 (2): 249–265. DOI https://doi.org/10.18546/LRE.17.2.14 Larsen, E. (2023). Re-imagining teacher mentoring for the future. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 31 (1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2023.2178480 Leong J., Lim A., Ravindran N., Wan D., Rajalingam, V., Lua J., Kwok H., Sheri K., Fam V., Govindasamy, R., Abdul Hamid N., Dun M., & Krishna L. (2025). A systematic scoping review of mentor training in medical education between 2000 and 2024. BMC Medical Education. doi: 10.1186/s12909-025-07353-x Luong, G. Y. (2025). The effectiveness of mentoring, coaching, and induction programs on early career teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education , Volume 163, article number 105065. DOI:10.1016/j.tate.2025.105065 Mbazima, S.J., Fagbohun O.F., Moolla R., Anand K., & Joseph J.S. (2025). Knowledge, practices, and health effects of exposure to chalk particles in classrooms among public secondary school teachers in the Johannesburg region. International Journal of Environmental Health Research . https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2025.2594110 Mokoena T.D., & van Tonder G.P. (2024). Influencing beginner teachers' autonomy: the impact of mentorship in fostering self-directed learning. International Journal of Educational Management: 38(5), 23 May 2024, Pages 1265-1288. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-05-2023-0247 Mulkeen, A. (2010). Teachers in Anglophone Africa: Issues in teacher supply, training, and management . World Bank. Naeem M., Ozuem W., Howell K., & Ranfagni S. (2023). A Step-by-Step Process of Thematic Analysis to Develop a Conceptual Model in Qualitative Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods : Sage Journal. Open access: First published online November 8, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205789 Nickel J., & Crosby S. (2021). Professional Identity Values and Tensions for Early Career Teachers. March 2021. Teaching Education 33(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2021.1895107 Nuis W., Segers M., & Beausaert S. (2022). Conceptualizing mentoring in higher education: A systematic literature review. Educational Research Review. Volume 41, November 2023, 100565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100565 Pandey, S. R., & Sharma, M. R. (2022). Mentoring and professional development: A gateway to professionalism. Journal of Social Work and Science Education, 3 (2), 50–63. Rebecca Spooner-Lane (2017) Mentoring beginning teachers in primary schools: research review, Professional Development in Education , 43:2, 253-273, DOI:10.1080/19415257.2016.1148624 Richter, D., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, O., Klusmann, U., Anders, Y., & Baumert, J. (2013). How different mentoring approaches affect beginning teachers’ development in the first years of practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36 , 166–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.012 Schmidt, M., & Datnow, A. (2020). Teacher professional identity and development in early career. Teaching and Teacher Education, 96, 103190. Scortescu, M., Sava, S., & Crasovan, M. (2024). Mentoring in Initial Teacher Education: Practices and Needs for Continuing Professional Development of Romanian School-Based Teacher Educators. SAGE Open , 14 (4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241296912 Shanks R. (2017). Mentoring beginning teachers: professional learning for mentees and mentors. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education. Volume 6, Issue 3. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-06-2017-0045 Smith, R. (2022). Mentoring Teacher-Research: From Situated Practice to ‘Global’ Guidance. Nature Springer Link. International Perspectives on Mentoring in English Language Education: Chapter. Open Access. First Online: 19 August 2022. pp 229 –247. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-99261-3_14 UNESCO. (2023). Teaching and learning in resource-constrained schools: Global report. Villegas-Torres, P., & Lengeling, M. M. (2021). Approaching teaching as a complex emotional experience: The teacher professional development stages revisited. Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 23 (2), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v23n2.89181 Walker, K., & Kutsyuruba B. (2019). The role of school administrators in providing early career teachers' support: a pan-Canadian perspective. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 14 (2) (2019), pp. 2-7 https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2019v14n2a862 Wang X., Husu J., & Toom A. (2025). What makes a good mentor of in-service teacher education? —A systematic review of mentoring competence from a transformative learning perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education. Volume 153, January 2025, 104822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104822 World Bank. (2022). The quality of teaching in low-resource environments. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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This transition, extensively discussed in the professional development literature, involves the need to establish a professional identity and develop pedagogical competence under demanding conditions. Researchers have described the professional growth of new teachers as a journey of adaptation to school settings and classroom interactions. Katz (1972), as cited in Ginns et al. (2001), identified four stages in the development of preschool educators: survival, consolidation, renewal, and maturity [13]. He suggested that the first two stages generally occur within the first two to three years of teaching. During the survival stage, teachers are primarily concerned with their own needs, such as handling daily responsibilities and short-term planning (Katz). As they progress to the consolidation stage, their attention shifts from themselves to their students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome researchers describe the problem of a \"reality shock,\" [29; 42], which new teachers often face when transitioning from higher education to full-time teaching roles. This period involves initial classroom challenges and uncertainties, ongoing experimentation, and a disparity between educational ideals and the real classroom environment. These challenges include managing both instruction and classroom discipline, navigating shifting dynamics between closeness and conflict with students, and dealing with insufficient teaching resources and disruptive student behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eScholars such as Luong (2025), Larsen (2023), Shanks (2017), and Cruz et al. (2023) have emphasized the importance of dedicated support systems for beginning teachers to enhance their immediate experiences and sustain long-term professional development and retention [12; 25; 27; 39]. Mentoring has emerged as a particularly effective form of support, providing structured guidance, encouragement, and professional modeling. Its purpose extends beyond advice-giving to empower beginning teachers to take ownership of their learning and progress toward professional autonomy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmith R. (2022) describes mentoring as sharing knowledge, skills, and experience to encourage and empower another person, particularly in education, where the goal is to foster teacher autonomy and self-directed learning rather than to prescribe solutions [40]. Similarly, Cruz et al. (2023) viewed mentors as role models who demonstrate effective strategies and offer practical recommendations to help mentees address the challenges they face in the classroom [12]. Mentoring is inherently reciprocal and relational, requiring trust, collaboration and active engagement. As Pandey and Sharma (2022) argue, its success depends on the intentional, collaborative involvement of both mentors and mentees, with mentors guiding beginning teachers toward competence and confidence through shared knowledge and experience [34].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Kyrgyzstan, mentoring is recognised as a vital component of teacher professional development, although its implementation is inconsistent [15]. While national education policies emphasize mentoring as an essential mechanism for supporting both novice and in-service teachers, the practical application of these policies varies significantly across regions and institutions. In many schools, mentoring is well-structured and supported by leadership, enabling teachers to receive continuous guidance, feedback, and classroom assistance [35]. However, in other contexts, mentoring practices tend to be informal, irregular, or reliant on the personal initiative of individual educators [5]. Such inconsistencies are often associated with disparities in school resources, administrative commitment, and access to trained mentors [38]. Consequently, teachers\u0026rsquo; mentoring experiences vary significantly, affecting the quality of professional growth and the long-term sustainability of mentoring practices in the country\u0026rsquo;s education system. Strengthening the national mentoring framework and ensuring more consistent implementation remain critical priorities for advancing teachers\u0026rsquo; professional development in Kyrgyzstan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these efforts, teacher education programmes across Kyrgyzstan often fail to prepare teachers fully for the realities of contemporary classrooms. Large class sizes, often 50 to 60 students in government schools, combined with shortages of teaching and learning materials, create significant barriers to effective instruction. Despite advancements in information and communications technology (ICT), many public schools worldwide continue to use chalk sticks and chalkboards [28]. These conditions tend to perpetuate traditional, teacher-centred practices focused on reproducing textbook content rather than fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Government-organized in-service training programs tend to overlook teachers\u0026rsquo; current knowledge and development, focusing instead on instructing them on what they need to learn. This approach is ineffective, as it fails to consider teachers' needs and existing beliefs, which are crucial for effective professional development. As noted by Speck and Knipe, cited in Bayrak\u0026ccedil;ı, 2009, teachers are resistant to any professional training imposed by their superiors [6].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstruction in most government schools remains predominantly teacher-centred, characterized by lectures and passive student listening. This approach persists partly due to limited ongoing in-service training and weak professional networking. Additionally, low salaries and insufficient institutional support contribute to high attrition rates, especially among beginning teachers who find the demands of the profession to be overwhelming. Addressing these challenges requires targeted professional support to improve the quality and retention of teaching. Mentoring is increasingly recognised as a key mechanism for supporting new teachers through structured guidance that addresses diverse classroom challenges [25].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the role of mentoring in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in government schools in Kyrgyzstan. By examining the experiences of beginning teachers and mentors, it provides insights into professional development needs, the effectiveness of existing support structures, and the priorities for policy and practice. Through a nuanced analysis of mentoring\u0026rsquo;s contributions, challenges, and outcomes, the study aims to inform broader efforts to create more supportive environments for beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan and similar developing countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatement of the problem\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the Soviet era, formal mentoring systems played a strategic role in supporting and retaining beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan. Recent analyses, however, show that in many post-Soviet states, including Kyrgyzstan, mentor training remains inconsistent, poorly supported and often inadequately evaluated [26]. This shift has weakened early-career teacher induction structures that previously served as essential scaffolding for professional growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContemporary studies on school workplace cultures emphasise persistent fragmentation and generational divides among teachers. While Hargreaves\u0026rsquo; (1992) concept of \u0026ldquo;Balkanisation\u0026rdquo; remains relevant [14], recent scholarship highlights that such divisions often intensify when institutional support structures are weak or unevenly implemented [37]. In this climate, some experienced teachers may feel overburdened or unsupported in their own roles, reducing their willingness or capacity to mentor novices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeginning teachers report that the absence of structured support results in professional isolation, limited opportunities for reflective practice, and difficulty developing confidence in classroom management and instructional decision-making. These gaps mirror global evidence showing that poorly structured induction can undermine teacher efficacy and increase early attrition, particularly in resource-constrained contexts [41; 45].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRationale and significance of the study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMentoring is widely recognised as essential for teacher development and retention, with contemporary research emphasising its dual role in providing both pedagogical and emotional support [25; 27]. A mentor acts not only as a pedagogical guide but also as a source of stability and encouragement during the challenging early career transition \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eWalker and Kutsyuruba (2019\u003c/span\u003e), add that the encouragement of beginner teachers while executing tasks independently alongside their mentors leads to improved self-efficacy, professional identity development, independence and confidence [43].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies in developing and low-resource contexts show that there are inconsistencies in support mechanism such as mentoring standards and, as a result, beginning teachers may feel isolated and unsupported with a growing dissatisfaction for teaching as a career [17]. This undermines early confidence, effectiveness, and long-term commitment to the profession.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study is significant for three reasons:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Contribution to mentoring research in developing contexts:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy analysing mentoring practices within Kyrgyzstan\u0026rsquo;s specific sociocultural and educational landscape, the study adds to current knowledge on how induction functions in under-resourced systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Insights into teaching quality and student learning:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent global evidence highlights that mentoring improves instructional quality, classroom management, and learner engagement [41; 45]. This study examines how these benefits manifest in Kyrgyz classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Advancement of theory and practice:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings extend current theoretical discussions on structured induction by demonstrating how mentoring influences novice teachers\u0026rsquo; professional identity formation and resilience [44].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eA mixed-methods design was employed to gain a comprehensive understanding of mentoring practices in Kyrgyzstani government schools. Such designs have become increasingly important in education research, allowing for deeper triangulation and more credible interpretation of findings [11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants included 30 teachers (10 mentors and 20 novices) selected through purposive sampling to ensure information-rich cases aligned with the study\u0026rsquo;s aims (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Recent literature supports purposive sampling in education research where depth of insight, rather than generalisation, is the primary objective [7].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection occurred over seven months and included:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Semi-structured interviews:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese enabled participants to articulate their experiences and challenges. The semi-structured design allowed for flexibility, depth, and comparability across interviews [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Classroom observations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConducted twice for each novice teacher using a structured protocol. Observational data are essential in early-career teaching research as they reveal instructional realities that interviews alone cannot capture [41].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Reflective journals:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaintained by both mentors and novices, these provided longitudinal insight into professional growth and relationship dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003efrom Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7) ensured that confidentiality, voluntary participation, and data security were rigorously upheld. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e summarises the participants and key demographic characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDemographic characteristics of participants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender (M/F)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears of experience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool type (Urban/Rural)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMentor teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 / 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 / 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeginning teachers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 / 18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 / 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e30\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 / 27\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18 / 12\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data (interviews and journals) were analysed using Naeem et al. (2023) thematic analysis, following the six-phase process of familiarisation, coding, theme development, review, definition, and reporting. This approach remains one of the most widely validated frameworks for qualitative analysis [31].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo independent coders contributed to the analysis, with interrater agreement procedures enhancing reliability. Reflexive notes ensured transparency regarding researcher positionality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative observational data were analysed descriptively to determine the frequencies and percentages of instructional practices, classroom management approaches, and mentoring interactions. Descriptive statistics remain the standard in mixed-methods classroom research because of their clarity and utility [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriangulation of qualitative and quantitative findings improved analytic robustness and allowed convergence across multiple data sources, producing a more holistic picture of mentoring practices and early career teacher challenges [41].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTrustworthiness and ethics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCredibility was enhanced through member checking, in which the participants reviewed the interview transcripts and preliminary interpretations to confirm their accuracy. Reflexive notes maintained throughout the study supported transparency regarding the researchers\u0026rsquo; assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ethical principles of confidentiality, voluntary participation, and secure data management were rigorously upheld throughout the research process in accordance with institutional guidelines and national ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTeaching practices of beginning teachers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassroom observations revealed that beginning teachers continued to rely predominantly on teacher-centred instructional practices. Quantitative analysis indicated that approximately 70% of lessons were lecture-based, with limited incorporation of student-centered methodologies, whereas only 30% involved active learning techniques (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). As a result, students had fewer opportunities to develop inquiry, collaboration, and problem-solving skills, which are central to contemporary pedagogical priorities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, student-centred strategies such as collaborative discussions, inquiry tasks, and group problem-solving appeared infrequently. Despite their limited use, these strategies align with emerging efforts to integrate constructivist pedagogy into pre-service training programs in Kyrgyzstan [41]. Interviews and reflective journals highlighted that novice teachers recognised the value of active learning, but felt constrained by large class sizes, limited materials, and insufficient modelling of these techniques during training.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings corroborate recent evidence showing that early career teachers experience skill- and knowledge-based tensions during their initial years in the profession [32] and often prioritize structured, controlled approaches owing to uncertainties in classroom management. Systemic barriers, such as limited access to professional development, further reinforce the reliance on transmissive practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMentorship experiences\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo complement the observational findings, interview and journal data were analysed to explore teachers’ experiences with mentoring. This analysis identified five primary dimensions of mentorship: (a) guidance on lesson planning, (b) classroom management support, (c) feedback on teaching methods, (d) emotional support, and (e) career-related advice (see Table 2). These qualitative insights offer a deeper understanding of the contextual factors influencing novices' instructional practices, as introduced in the previous section.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMentors reportedly provided substantial support in lesson planning, behavior management, and assessment, enabling beginning teachers to design more coherent lessons and critically reflect on their instructional decisions. This practical scaffolding aligns with findings that mentoring plays a pivotal role in bridging the theory–practice gap [4; 18].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmotional support also emerged as essential. Beginning teachers described mentors’ encouragement as critical for managing stress, coping with uncertainty, and developing confidence, an aspect of mentoring widely recognized for its protective influence during induction [19; 44].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these strengths, mentorship experiences varied considerably among the participants. Some mentor–mentee pairs developed highly productive relationships characterised by regular dialogue, collaborative planning, and constructive feedback. Others reported minimal engagement due to time constraints, limited mentor training, or a lack of institutional direction. These discrepancies reflect international findings indicating that mentoring effectiveness depends heavily on structural support and institutional expectations [25]. Table 2 summarizes the mentees’ perceptions of mentor effectiveness across core dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e \u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMentees’ Perceptions of Mentor Effectiveness (Likert Scale: 1 = Not Effective, 5 = Very Effective)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAspect of Mentorship\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProviding lesson planning guidance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClassroom management support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProviding feedback on teaching methods\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCareer guidance / professional advice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: Scores reflect the mentees’ self-reported perceptions of mentor effectiveness.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProfessional challenges faced by beginning teachers\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeginning teachers reported professional challenges, including classroom management, workload stress, and difficulties adapting instruction for diverse learners. Rural teachers additionally emphasised resource scarcity and professional isolation, mirroring the obstacles described in recent studies of developing-country school systems [8; 45].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClassroom management was the most frequently cited challenge, with 65% of participants reporting difficulties such as maintaining discipline and ensuring student engagement in the classroom. This finding reinforces the earlier observation that novice teachers rely on structured, teacher-centred methods to maintain control, a pattern consistent with the broader literature [22].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorkload balance was reported by 50% of the participants as a significant source of stress. Beginning teachers noted that lesson planning, administrative tasks, and extracurricular duties created substantial pressure, reflecting global concerns linking increased workload to burnout and early turnover [20, 23].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA further challenge involved adapting instruction to meet diverse learner needs. Participants expressed uncertainty about differentiating instruction for students with varying academic levels and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers in rural schools reported additional resource constraints and limited professional networks, which compounded these challenges [30]). Table\u0026nbsp;3 provides a detailed summary of these challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProfessional Challenges of Beginning Teachers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Likert Scale: 1 = Not Challenging, 5 = Extremely Challenging)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAspects of professional challenge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescription / Indicators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClassroom management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaintaining discipline, ensuring participation, establishing authority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorkload balance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManaging lesson preparation, administrative duties, and extracurricular tasks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInstructional adaptation to diverse learners\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferentiating instruction for varied academic levels, languages, and learning needs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNote: Scores reflect beginning teachers’ self-reported challenges\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTriangulated findings\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo unify the themes emerging from the instructional observations, mentoring experiences, and professional challenges, the data were triangulated across all sources. This integrative approach enhanced the credibility of the findings and provided a more comprehensive understanding of beginning teachers’ experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcross various data streams, classroom management has consistently emerged as the most pressing challenge, underscoring its central importance in early career teaching [19]. However, perspectives diverged between mentors and mentees: mentors emphasised the structural limitations of existing mentoring arrangements, while mentees highlighted the emotional support provided by mentors. These differences reflect the dual conceptualizations of mentoring – structural versus relational – identified in previous scholarship [16, 36].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTaken together, the triangulated findings highlight the interdependence of instructional practices, professional challenges and mentorship quality. They underscore the need for more structured induction systems that integrate pedagogical guidance and sustained relational support. Table 4 provides a consolidated overview of these themes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTriangulated Findings: Perspectives on Mentorship and Early-Career Challenges (Likert Scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatement / Theme\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKey Source of Evidence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClassroom management is the most pressing challenge for beginning teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservations, interviews, journals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere is a need for more structured and formalized mentoring programs at the institutional level.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabe\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMentor interviews\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMentorship currently lacks systemic guidelines and is often ad hoc.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabf\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMentor interviews\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeginning teachers highly value emotional support and sustained encouragement from mentors.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMentee reflections, journals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStructured induction systems should balance technical guidance with relational and emotional support.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntegrated analysis across data sources\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: Scores reflect the participants’ level of agreement.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the experiences of beginning teachers and their mentors, focusing specifically on instructional practices, mentoring dynamics, and early-career professional challenges. The findings both confirm and extend existing research on teacher induction and professional development by highlighting the strengths of current mentoring practices while revealing persistent gaps that require targeted systemic intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predominance of teacher-centred instruction among beginning teachers reflects global trends wherein novices default to structured, predictable pedagogies during their early years [10]. Multiple factors likely contribute to this trend, including limited pedagogical repertoires, heightened concerns about classroom management, and pressures related to curriculum coverage and high-stakes assessment [17]. At the same time, although student-centred practices were used sparingly, their presence indicates incremental shifts toward interactive learning, consistent with contemporary pedagogical reforms across developing countries [41]. This also implies that teacher preparation programs in Kyrgyzstan may be introducing the foundational elements of constructivist pedagogy, albeit unevenly across different contexts and candidates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMentoring has emerged as a central mechanism for supporting novice teachers\u0026rsquo; development. Its dual function, pedagogical and emotional, aligns with recent research emphasising its role in strengthening resilience, reducing burnout, and enhancing instructional decision-making. Significantly, mentoring facilitates adapting classroom practices, emphasising collaboration, lesson planning and promoting SDL \u0026ndash; elements vital for ongoing professional development and resilience in the educational field [29; 44]. Pedagogical support includes feedback on lesson design, classroom management, and assessment practices, enabling novice teachers to refine their instructional decision-making [21]. Emotional support is equally important, helping beginning teachers manage stress and uncertainty, thereby fostering their resilience and confidence. However, the effectiveness of mentoring varied substantially among schools. These disparities are consistent with broader evidence indicating that mentoring is most impactful when supported by formal structures, mentor preparation, and designated collaboration time [25; 33].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, the study revealed significant variability in mentoring quality. Reported differences in communication frequency, depth, and focus ranged from sustained and productive collaboration to sporadic or superficial contact. These disparities highlight systemic constraints, including limited institutional prioritization of mentoring, insufficient mentor preparation, and competing professional demands that reduce the available collaboration time. Such patterns align with critiques of informal or ad hoc mentoring arrangements, which often lack a coherent structure and consequently underperform [15; 18]. The findings underscore a clear policy recommendation: develop structured, well-resourced mentoring programs that incorporate mentor training, protected time for collaboration, and institutional recognition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChallenges reported by novice teachers echo international findings in resource-constrained contexts: large class sizes, insufficient materials, emotional fatigue, and limited professional networks. Classroom management plays a crucial role in students' success in learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassroom management has emerged as the most pressing concern [2]. Workload imbalance also posed significant strain, as novice teachers struggled to manage lesson planning, administrative duties, and extracurricular responsibilities, all of which contribute to burnout and early attrition. Excessive administrative demands may generate workload stress, whereas a lack of collegial support can lead to emotional weariness [3; 23]. Additionally, adapting instructions for heterogeneous student populations is another critical challenge. Rural teachers, in particular, face heightened challenges, which aligns with the current literature documenting the inequities between urban and rural teaching environments [8].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriangulation of qualitative and quantitative data revealed systematic divergence in mentoring priorities. Mentors emphasized structural features, such as formalized frameworks, clear expectations, and systemic support to ensure consistency and quality. In contrast, beginning teachers highlighted relational and emotional dimensions, emphasizing the importance of encouragement and sustained interpersonal support. This dual emphasis reflects the established distinctions between structural and relational mentoring functions and suggests that balanced program designs are necessary to address both [16, 36].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings highlight the need for structured induction systems that integrate pedagogical guidance and relational mentoring. Key priorities include institutionalizing mentoring through well-defined program structures and comprehensive mentor preparation, allocating dedicated time for collaboration, integrating technical feedback with strong emotional support, and strengthening professional learning communities. Addressing resource disparities, particularly in rural schools, is essential for improving teacher retention, instructional quality, and ultimately, student learning outcomes. Such systems would support teacher autonomy, improve classroom practices and enhance early career retention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the instructional practices, mentoring experiences, and professional challenges of beginning teachers in Kyrgyzstan. The results demonstrate that novice teachers in Kyrgyzstan predominantly employ teacher-centred instructional approaches, influenced by classroom management concerns, limited resources, and insufficient modelling of innovative pedagogies. Recent research similarly shows that early career teachers in comparable developing or resource-limited systems often rely on traditional, teacher-directed methods because of classroom management pressures and limited access to effective professional learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMentoring plays a vital role in supporting novices, but its inconsistent quality underscores the need for more coherent and structured mentoring programs. International evidence highlights that well designed mentoring, when implemented systematically, improves instructional quality, teacher self-efficacy, and retention rates. However, uneven mentoring quality, especially in decentralised systems, continues to impede effective induction in many contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey challenges \u0026ndash; classroom management, workload pressures, and instructional differentiation \u0026ndash; mirror those reported internationally, but are intensified in rural and resource-constrained environments. Studies conducted after 2022 similarly identified classroom management, emotional labour, and workload intensification as core global challenges for beginning teachers, especially in under-resourced schools [2]. Triangulated findings revealed a systematic divergence between mentors\u0026rsquo; focus on structural coherence and mentees\u0026rsquo; prioritisation of relational and emotional support, a dynamic consistent with recent scholarship on mentoring \u0026ldquo;expectation mismatches\u0026rdquo; between novice and experienced teachers [24].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings reaffirm that sustainable teacher development requires robust and context-sensitive induction systems. Evidence from studies indicates that induction programs tailored to local needs, rather than generic, imported models, produce more lasting improvements in pedagogical practice and retention [1].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the evidence underscores the importance of structured mentoring, reflective practice, and context-sensitive induction systems in strengthening early career teaching effectiveness. Addressing these areas can improve instructional quality, enhance novice teachers\u0026rsquo; confidence and well-being, and support retention in the profession. Future research should employ longitudinal and multi-method approaches to track professional growth over time and inform the development of more robust induction policies tailored to the Kyrgyz context that are more robust. Recent work emphasises that longitudinal designs provide the most reliable insights into novice teachers development and policy impact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eImplications for Policy and Practice\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study highlight several specific areas for improvement in teacher induction systems. These recommendations aim to assist policymakers, school leaders, and teacher educators in enhancing early career teaching experiences in Kyrgyzstan and similar contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1. Institutionalising structured mentoring programs with clearly defined roles and expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- National or regional guidelines should be developed to clearly define the purpose, responsibilities, and expectations of mentoring programs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Transitioning from informal, ad hoc arrangements to systematic mentoring structures integrated into school practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Develop clear documentation and tools, including mentoring frameworks, observation protocols and feedback templates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2. Providing specialised mentor training focused on pedagogical coaching and emotional support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Establish mandatory training programs for mentors that focus on pedagogical coaching, emotional support, and effective communication skills.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Provide ongoing professional development to ensure that mentors are well-equipped to support novice teachers effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Recognise mentoring as a formal professional role and incorporate it into appraisal and promotion pathways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3. Allocating protected time for mentor-mentee collaboration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Reduce teaching loads or administrative duties for both mentors and mentees to facilitate regular meetings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Integrate structured observation and feedback cycles into designated time slots within the school timetable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Encourage school leaders to foster collaboration by integrating mentoring into regular professional activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. Addressing rural inequities through additional resources and remote professional support networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Different mentoring models should be developed to address the specific needs of both urban and rural schools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Provide additional resources, digital tools, and remote mentoring options for teachers who are geographically isolated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Strengthening partnerships between rural schools and teacher education institutions to reduce professional isolation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5. Supporting instructional innovation by modelling active learning strategies within teacher development programmes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Provide professional learning opportunities that model student-centered approaches such as inquiry-based learning and collaborative dialogue.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Mentors should be encouraged to guide novices in gradually adopting active learning strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Provide access to instructional resources and exemplar lesson plans that support diverse pedagogical approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6. Develop professional learning communities (PLCs) within individual schools and across multiple schools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Facilitate peer observation, joint planning, and collaborative reflection between beginning teachers and their mentors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Establish cross-school networks or clusters to share expertise, particularly in regions with limited resources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- PLCs should be used as platforms for continuous mentoring and collaborative problem-solving.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the manuscript preparation process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this manuscript, the author(s) used ChatGPT (OpenAI) as a language support tool to improve clarity and coherence. The tool was not used to generate original scientific content, data, or interpretations. All content was reviewed and approved by the author(s), who take full responsibility for the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical considerations and the need to protect participant confidentiality. Anonymised data may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7). All procedures were carried out in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee and with relevant national and institutional guidelines governing educational research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent for publication was obtained from all participants. Participants were informed that anonymised data from the study could be used in academic publications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Osh State University (Approval No. 2023/7). The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee and with relevant national and institutional regulations governing educational research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent for publication of anonymised data was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors would like to thank the participating schools, mentors, and beginning teachers for their time and willingness to contribute to this study. We also acknowledge the support of university library staff for providing access to relevant academic resources. The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which helped improve the quality of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor information\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eAuthors and Affiliations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToichubek Kabylov, Suita Abdykadyrova, Rakhat Sagyndykova, Samara Pazylova, Nurgul Ypyshova, Nargiza Namatova and Rakhat Bekmuratova.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communications, Osh state university, Osh, Kyrgyzstan.\u003cbr\u003e Kurmanzhan Datra Street 250, Osh 723500, Kyrgyzstan\u003cbr\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e All authors contributed to data curation, formal analysis, and investigation, as well as to the drafting of the original manuscript. All authors also participated in the review and editing process and approved the final version of the manuscript. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eCorresponding author\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: [email protected]; [email protected] \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContact details:\u003c/strong\u003e Mailing address: Kyrgyzstan, Osh city, Kurmanzhan datka street, 250. Postal Zone: 723500. \u003cstrong\u003eORCID\u003c/strong\u003e: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5129-5043\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdallah, A. K., \u0026amp; Alkaabi, A. M. (2023). 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Open Access: First published: 12 September 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.20556\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGinns I., Heirdsfield A., Atweh B., \u0026amp; Watters J. (2018). Beginning Teachers becoming \u003cbr\u003e Professionals through Action Research. Educational Action Research, 9(1), 2001. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650790100200140\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHargreaves, A. (1992). Cultures of teaching: A focus for change. In A. Hargreaves \u0026amp; M. Fullan (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eUnderstanding teacher development\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 216\u0026ndash;240). Cassell.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A., \u0026amp; Tomlinson, P. D. (2009). Mentoring beginning teachers: What we know and what we don\u0026rsquo;t. \u003cem\u003eTeaching and Teacher Education, 25\u003c/em\u003e(1), 207\u0026ndash;216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.09.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHobson, A. J., \u0026amp; Malderez, A. (2013). 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The role of feedback in teacher mentoring: How coaches, peers, and students affect teacher change. \u003cem\u003eMentoring \u0026amp; Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 28\u003c/em\u003e(2), 126\u0026ndash;155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2020.1749345\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eK\u0026ouml;nig J., Bl\u0026ouml;meke S., Jentsch A., Schlesinger L., Felske n\u0026eacute;e Nehls C., Musekamp F., \u0026amp; Kaiser G. (2021). The links between pedagogical competence, instructional quality, and mathematics achievement in the lower secondary classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics. Volume 107, pages 189\u0026ndash;212, (2021). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10649-020-10021-0 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher Stress: Directions for Future Research. \u003cem\u003eEducational Review, 53(1)\u003c/em\u003e, 27-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131910120033628\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLangdon, F., Daly, C., Milton, E., Jones, K. \u0026amp; Palmer, M. (2019). Challenges for principled induction and mentoring of new teachers: Lessons from New Zealand and Wales. London Review of Education, 17 (2): 249\u0026ndash;265. DOI https://doi.org/10.18546/LRE.17.2.14 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLarsen, E. (2023). Re-imagining teacher mentoring for the future. \u003cem\u003eMentoring \u0026amp; Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 31\u003c/em\u003e(1), 45\u0026ndash;60. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2023.2178480\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeong J., Lim A., Ravindran N., Wan D., Rajalingam, V., Lua J., Kwok H., Sheri K., Fam V., Govindasamy, R., Abdul Hamid N., Dun M., \u0026amp; Krishna L. (2025). A systematic scoping review of mentor training in medical education between 2000 and 2024. BMC Medical Education. doi: 10.1186/s12909-025-07353-x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLuong, G. Y. (2025). The effectiveness of mentoring, coaching, and induction programs on early career teachers. \u003cem\u003eTeaching and Teacher Education\u003c/em\u003e, Volume 163, article number 105065. DOI:10.1016/j.tate.2025.105065\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMbazima, S.J., Fagbohun O.F., Moolla R., Anand K., \u0026amp; Joseph J.S. (2025). Knowledge, practices, and health effects of exposure to chalk particles in classrooms among public secondary school teachers in the Johannesburg region.\u003cem\u003e International Journal of Environmental Health Research\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2025.2594110\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMokoena T.D., \u0026amp; van Tonder G.P. (2024). Influencing beginner teachers\u0026apos; autonomy: the impact of mentorship in fostering self-directed learning. 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The role of school administrators in providing early career teachers\u0026apos; support: a pan-Canadian perspective. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 14 (2) (2019), pp. 2-7 https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2019v14n2a862 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang X., Husu J., \u0026amp; Toom A. (2025). What makes a good mentor of in-service teacher education? \u0026mdash;A systematic review of mentoring competence from a transformative learning perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education. Volume 153, January 2025, 104822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104822\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Bank. (2022). The quality of teaching in low-resource environments.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"mentoring, beginning teachers, teacher professional development, teacher retention, Kyrgyzstan, educational policy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8451993/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8451993/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the role of mentoring in supporting the professional development and retention of beginning teachers in government schools in Kyrgyzstan. Using a mixed-methods design \u0026ndash; semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and reflective journals from 30 teachers (mentors and novices)\u0026ndash;the research reveals that novice teachers heavily rely on teacher-centered instructional practices, resorting to student-centered methods only rarely. These tendencies appear to be largely shaped by systemic constraints such as overload, insufficient pedagogical models, and limited institutional support. Mentoring has emerged as a critical resource that offers both pedagogical guidance and emotional support, helping novices navigate classroom management, workload demands, and adaptation to diverse learners. However, the quality of mentoring varies markedly across schools, reflecting broader systemic gaps such as uneven mentor preparation, restricted resources and inconsistent organisational structures. The findings underline the need for structured mentoring programmes that combine technical pedagogical training with relational, psychosocial support \u0026ndash; a balance essential for improving teaching quality and reducing early-career teacher attrition in Kyrgyzstan and similar contexts. These results have significant implications for policy and practice, particularly regarding the design, support, and scaling of mentoring programs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mentoring as Professional Support for Beginning Teachers in Kyrgyzstan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 14:55:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8451993/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"af8b335c-0078-4d31-95ee-7a07d941487b","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-15T10:22:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 14:55:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8451993","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8451993","identity":"rs-8451993","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}