Police Avoidance Among Black Youth

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Jackson, Rebecca L. Fix, Alexander Testa, Tamar Mendelson, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objectives: Police violence is a public health crisis that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth. These disparities may also compel Black youth to engage in police avoidance (i.e., efforts to circumvent police contact and surveillance). Even so, research on Black youths’ engagement in police avoidance is lacking. The present study is the first to investigate factors that may underpin police avoidance among Black youth. Methods: Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a recent, cross-sectional, non-probability survey of Black youth (~52% male) aged 12-21 in Baltimore City ( n = 345). Results: Findings indicate that youth 1) identifying as bisexual or queer, 2) perceiving lower safety at home and in their neighborhoods, 3) reporting more negative attitudes about police, and 4) engaging in delinquent behaviors reported significantly greater police avoidance. Furthermore, youth who reported a greater number of known persons stopped by the police (e.g., family members, friends, neighbors) and had personally experienced police intrusion during direct or witnessed stops (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) also exhibited greater police avoidance. Conclusions: LGBQ identity, reduced perceptions of environmental safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, and multiple types of police exposure may shape police avoidance among Black youth. Findings have the potential to inform targeted strategies to mitigate racial and LGBQ disparities in adolescent well-being. Psychology Criminology Health Policy Urban Studies Police Avoidance Police Violence Youth Black Urban LGBQ What’s New Using data from a recent (2022-2023) survey of Black youth aged 12-21 in Baltimore City, the current study is the first quantitative research to investigate factors linked to youth police avoidance – a risk factor for poor mental health. INTRODUCTION Police violence – or acts of physical and/or psychological aggression structurally mediated by the system of law enforcement – is a public health crisis in the United States that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth. 1 By age 15, over 70% of Black youth have witnessed police stops, and 40% of Black boys have been stopped by police. 2 , 3 When stopped, Black youth are about three times as likely as White youth to experience police violence. 2 Moreover, one-third of Black youth in an urban sample reported daily exposure to stories of police violence online, and two-thirds had seen videos of police violence. 4 Given their disproportionate exposure to police violence, Black youth may be compelled to engage in police avoidance—an understudied phenomenon. Police avoidance refers to efforts to circumvent contact with and surveillance by police. 5 Police avoidance among young people may develop as a result of racialized hyper-surveillance, exposures to police aggression via the media and social or kin networks, and/or experiences with and attitudes about the criminal legal system. 6 , 7 While constructs related to police avoidance – such as mistrust of police and hypervigilance – regularly emerge as themes in qualitative research, 8 , 9 police avoidance was only recently studied quantitatively among a sample of Black men ages 18–44 in Washington D.C. 5 A better understanding of police avoidance among youth – and the factors that underpin it – may illuminate drivers of racial disparities in adolescent health and well-being. While youths’ avoidance of potential harm is a normative response to threats that can promote their survival, prolonged or generalized avoidance can harm youth health and well-being. 10 , 11 Avoidance can reduce opportunities for positive experiences (e.g., time spent outdoors or with peers), increase focus on—and expectancy of—negative as compared to positive outcomes, 12 and involve attempted control or suppression of unwanted thoughts and feelings. 13 With respect to police avoidance, the mental effort and energy required to avoid a pervasive aspect of federal, state, and local power structures may also create high levels of hypervigilance and stress that may damage youths’ well-being. 1 , 14 Despite the potential for police avoidance to harm adolescent well-being and exacerbate health disparities, research has yet to investigate the factors that shape police avoidance among Black youth. To address this gap in the literature, our current cross-sectional study of 345 Black youth in Baltimore City, MD examined police avoidance, particularly as it relates to (1) youth and family demographics, (2) adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), (3) environmental safety perceptions, (4) negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and (5) police exposures (e.g., direct stops, witnessed stops). Additional analyses aimed to uncover the specific features of in-person police stops (i.e., acts of officer intrusion) that might shape Black youths’ engagement in police avoidance. METHODS We used data from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), 4 , 15 a cross-sectional, non-probability survey administered to a sample of 345 Black youth (~ 52% male) in Baltimore City, Maryland from August 2022 to July 2023. To be eligible for participation, youth were required to 1) live in Baltimore City, 2) self-identify as Black (including Black biracial and multiracial), and 3) be 12–21 years old. The project was co-developed with the Center for Adolescent Health (CAH) Youth Advisory Board (YAB) to ensure the inclusion of youth perspectives. Recruitment involved collaboration with 12 youth-serving organizations in Baltimore, some of which serve especially vulnerable youth populations (e.g., LGBQ youth, youth disconnected from school and/or work). Organizations helped disseminate recruitment information and assisted youth in accessing study materials, on-site or online. Surveys were conducted via Qualtrics, with youth participants receiving a $ 30 e-gift card. Approval was obtained from the University’s [BLINDED FOR REVIEW] Institutional Review Board (#18323). Written informed consent was obtained from participants ages 18 and older; written caregiver permission and written youth assent were obtained from participants under age 18. Dependent Variable Police Avoidance. Following prior research, 5 we assessed young people's efforts or behavioral strategies to avoid attention from–or harassment by–police. Youth asserted how often they watched how they dressed; spoke loudly with others; felt pressure to remain calm; walked or drove; planned where to walk, drive or go to; and made sure there were in the company of only a small number of other Black youth all to avoid harassment by or attention from the police. Responses ranged from never (1) to very often (4). Items were averaged into an index (range = 1–4; alpha = 0.89). Independent Variables For more details on the measurement of all independent variables, see the appendix. Youth and Family Demographics. The following five youth demographic measures were included in the present study: 1) youth age (in years), 2) youth sex (male = 1; female = 0), 3) youth LGBQ identity (i.e., lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual/straight as the reference category), 4) youth multiracial (Black/African American in conjunction with other race/ethnicity = 1), and 5) youth disconnection from school and work (youth neither working nor in school = 1). Additionally, the following 4 family demographic measures were included in the study: 1) household size, 2) biological parent relationship status (married, cohabiting, with other as reference category), 3) biological parent US citizenship status, and 4) maternal education. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). The measurement of ACEs was adapted from the National Survey of Children’s Health 16 and included 11 binary items on lifetime exposure to various stressors and adversities. Items were summed and participants were categorized into the following groups: None , One , Two or Three , and Four or More . Environmental Safety Perceptions. We included three items asking youth how often they feel safe 1) at home, 2) at school, and 3) in their neighborhoods. Response options to all items included never (1), sometimes (2), most of the time (3), and always (4). Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors. To capture relevant youths’ attitudes and behaviors, we assessed 1) negative attitudes about police using an expanded, 14-item version adapted from prior research, 17 and 2) delinquent behaviors using a 13-item index adapted from the Future of Families and Child Well-being Study. 18 Police Exposures. Finally, we followed the lead of prior research 15 and included five police exposures in the present study: 1) police violence news consumption (days per week), 2) known persons stopped by police, 3) in-person witnessed police stop, 4) in-person direct police stop, and 5) intrusive police stop. Analytic Approach We calculated descriptive statistics for the full sample ( n = 345), then estimated five stepwise, multivariable ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models separately assessing associations between each grouping/domain of independent variables (i.e., youth and family demographics, ACEs, environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and police exposures) and police avoidance. After estimating these five models, we estimated the fully specified model with all independent variables under all domains included. Finally, we estimated associations between individual acts of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, racial slurs, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth with in-person police stops ( n = 184). Missing data were imputed in STATA 18.1 using mi commands, which offers several key advantages over listwise deletion. 19 We employed multiple imputation with chained equations, imputing variables with less than 10% missing data, resulting in 20 multiply imputed data sets. 20 RESULTS Descriptive statistics for the full analytic sample ( n = 345) are provided in Table 1 . The sample was on average 17.85 years of age, 52.87% male, ~ 40% LGBQ, 3.48% multiracial, and 33.62% disconnected (i.e., not working or in school). Nearly 4 out of 5 youth had been exposed to one or more ACEs in their lifetime, with 13.62% reporting 4 or more ACEs. Furthermore, 33.20% had been directly stopped by police, ~ 45% had witnessed police stops in their communities, and about one-third had experienced officer intrusion during in-person police stops. Youth also reported viewing news covering police violence 4.3 days per week (SD = 2.50), on average. Additionally, the average score on police avoidance was 2.01 (SD = 0.82; Range = 1–4). Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Variables Mean or % Standard Deviation Range Dependent Variable Police Avoidance 2.01 0.82 1–4 Independent Variables Youth and Family Demographics Youth Age 17.85 1.60 12–21 Youth Sex (Male = 1) 52.87% - 0–1 Youth LGBQ: Gay 21.16% - 0–1 Youth LGBQ: Bisexual 13.77% - 0–1 Youth LGBQ: Queer 6.28% - 0–1 Youth Multiracial 3.48% - 0–1 Youth Disconnected (Not Working or In School) 33.62% - 0–1 Biological Parents Married 17.74% - 0–1 Biological Parents Cohabiting 5.03% - 0–1 Biological Parent Immigrant 7.83% - 0–1 Maternal Education 3.94 1.88 1–8 Household Size 4.15 1.96 1–10 Adverse Childhood Experiences None 22.03% - 0–1 One 48.12% - 0–1 Two or Three 16.23% - 0–1 Four or More 13.62% - 0–1 Environmental Safety Perceptions Home Safety 3.37 0.89 1–4 School Safety 2.61 0.86 1–4 Neighborhood Safety 2.59 0.99 1–4 Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors Negative Attitudes About Police 2.80 0.58 1–4 Delinquent Behaviors 1.39 0.64 1–4 Police Exposures Police Violence News Consumption (Days per Week) 4.30 2.50 0–7 Known Persons Stopped by Police 1.27 1.91 0–9 In-Person Witnessed Police Stop 45.51% - 0–1 In-Person Direct Police Stop 33.20% - 0–1 Intrusive Police Stop 33.62% - 0–1 Table 2 displays the results of stepwise, multivariable OLS models assessing the association between each of the five groupings/domains of independent variables and police avoidance. In the case of youth and family demographics, findings reveal that youth bisexual identity (B = 0.41; Beta = 0.17; SE = 0.14; p < 0.01), youth queer identity (B = 0.54; Beta = 0.16; SE = 0.18; p < 0.01), and household size (B = -0.05; Beta = 0.11; SE = 0.02; p < 0.05) were significantly associated with police avoidance. In the case of ACEs, there was no evidence of significant associations with police avoidance. Regarding environmental safety perceptions, findings reveal that both home safety (B = -0.23; Beta = -0.25; SE = 0.05; p < 0.01) and neighborhood safety (B = -0.25; Beta = -0.29; SE = 0.05; p < 0.01) were significantly and negatively associated with police avoidance. Additionally, findings reveal that both negative attitudes about police (B = 0.36; Beta = 0.26; SE = 0.07; p < 0.01) and delinquent behaviors (B = 0.30; Beta = 0.23; SE = 0.07; p < 0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. Finally, in the case of police exposures, findings reveal that known persons stopped by police (B = 0.06; Beta = 0.15; SE = 0.03; p < 0.05) and intrusive police stops (B = 0.36; Beta = 0.21; SE = 0.13; p < 0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. In the fully specified model, all the associations noted above retained their statistical significance, despite attenuation in some cases (e.g., environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police, and delinquent behaviors). Table 2 OLS Regression Models of Factors Predicting Police Avoidance Among Black Youth in Baltimore City ( n = 345) Police Avoidance B/Beta SE B/Beta SE B/Beta SE B/Beta SE B/Beta SE B/Beta SE Youth and Family Demographics Youth Age 0.04/0.07 0.03 - - - - 0.02/0.03 0.03 Youth Sex (Male = 1) 0.10/0.06 0.10 - - - - 0.14/0.09 0.09 Youth LGBQ: Gay 0.20/0.10 0.12 - - - - 0.19/0.09 0.11 Youth LGBQ: Bisexual 0.41**/0.17 0.14 - - - - 0.45**/0.19 0.12 Youth LGBQ: Queer 0.54**/0.16 0.18 - - - - 0.38*/0.12 0.16 Youth Multiracial -0.40/-0.09 0.24 - - - - -0.18/-0.04 0.21 Youth Disconnected (Not Working or in School) -0.11/-0.06 0.10 - - - - -0.03/-0.02 0.09 Biological Parents Married 0.16/0.08 0.12 - - - - -0.02/-0.01 0.11 Biological Parents Cohabiting -0.10/-0.03 0.20 - - - - -0.08/-0.02 0/18 Biological Parent Immigrant 0.12/0.04 0.17 - - - - 0.07/0.02 0.15 Maternal Education -0.03/-0.06 0.02 - - - - -0.01/-0.02 0.02 Household Size -0.05*/-0.11 0.02 - - - - -0.07**/-0.17 0.02 Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) One - -0.19/-0.11 0.11 - - - -0.16/-0.10 0.11 Two or Three - 0.10/0.04 0.14 - - - -0.03/-0.01 0.14 Four or More - 0.15/0.07 0.15 - - - -0.27/-0.11 0.15 Environmental Safety Perceptions Home Safety - - -0.23**/-0.25 0.05 - - -0.18**/-0.20 0.05 School Safety - - 0.09/0.10 0.05 - - 0.07/0.08 0.05 Neighborhood Safety - - -0.25**/-0.29 0.05 - - -0.19**/-0.22 0.05 Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors Negative Attitudes About Police - - - 0.36**/0.26 0.07 - 0.28**/0.20 0.07 Delinquent Behaviors - - - 0.30**/0.23 0.07 - 0.18*/0.14 0.07 Police Exposures Police Violence News Consumption - - - - -0.01/-0.03 0.02 0.00/0.00 0.02 Known Persons Stopped by Police - - - - 0.06*/0.15 0.03 0.06*/0.14 0.03 In-Person Witnessed Police Stop - - - - 0.02/0.01 0.12 -0.05/-0.03 0.11 In-Person Direct Police Stop - - - - 0.04/0.02 0.11 -0.12/-0.07 0.10 Intrusive Police Stop - - - - 0.36**/0.21 0.13 0.34**/0.20 0.12 n 345 345 345 345 345 345 Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01. LGBQ = Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer; ACEs = Adverse Childhood Experiences; N = Sample Size; B = Unstandardized Coefficient; Beta = Standardized Coefficient. In the final model, collinearity levels are acceptable (all variance inflation factors are < 2.5). Finally, as shown in Table 3 , we examined associations between specific forms of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth reporting in-person police stops (n = 184). Findings affirm the relevance of officer intrusion for police avoidance, as all nine categories of officer intrusion were positively and significantly associated with police avoidance. Table 3 OLS Regression Models of Associations between Forms of Officer Intrusion and Police Avoidance Among Youth with In-Person Police Stops ( n = 184) Police Avoidance B/Beta SE Form of Officer Intrusion Frisk/Pat Down 0.40**/0.25 0.14 Search Bags and Pockets 0.40**/0.25 0.13 Harsh Language 0.35**/0.21 0.13 Racial Slurs 0.33*/0.17 0.15 Threats of Force 0.42**/0.25 0.14 Use of Force 0.53**/0.32 0.13 Handcuffs 0.36**/0.22 0.12 Officer Gunpoint 0.35*/0.19 0.15 Other 0.72**/0.27 0.22 n 184 Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01. Each form of officer intrusion is examined separately. The following are included in each model: youth age, youth sex, youth LGBQ identities (gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual as the reference category), youth multiracial, youth disconnected, bio parent married, bio parent cohabitating, bio parent immigrant, maternal education, household size, ACEs, home safety, school safety, neighborhood safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, police violence news consumption (days per week), known persons stopped by police, and in-person direct police stop. DISCUSSION Our findings identify key risk factors for police avoidance, building upon the limited quantitative research on this topic and extending it to examine police avoidance among a diverse sample of Black youth in an urban setting. 5 Given existing literature and theory suggest that, over time, police avoidance - and its role in system avoidance more broadly – has the potential to worsen the mental health and well-being of Black persons, 5 , 21 , 22 longitudinal studies examining not only risk factors for Black youths’ police avoidance, but also the health sequelae of their police avoidance, are needed. This line of work may help further explain how police avoidance harms Black youth emotionally and may identify ways of addressing deleterious aspects of youth police avoidance (e.g., isolation, reduced hope) while supporting adaptive aspects (e.g., protecting one’s own physical safety). Despite its contribution, the present study has some notable limitations, including 1) the cross-sectional study design, 2) the use of a non-probability, community-based sample of Black youth, and 3) the lack of qualitative data on youths’ strategies to avoid police, which may have better illuminated the experiences of multiple marginalized youth (e.g., LGBQ youth). Even so, our findings support the use of policies and practices that curtail proactive policing and surveillance of Black youth, especially in under-resourced communities. 23 For instance, implementing comprehensive use of force policies and providing officers with developmentally appropriate, culturally sensitive, gender-responsive, and trauma-informed social skills training that prioritizes diversion and de-escalation may reduce police avoidance among Black youth. 24 , 25 While systemic changes to address racialized police violence are of paramount importance, efforts to raise awareness and educate youth service providers (e.g., school counselors, social workers, and pediatricians) on risk factors for police avoidance among Black youth (e.g., LGBQ identity, low environmental safety, adverse police exposures) may be an important step in addressing the collateral and inequitable harms of policing for young people. As additional data on youth police avoidance are gathered, findings can shape potential screenings for police avoidance and its risk factors and can inform the selection of equitable, trauma-informed approaches that account for and address these factors and potential harms to youth well-being. Abbreviations Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE); Center for Adolescent Health (CAH); Youth Advisory Board (YAB); Future of Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS); Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer (LGBQ). Declarations Funding Source: Funding for this manuscript was provided by the Bloomberg American Health Initiative Financial Disclosure: All authors indicate that they have no financial relationship relevant to this article to disclose. Conflict of Interest: All authors indicate that they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose. Clinical Trial Registration: None. Contributors’ Statement: Dr. Dylan B. Jackson conceptualized and designed the study, carried out the analyses, drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Rebecca L. Fix drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Alexander Testa drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Lindsey Webb drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Tamar Mendelson drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Sirry Alang reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted. Dr. Lisa Bowleg reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted. 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Jackson","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA8wNQJKNgYEHxKtgSwBREvi1MCJrOUO8FgaIFsY2BsJa+G4kNn4uYOCT5+85/vBx4Ty+PIMDzAdv8+DRInkjsVl6BgOb4YyzPcbGM7exFRscYEu2xqfF4EZigzQPAxvjBn4eNmnebWyJGw7wmEkT0NL8G6jFfgM/+zNp3jkgLfzfCGlpA9mSuIG3wUyatwFsCxteLZJnHrZZ8xiwJc84c8bYmOcYW+LMw2zGlnPwaOE7nnz4Nk/FMdv+nvSHj3lqjiX2HW9+eOMNHi0MAgkg5x2DcYEMZnzKQYD/AIisgXFrcCocBaNgFIyCkQsA3+ZK2qa1OekAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dylan","middleName":"B.","lastName":"Jackson","suffix":""},{"id":354111239,"identity":"4dd355b8-ec7d-4009-8231-c6c407693b1e","order_by":1,"name":"Rebecca L. Fix","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rebecca","middleName":"L.","lastName":"Fix","suffix":""},{"id":354111240,"identity":"238b8840-5859-40e2-ba1f-3e0a18782122","order_by":2,"name":"Alexander Testa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alexander","middleName":"","lastName":"Testa","suffix":""},{"id":354111241,"identity":"a364c932-b557-4091-9f09-fdbbdeaa45d5","order_by":3,"name":"Tamar Mendelson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tamar","middleName":"","lastName":"Mendelson","suffix":""},{"id":354111242,"identity":"03032ffc-7084-4b68-aca1-d675a7bf5857","order_by":4,"name":"Sirry Alang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Pittsburgh","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sirry","middleName":"","lastName":"Alang","suffix":""},{"id":354111243,"identity":"b432bc6c-46b2-4cf4-b9d2-5952da3e0b1d","order_by":5,"name":"Lisa Bowleg","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"George Washington University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lisa","middleName":"","lastName":"Bowleg","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-14 19:45:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64717496,"identity":"23cb7016-5a2b-4f70-93ae-1ec7ecfbb588","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-18 03:07:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":654054,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5090466/v1/f752e889-c560-4569-8d41-19a2323cf56e.pdf"},{"id":64716781,"identity":"c3193602-9dfe-4057-9bb8-a7d91109b90a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-18 02:59:42","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19236,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAppendix\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"AppendixFINAL090924.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5090466/v1/469e9202b36816fc9c00679a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePolice Avoidance Among Black Youth\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"What’s New","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing data from a recent (2022-2023) survey of Black youth aged 12-21 in Baltimore City, the current study is the first quantitative research to investigate factors linked to youth police avoidance \u0026ndash; a risk factor for poor mental health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePolice violence \u0026ndash; or acts of physical and/or psychological aggression structurally mediated by the system of law enforcement \u0026ndash; is a public health crisis in the United States that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e By age 15, over 70% of Black youth have witnessed police stops, and 40% of Black boys have been stopped by police.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e When stopped, Black youth are about three times as likely as White youth to experience police violence.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Moreover, one-third of Black youth in an urban sample reported daily exposure to stories of police violence online, and two-thirds had seen videos of police violence.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven their disproportionate exposure to police violence, Black youth may be compelled to engage in police avoidance\u0026mdash;an understudied phenomenon. \u003cem\u003ePolice avoidance\u003c/em\u003e refers to efforts to circumvent contact with and surveillance by police.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Police avoidance among young people may develop as a result of racialized hyper-surveillance, exposures to police aggression via the media and social or kin networks, and/or experiences with and attitudes about the criminal legal system.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While constructs related to police avoidance \u0026ndash; such as mistrust of police and hypervigilance \u0026ndash; regularly emerge as themes in qualitative research,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e police avoidance was only recently studied quantitatively among a sample of Black men ages 18\u0026ndash;44 in Washington D.C.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA better understanding of police avoidance among youth \u0026ndash; and the factors that underpin it \u0026ndash; may illuminate drivers of racial disparities in adolescent health and well-being. While youths\u0026rsquo; avoidance of potential harm is a normative response to threats that can promote their survival, prolonged or generalized avoidance can harm youth health and well-being.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Avoidance can reduce opportunities for positive experiences (e.g., time spent outdoors or with peers), increase focus on\u0026mdash;and expectancy of\u0026mdash;negative as compared to positive outcomes,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and involve attempted control or suppression of unwanted thoughts and feelings.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e With respect to police avoidance, the mental effort and energy required to avoid a pervasive aspect of federal, state, and local power structures may also create high levels of hypervigilance and stress that may damage youths\u0026rsquo; well-being.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the potential for police avoidance to harm adolescent well-being and exacerbate health disparities, research has yet to investigate the factors that shape police avoidance among Black youth. To address this gap in the literature, our current cross-sectional study of 345 Black youth in Baltimore City, MD examined police avoidance, particularly as it relates to (1) youth and family demographics, (2) adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), (3) environmental safety perceptions, (4) negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and (5) police exposures (e.g., direct stops, witnessed stops). Additional analyses aimed to uncover the specific features of in-person police stops (i.e., acts of officer intrusion) that might shape Black youths\u0026rsquo; engagement in police avoidance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e We used data from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE),\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e a cross-sectional, non-probability survey administered to a sample of 345 Black youth (~\u0026thinsp;52% male) in Baltimore City, Maryland from August 2022 to July 2023. To be eligible for participation, youth were required to 1) live in Baltimore City, 2) self-identify as Black (including Black biracial and multiracial), and 3) be 12\u0026ndash;21 years old. The project was co-developed with the Center for Adolescent Health (CAH) Youth Advisory Board (YAB) to ensure the inclusion of youth perspectives. Recruitment involved collaboration with 12 youth-serving organizations in Baltimore, some of which serve especially vulnerable youth populations (e.g., LGBQ youth, youth disconnected from school and/or work). Organizations helped disseminate recruitment information and assisted youth in accessing study materials, on-site or online. Surveys were conducted via Qualtrics, with youth participants receiving a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e30 e-gift card. Approval was obtained from the University\u0026rsquo;s [BLINDED FOR REVIEW] Institutional Review Board (#18323). Written informed consent was obtained from participants ages 18 and older; written caregiver permission and written youth assent were obtained from participants under age 18.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDependent Variable\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePolice Avoidance.\u003c/b\u003e Following prior research,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e we assessed young people's efforts or behavioral strategies to avoid attention from\u0026ndash;or harassment by\u0026ndash;police. Youth asserted how often they watched how they dressed; spoke loudly with others; felt pressure to remain calm; walked or drove; planned where to walk, drive or go to; and made sure there were in the company of only a small number of other Black youth all to avoid harassment by or attention from the police. Responses ranged from \u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e (1) to \u003cem\u003every often\u003c/em\u003e (4). Items were averaged into an index (range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;4; alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIndependent Variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor more details on the measurement of all independent variables, see the appendix.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eYouth and Family Demographics.\u003c/b\u003e The following five youth demographic measures were included in the present study: 1) youth age (in years), 2) youth sex (male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; female\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0), 3) youth LGBQ identity (i.e., lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual/straight as the reference category), 4) youth multiracial (Black/African American in conjunction with other race/ethnicity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), and 5) youth disconnection from school and work (youth neither working nor in school\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1). Additionally, the following 4 family demographic measures were included in the study: 1) household size, 2) biological parent relationship status (married, cohabiting, with other as reference category), 3) biological parent US citizenship status, and 4) maternal education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAdverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs).\u003c/b\u003e The measurement of ACEs was adapted from the National Survey of Children\u0026rsquo;s Health\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and included 11 binary items on lifetime exposure to various stressors and adversities. Items were summed and participants were categorized into the following groups: \u003cem\u003eNone\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOne\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTwo or Three\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eFour or More\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnvironmental Safety Perceptions.\u003c/b\u003e We included three items asking youth how often they feel safe 1) at home, 2) at school, and 3) in their neighborhoods. Response options to all items included \u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e (1), \u003cem\u003esometimes\u003c/em\u003e (2), \u003cem\u003emost of the time\u003c/em\u003e (3), and \u003cem\u003ealways\u003c/em\u003e (4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNegative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors.\u003c/b\u003e To capture relevant youths\u0026rsquo; attitudes and behaviors, we assessed 1) negative attitudes about police using an expanded, 14-item version adapted from prior research,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and 2) delinquent behaviors using a 13-item index adapted from the Future of Families and Child Well-being Study.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePolice Exposures.\u003c/b\u003e Finally, we followed the lead of prior research\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and included five police exposures in the present study: 1) police violence news consumption (days per week), 2) known persons stopped by police, 3) in-person witnessed police stop, 4) in-person direct police stop, and 5) intrusive police stop.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalytic Approach\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe calculated descriptive statistics for the full sample (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345), then estimated five stepwise, multivariable ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models separately assessing associations between each grouping/domain of independent variables (i.e., youth and family demographics, ACEs, environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and police exposures) and police avoidance. After estimating these five models, we estimated the fully specified model with all independent variables under all domains included. Finally, we estimated associations between individual acts of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, racial slurs, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth with in-person police stops (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;184). Missing data were imputed in STATA 18.1 using mi commands, which offers several key advantages over listwise deletion.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e We employed multiple imputation with chained equations, imputing variables with less than 10% missing data, resulting in 20 multiply imputed data sets.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for the full analytic sample (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345) are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The sample was on average 17.85 years of age, 52.87% male, ~\u0026thinsp;40% LGBQ, 3.48% multiracial, and 33.62% disconnected (i.e., not working or in school). Nearly 4 out of 5 youth had been exposed to one or more ACEs in their lifetime, with 13.62% reporting 4 or more ACEs. Furthermore, 33.20% had been directly stopped by police, ~\u0026thinsp;45% had witnessed police stops in their communities, and about one-third had experienced officer intrusion during in-person police stops. Youth also reported viewing news covering police violence 4.3 days per week (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.50), on average. Additionally, the average score on police avoidance was 2.01 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82; Range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVariables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean or %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDependent Variable\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolice Avoidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIndependent Variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eYouth and Family Demographics\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Sex (Male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.87%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Gay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.16%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Bisexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.77%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Queer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.28%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Multiracial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Disconnected (Not Working or In School)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.62%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parents Married\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.74%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parents Cohabiting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parent Immigrant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.83%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaternal Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAdverse Childhood Experiences\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.03%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.12%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo or Three\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.23%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour or More\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.62%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eEnvironmental Safety Perceptions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeighborhood Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eNegative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative Attitudes About Police\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelinquent Behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePolice Exposures\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolice Violence News Consumption (Days per Week)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnown Persons Stopped by Police\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-Person Witnessed Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.51%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-Person Direct Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.20%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntrusive Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.62%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the results of stepwise, multivariable OLS models assessing the association between each of the five groupings/domains of independent variables and police avoidance. In the case of youth and family demographics, findings reveal that youth bisexual identity (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.17; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.14; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), youth queer identity (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.54; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), and household size (B = -0.05; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) were significantly associated with police avoidance. In the case of ACEs, there was no evidence of significant associations with police avoidance. Regarding environmental safety perceptions, findings reveal that both home safety (B = -0.23; Beta = -0.25; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and neighborhood safety (B = -0.25; Beta = -0.29; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) were significantly and negatively associated with police avoidance. Additionally, findings reveal that both negative attitudes about police (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and delinquent behaviors (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. Finally, in the case of police exposures, findings reveal that known persons stopped by police (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and intrusive police stops (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. In the fully specified model, all the associations noted above retained their statistical significance, despite attenuation in some cases (e.g., environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police, and delinquent behaviors).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOLS Regression Models of Factors Predicting Police Avoidance Among Black Youth in Baltimore City (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePolice Avoidance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eYouth and Family Demographics\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04/0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02/0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Sex (Male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10/0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14/0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Gay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20/0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19/0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Bisexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41**/0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45**/0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth LGBQ: Queer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54**/0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38*/0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Multiracial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.40/-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18/-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Disconnected (Not Working or in School)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11/-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parents Married\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16/0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parents Cohabiting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10/-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.08/-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0/18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological Parent Immigrant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12/0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaternal Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01/-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05*/-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07**/-0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAdverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19/-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16/-0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo or Three\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10/0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour or More\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15/0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.27/-0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eEnvironmental Safety Perceptions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23**/-0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.18**/-0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09/0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07/0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeighborhood Safety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25**/-0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.19**/-0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eNegative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative Attitudes About Police\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36**/0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28**/0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelinquent Behaviors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30**/0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18*/0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ePolice Exposures\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolice Violence News Consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01/-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00/0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnown Persons Stopped by Police\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06*/0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06*/0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-Person Witnessed Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02/0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.05/-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-Person Direct Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12/-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntrusive Police Stop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36**/0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34**/0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003en\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eNotes: * = p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; ** = p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. LGBQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer; ACEs\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Adverse Childhood Experiences; N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sample Size; B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Unstandardized Coefficient; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standardized Coefficient. In the final model, collinearity levels are acceptable (all variance inflation factors are \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.5).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, we examined associations between specific forms of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth reporting in-person police stops (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;184). Findings affirm the relevance of officer intrusion for police avoidance, as all nine categories of officer intrusion were positively and significantly associated with police avoidance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOLS Regression Models of Associations between Forms of Officer Intrusion and Police Avoidance Among Youth with In-Person Police Stops (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;184)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolice Avoidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldItalicUnderline\" class=\"BoldItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eForm of Officer Intrusion\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrisk/Pat Down\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40**/0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSearch Bags and Pockets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40**/0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarsh Language\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35**/0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRacial Slurs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33*/0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreats of Force\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42**/0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse of Force\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53**/0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHandcuffs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36**/0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficer Gunpoint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35*/0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72**/0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003en\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNotes: * = p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; ** = p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. Each form of officer intrusion is examined separately. The following are included in each model: youth age, youth sex, youth LGBQ identities (gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual as the reference category), youth multiracial, youth disconnected, bio parent married, bio parent cohabitating, bio parent immigrant, maternal education, household size, ACEs, home safety, school safety, neighborhood safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, police violence news consumption (days per week), known persons stopped by police, and in-person direct police stop.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur findings identify key risk factors for police avoidance, building upon the limited quantitative research on this topic and extending it to examine police avoidance among a diverse sample of Black youth in an urban setting.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Given existing literature and theory suggest that, over time, police avoidance - and its role in system avoidance more broadly \u0026ndash; has the potential to worsen the mental health and well-being of Black persons,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e longitudinal studies examining not only risk factors for Black youths\u0026rsquo; police avoidance, but also the health sequelae of their police avoidance, are needed. This line of work may help further explain how police avoidance harms Black youth emotionally and may identify ways of addressing deleterious aspects of youth police avoidance (e.g., isolation, reduced hope) while supporting adaptive aspects (e.g., protecting one\u0026rsquo;s own physical safety).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its contribution, the present study has some notable limitations, including 1) the cross-sectional study design, 2) the use of a non-probability, community-based sample of Black youth, and 3) the lack of qualitative data on youths\u0026rsquo; strategies to avoid police, which may have better illuminated the experiences of multiple marginalized youth (e.g., LGBQ youth). Even so, our findings support the use of policies and practices that curtail proactive policing and surveillance of Black youth, especially in under-resourced communities.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e For instance, implementing comprehensive use of force policies and providing officers with developmentally appropriate, culturally sensitive, gender-responsive, and trauma-informed social skills training that prioritizes diversion and de-escalation may reduce police avoidance among Black youth.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While systemic changes to address racialized police violence are of paramount importance, efforts to raise awareness and educate youth service providers (e.g., school counselors, social workers, and pediatricians) on risk factors for police avoidance among Black youth (e.g., LGBQ identity, low environmental safety, adverse police exposures) may be an important step in addressing the collateral and inequitable harms of policing for young people. As additional data on youth police avoidance are gathered, findings can shape potential screenings for police avoidance and its risk factors and can inform the selection of equitable, trauma-informed approaches that account for and address these factors and potential harms to youth well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eSurvey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE); Center for Adolescent Health (CAH); Youth Advisory Board (YAB); Future of Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS); Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer (LGBQ).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Source:\u003c/strong\u003e Funding for this manuscript was provided by the Bloomberg American Health Initiative\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFinancial Disclosure:\u003c/strong\u003e All authors indicate that they have no financial relationship relevant to this article to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e All authors indicate that they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Registration:\u003c/strong\u003e None.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eContributors\u0026rsquo; Statement:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Dylan B. Jackson conceptualized and designed the study, carried out the analyses, drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Rebecca L. Fix drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Alexander Testa drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Lindsey Webb drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Tamar Mendelson drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Sirry Alang reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDr. Lisa Bowleg reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJindal M, Mistry KB, Trent M, McRae A, Thornton RLJ (2022) Police Exposures and the Health and Well-being of Black Youth in the US: A Systematic Review. 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Justice Q 34(2):193\u0026ndash;216. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1080/07418825.2016.1147593\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/07418825.2016.1147593\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Police Avoidance, Police Violence, Youth, Black, Urban, LGBQ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjectives:\u003c/strong\u003e Police violence is a public health crisis that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth. These disparities may also compel Black youth to engage in police avoidance (i.e., efforts to circumvent police contact and surveillance). Even so, research on Black youths’ engagement in police avoidance is lacking. The present study is the first to investigate factors that may underpin police avoidance among Black youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eData come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a recent, cross-sectional, non-probability survey of Black youth (~52% male) aged 12-21 in Baltimore City (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 345).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eFindings indicate that youth 1) identifying as bisexual or queer, 2) perceiving lower safety at home and in their neighborhoods, 3) reporting more negative attitudes about police, and 4) engaging in delinquent behaviors reported significantly greater police avoidance. Furthermore, youth who reported a greater number of known persons stopped by the police (e.g., family members, friends, neighbors) and had personally experienced police intrusion during direct or witnessed stops (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) also exhibited greater police avoidance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions: \u003c/strong\u003eLGBQ identity, reduced perceptions of environmental safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, and multiple types of police exposure may shape police avoidance among Black youth. Findings have the potential to inform targeted strategies to mitigate racial and LGBQ disparities in adolescent well-being.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Police Avoidance Among Black Youth","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-09-18 02:59:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0b523015-03ae-40ea-92ca-49d8e9e16913","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":37633617,"name":"Psychology"},{"id":37633618,"name":"Criminology"},{"id":37633619,"name":"Health Policy"},{"id":37633620,"name":"Urban Studies"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-18T02:59:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-18 02:59:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5090466","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5090466","identity":"rs-5090466","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}