Effects of Parental Intimacy and Self-disclosure on Dyadic Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Entering School

Effects of Parental Intimacy and Self-disclosure on Dyadic Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Entering School | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effects of Parental Intimacy and Self-disclosure on Dyadic Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Entering School Bing Xie, Yanan Xu, Yanqiong Ouyang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive and often difficult health condition, especially during the stage in which children with ASD enter school, which can have ripple effects throughout family relationships. This study applied relational turbulence theory (which addresses communication in intimate relationships) and the actor–partner interdependence model, to examine how self-disclosure communication and relationship intimacy between parents of children with ASD affects dyadic coping during a major transitional period in their child’s life. Transition processing includes parental self-disclosure and parental intimacy, which can help parents navigate difficult life events by promoting connection, interaction, and confidence in the relationship. A total of 201 married couples parenting a child with ASD who was beginning school or who had started school in the past six months completed three questionnaires and provided demographic information. The study examined the effects of partners’ intimacy and disclosure levels on their own and their spouses’ experiences of relational uncertainty, changes in interdependence, and relational turbulence. The findings suggest that parental intimacy and self-disclosure in dyadic coping significantly affect some relationship qualities. In addition, individuals’ perceptions of their spouses’ dyadic coping abilities were a stronger predictor of relational turbulence than self-reported dyadic coping. This study’s results provide several implications for understanding how married partners can protect their marriage when dealing with their child’s health-related transitions. autism spectrum disorder transitions parents intimacy disclosure dyadic coping Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication, social interaction, and behavior (Baio et al., 2018 ). In China, the prevalence of ASD in children aged approximately 6–12 years has been rising annually and was 0.7% in 2020 (Zhou et al., 2020). Children with ASD face many challenges when they begin school, including difficulties in forming meaningful relationships with both peers and teachers, and struggle to understand the social rules of the classroom (Brisini and Solomon, 2020b ). These children often have difficulty understanding the social cues and nuances of the school environment, which can lead to problems with communication and social interaction (Nicholas et al., 2017 ). A robust support network is essential to helping these students (Brisini et al.). This could include parents, professionals, teachers, and other individuals who can provide practical and emotional assistance. During this transitional period, parents can play the most significant role by responding to their child’s difficulties with a consistent attitude. Children with ASD may behave in uncommon and unexpected ways in response to multiple problems, which can break bonds between parents and exacerbate existing conflicts (Fontil et al., 2020 ). Dyadic coping (DC) (Downes et al., 2022 ) refers to parents’ collaborative efforts to manage stress, and it is an important promoting factor for resilience in couples facing adversity. However, little is known about how parental intimacy and self-disclosure influence dyadic coping among parents with a child with ASD who is starting school. We applied relationship turbulence theory to examine the interplay between parental intimacy and self-disclosure in dyadic coping in the context of parenting children with ASD. Understanding these factors can offer insights useful for developing interventions that promote resilience in families with children with ASD during the child’s transition to school. Impact of Parental Intimacy on Dyadic Coping (DC) Parental intimacy can greatly influence the dyadic coping of children with ASD when they first enter school (Brisini and Solomon, 2020b ). Prior research (Brisini and Solomon, 2020a , Solomon et al., 2016 ) has shown that children with ASD are more likely to feel safe when their parents have a strong and intimate relationship. Moreover, parental intimacy can positively impact children’s social skill development (Downes et al., 2022 ). When parents share an intimate relationship, they model healthy social behaviors and communication styles for their children, who can learn from their example and subsequently apply these behaviors and communication styles to their own social interactions (Ledermann and Kenny, 2012 ). Role of Self-disclosure in Dyadic Coping Self-disclosure is the process of revealing personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences to another person (Sivagurunathan et al., 2019 ). When parents engage in self-disclosure, they create a safe space for their children to express their emotions and share their experiences. Studies (Adelstein Yardeni et al., 2022) have shown that high-quality self-disclosure between couples can reduce their negative emotions, increase their intimacy, and strengthen their desire for physical expression. A growing number of researchers have been focusing on dyadic response methods (Chen et al., 2023 ), and most previous studies have been conducted with mothers and their partners. However, prior studies have not adequately examined self-expression and dyadic coping in the relationship between mothers and their partners with children with ASD. Relationship Turbulence Theory in the ASD Context Relationship turbulence theory is a framework that explains the ups and downs couples experience within their relationship (Solomon et al., 2016 ). This theory suggests that marital relationships do not always go smoothly, and couples are likely to experience turbulent periods (Brisini and Solomon, 2020a ). Relationship turbulence theory is particularly relevant in the context of ASD because parents of children with ASD often face unique stressors and challenges that can impact their intimate relationships (Brisini et al.), such as managing their child’s behavior, navigating the healthcare system, and dealing with the emotional toll of caring for a child with special needs (Fontil et al., 2020 ). Intimacy may help parents cope with relationship turbulence in this context (Brisini et al., 2017). Research (Fallahchai and Fallahi, 2022 , García-López et al., 2016 ) has shown that higher levels of intimacy are associated with better relationship outcomes, including lower levels of stress and conflict. Overall, understanding the impact of relationship turbulence and identifying factors of positive coping strategies for parents of children with ASD are crucial for promoting the well-being of parents and their children (Song et al., 2022 ). This study used relationship turbulence theory and the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) to examine the effects of parental intimacy and self-disclosure on dyadic coping in children with ASD when they begin school. Overall, this research aims to provide valuable insights into the factors associated with successful dyadic coping in families of children with ASD and has practical implications for interventions intended to improve family functioning and well-being. Methods Participants From October 2021 to December 2022, we used snowball sampling in five cities across mainland China to select participants. Nursing staff communicated the details, intention, and importance of the research via an online livestream. The participating parents volunteered to take part in this study, and then added the QR code we provided to the group. Enrolled parents were encouraged to inform other parents of the study to expand the sample size. In total, 276 couples (parents) of children with a clinical diagnosis of ASD who had recently entered school (< 1 year) were selected as participants (Fig. 1). However, 63 couples (parents) did not agree to participate due to privacy issues or a lack of interest in the study. [Figure 1 here] Sample characteristics are presented in Table 1. The ages of the participants ranged from 26–35 and 36–45 years. The participants’ educational level also varied—57.2% of parents had a high school degree or equivalent, 28.3% had no high school degree, 12.2% had an undergraduate degree, and 2.2% had a graduate degree. Overall, 26.4% of fathers had a monthly household income between 8000 and 12000 ¥ compared to 12.4% of mothers. Meanwhile, 5.5% of fathers had a monthly household income less than 3000 ¥ compared to 27.4% of mothers. A total of 364 parents stated that they had health issues—163 had physical health issues and 201 had psychological issues; 38 of these parents advised that their health issues affected their daily life. In total, 47% of children with ASD first entered school between 3–7 months of age, 34.8% between 1–3 months of age, and 18.2% at less 1 month of age. [Table 1 here] The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) mother or father aged at least 20 and 22 years, respectively (this ensured that the participants met the minimum age requirements for marriage and thus had a valid marriage certificate); (2) proficient in reading and writing Chinese; (3) no history of psychological disorders, depression, or other psychological conditions; (4) the parent of at least one child with a clinical diagnosis of ASD; (5) the parent of a child with ASD who was between 6–8 years of age, which is the minimum age for enrolling in primary school in China (due to the characteristics of children with ASD, there may be delayed enrollment); and (6) having parental authority and providing a signed informed consent document. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) not of legal age to marry; (2) no marriage documentation was supplied; (3) no informed consent was provided; (4) a history of psychological disorders, such as depression; and (5) parent of a child who had not received a formal diagnosis of ASD. The research was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research at a Chinese University. Measures Demographic Information Families completed a questionnaire that collected demographic information on parents and their children with ASD. For parents, this information included age, employment status, education level, monthly household income, health issues, and number of children. Additional information was collected on children with ASD, including their age when diagnosed, average weekly amount of specialized care received, and the number of months they had been enrolled in school. Dyadic Coping Inventory Bodenmann’s (Bodenmann, 1997) Dyadic Coping Inventory, created to evaluate the efficacy of communication and collaborative problem-solving in tense situations, was used in this study. Specifically, the Chinese version was adopted by Xu et al. (Xu et al., 2016 ). This scale is suitable for a Chinese population after cross-cultural adjustments (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84). The scale has 37 items and 6 dimensions (common DC, partners’ supportive DC, negative DC, pressure communication, coping quality assessment, and authorized DC), and is rated using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (rarely) to 5 (very frequently). Total scores ranged between 35–175 points, with 35–110 points considered below average and 111–145 points considered to meet the standard. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for mothers and fathers in this study were 0.82 and 0.91, respectively. Marriage Adjustment Test The Chinese version of the Marriage Adjustment Test (Jiang et al., 2013 ), originally developed by Locke and Wallace in 1959, was used to assess levels of marital closeness and intimacy. The scale has 15 items, and total scores range between 2–158. Higher scores indicate better marital intimacy and higher marital quality. Scores below 100 are considered to indicate marital distress, whereas scores of 100 or more indicate marital contentment. Distress Disclosure Index Kahn and Hessling (Kahn and Hessling, 2001 ) created this original Distress Disclosure Index to evaluate the extent to which people share their personal difficulties, pressures, and other confidential details with others. We used the Chinese version adapted by Zheng (Zheng et al., 2018 ), who translated and revised the scale with the permission of the original authors and assessed the reliability of the scale with the Chinese population (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.866). Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 25.0. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the variables’ frequency and percentages and summarize the sample’s characteristics. For missing data, if participants did not provide responses for fewer than 10% of the total items on the questionnaire, then the missing values were substituted with the means of the values for the male and female groups. If participants did not provide responses for more than 10% of the total items, they were excluded. Paired t-tests were used to compare the differences between male and female partners in terms of demographic characteristics and scores for closeness, self-disclosure, and dyadic coping. Pearson correlation analysis was used to investigate the correlations among parental intimacy, self-disclosure, and dyadic coping. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the dyadic data. To examine interpersonal processes and dyadic patterns, dyadic data must be regarded as interdependent rather than independent. The main study variables were assessed using descriptive statistics and correlational analyses. Two independent APIMs were used to test two within-dyad independent variables (overall parental intimacy and parental disclosure) in association with one within-dyad dependent variable (dyadic coping). The APIMs accounted for the interdependence between partners while assessing the interpersonal and intrapersonal influences within dyads. Each couple was treated as a distinct dyadic member due to gender differences. The SEM used maximum-likelihood estimation, and Z-tests were used to determine the coefficients. For SEM implemented in APIM_SEM, goodness-of-fit statistics were not calculated because the independent and dependent variables were saturated. Results Preliminary Analyses Table 1 reports the descriptive statistics for the participants’ sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Overall, fathers had higher incomes than mothers (χ 2 = 42.71, p < .001), whereas mothers’ intimacy scores were higher than those of fathers ( t = -10.65, p < .001). Table 2 presents the standard deviations, means, paired t-tests, and correlations among the main study variables. Only the mean parental disclosure scores were in the normal range with no significant differences between scores for mothers and fathers ( t = 0.17, p > .05). Mothers showed significantly higher scores than fathers for parental intimacy ( t = -10.65, p < .001), partners’ supportive DC ( t = -5.67, p < .001), common DC ( t = -4.83, p < .001), and dyadic coping ( t = -5.13, p < .001). [Table 2 here] Correlations between maternal and paternal variables highlight the interdependence between partners. As expected, only scores for parental intimacy showed no correlation ( r = .09, p > .05), whereas the other variables were highly correlated. Only parental disclosure demonstrated a general degree of correlation ( r = .15, p < .05). Parental dyadic coping was highly correlated with parental disclosure (mothers: r = .45, p < .01; fathers: r = .44, p < .01), common dyadic coping (mothers: r = .35, p < .01; fathers: r = .32, p < .01), supportive dyadic coping by one’s partner (mothers: r = .36, p < .01; fathers: r = .33, p < .01), and parents’ pressure communication (mothers: r = .37, p < .01; fathers: r = .41, p < .01). Mothers’ dyadic coping was related to relationship cognition and negative emotional expression between couples when their child with ASD first entered school, depending on their partners’ self-disclosure ( r = .45, p < .01) and negative dyadic coping ( r = .34, p .05), and intimacy was not related to their partners’ supportive dyadic coping ( r = .03, p > .05). APIM Results The hypothesized APIM is illustrated in Fig. 2. Both parental intimacy and parental disclosure were included as independent variables, and dyadic coping was used as the dependent variable. The model results are presented in Fig. 2. Results of the overall test of distinguishability based on gender (father or mother), conducted by performing model comparisons between a model with distinguishable members and a model with indistinguishable members, showed that participants were distinguishable by gender (χ 2 = 76.466, df = 67, p > .05). [Figure 2 here] Various models were tested for saturation to find those that were the most parsimonious. The model (Fig. 2) examined the effect of overall intimacy on dyadic coping and presented a qualified fit: (χ 2 ) = 76.466, comparative fit index (CFI) = .99, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .027. Regarding the actor effects of intimacy on dyadic coping, higher levels of intimacy predicted better dyadic coping for both mothers and fathers ( B mother = .312, p < .001; B father = .413, p < .001). The partner effect of fathers’ intimacy on mothers’ dyadic coping was statistically significant ( B = .344, p .24). Regarding the actor effects, both mothers’ and fathers’ disclosures had a positive effect on dyadic coping ( B mother = .410, p < .001; B father = .355, p < .001). Mothers’ disclosure had a significant positive partner effect on fathers’ dyadic coping ( B = .365, p .05). Discussion This study found a strong positive correlation between parental intimacy and parents’ own dyadic coping levels; however, the findings for partner effects indicated that only fathers’ intimacy predicted mothers’ dyadic coping. Our model supports previous research showing a relationship between parents’ self-disclosure and their own dyadic coping (Hagedoorn et al., 2011 ); however, only mothers’ self-disclosure was linked to an increased level of dyadic coping among fathers in this work. Additionally, we found that higher levels of parental intimacy were linked to higher levels of dyadic coping for mothers and fathers; this supports other studies on couples raising children with ASD that reported intimacy as a resource (Brisini and Solomon, 2020b , Baird et al., 2006 , Chan and Leung, 2020 ). The positive relationship between parental intimacy and individual coping levels suggest that more intimate parents are better able to cope with parenting their children with ASD. Therefore, efforts to improve the intimacy of parents with children with ASD entering school can attenuate the negative relational consequences of this experience. This is concordant with findings from longitudinal and observational studies conducted among the general population showing that supportive relationships between parents positively impact various domains of dyadic coping (Le et al., 2016 ). This may reflect a general increase in influence between parents as a result of increased relationship intimacy. Furthermore, spouses’ perceptions of their partner’s relationship intimacy were stronger predictors of marital quality than spouses’ actual attempts to improve their relationship through daily interactions (Bodenmann, 1997). Thus, recognizing one’s own and one’s partner’s attempts the negative outcomes associated with relational turbulence during the transition of ASD children as they first enter school. Notably, only fathers’ intimacy was significantly related to mothers’ dyadic coping in our study. As a result, mothers showed better intimacy when both they and their partners engaged in higher levels of dyadic coping, whereas fathers’ dyadic coping was only related to their own level of intimacy. Fathers raising a child with ASD may be more likely to experience decreased relationship intimacy when their stress levels are higher than mothers (Berg and Upchurch, 2007 , Davies et al., 2004, Ramazanu et al., 2020 ); this may be because fathers usually bear the financial burden. In our sample, fathers also spent more time at work; therefore, they may rely more on their partners for support and information, whereas mothers had more direct access to professional support (Paynter et al., 2018 ). Our results indicate that the extent to which parents share information about themselves is correlated with their own dyadic coping strategies. This means that the amount of information a parent is willing to share about their experiences, thoughts, and feelings is linked to the strategies they use to manage stress in their relationship with their partner. Self-disclosure can have a significant impact on dyadic coping, as it allows couples to better understand each other and their individual needs, as well as to communicate and solve problems more effectively. In this study, fathers of children with ASD showed lower levels of self-disclosure compared to their partners. This is consistent with the findings of several previous studies (Ramazanu et al., 2020 ) that reported potential differences in how fathers and their partners communicate with each other. Self-disclosure is critical for developing close relationships and understanding how fathers are affected by the needs of children with ASD; these insights could improve family communication and future research (Zhou et al., 2023 ). Men who engage in relationship-focused behaviors during difficult transitions may perceive dyadic coping as more chaotic than men who may otherwise have engaged in less self-disclosure-focused communication. In addition, fathers’ increased turbulence may be related to their personality and life experience. Furthermore, Baker et al. (Baker et al., 2013 ) found that, among newlyweds, increased relational maintenance was associated with improved individual well-being when followed by improved relationship quality. Only mothers’ self-disclosure had a positive effect on their partner’s dyadic coping level. Through being open and honest about their emotions, mothers were able to help their partners better manage the situation they were facing. This finding is consistent with the findings of a previous study (Putney et al., 2021 ), which indicated that mothers’ self-disclosure can beneficially impact their partner’s dyadic coping. These results emphasize the importance of self-disclosure in the context of dyadic coping and suggest that interventions for couples coping with adversity should focus on mothers’ self-disclosure. The presented model shows that the level of intimacy between fathers and mothers has a direct impact on the quality of mothers’ dyadic coping. This suggests that the ability of fathers to maintain a close marital relationship is a key factor in determining the capacity of mothers to successfully engage in dyadic coping. This allows parents to use their resources and strengths to deal with problems together, which is essential for the well-being of the family unit, as it facilitates the development of more adaptive coping strategies. Therefore, in a family, the father’s ability to maintain a close connection with the mother is essential for the mother to be able to successfully manage the stress of children with ASD. This connection is key for the mother’s well-being, as it provides her with the ability to cope with the stress of daily life and find solutions to problems she may be facing. In summary, the study’s findings offer insights into what kind of resources and support parents may turn to while raising their children. In particular, the findings emphasize the importance of shared coping among parents and parental intimacy in the context of raising children with ASD. This knowledge can inform the development of guidelines for best practices, as well as how parents of children with ASD may best move forward in their own relationship. Limitations and Future Directions Given the exploratory nature of this study, it involved certain limitations that future research may address. First, this study was cross-sectional; however, it is essential to explore the variables using a longitudinal study design to account for turning points and the broader developmental process. Second, this research was also limited in terms of the types of families included in the sample; moving forward, scholars should include other kinds of family structures (e.g., single parents, separated couples). Third, future studies could use larger sample sizes to explore more complicated models. Declarations Author Contribution Bing Xie contributed to the conception of the study and performed the experiment.Yanan Xu contributed significantly to analysis and manuscript preparation.Yanqiong Ouyang helped perform the analysis with constructive discussions. Data availability statement： Data available on request from the authors. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request. References Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., ... & Dowling, N. F. (2018). 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Journal of Child and Family Studies , 26 , 2276-2290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0742-4 Tables Table1 Sample characteristics Total(n=401) Mothers(n=201) Fathers(n=201) t/X 2 P Parents ， N(%) Age 8.81 46 38(9.5) 25(12.4) 13（6.5） Employment status 0.15 >0.05 Full-time 258(64.2) 130(64.7) 128（63.7） Part-time 116(28.9) 58(28.9) 58（28.9） Stay at home 28(7.0) 13(6.5) 15（7.5） Education level 0.97 >0.05 No high-school degree 114(28.3) 59(29.4) 55（27.4） High-school or equivalent 230(57.2) 96(47.8) 92（45.8） Undergraduate 49(12.2) 37(18.4) 42（20.9） Graduate 9(2.2) 9(4.5) 12（6.0） Monthly household income(¥) 42.71 <0.001 12000 19(4.7) 7(3.5) 13（6.5） Health issues 0.11 >0.05 Physical 163(40.5) 81(40.3) 82（40.8） Psychological 201(50.0) 101(50.2) 100（49.8） Affects daily life 38(9.5) 19(9.5) 19（9.5） Number of chidlren 1 264(65.7) ­— ­— 2 127(31.6) ­— ­— >2 11(2.7) ­— ­— Intimacy score 100 129(64.2) 72(35.8) 16(8.0) 185(92.0) -10.65 <0.001 Child on the autism spectrum Time since diagnosis at age 5 years old 54(13.4) ­— ­— Average weekly amount of specialized care 10 hours 103(25.6) ­— ­— Time since enrolled in months <1months 73(18.2) ­— ­— 1-3 months 140(34.8) ­— — 3-6 months 189(47.0) ­— — Table 2 Descriptive statistics and significant correlations between study variables Descriptives Correlations Mothers Fathers Diff m - f M(SD) M(SD) t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Dyadic coping 191.62（42.73） 175.92（52.30） -4.583 *** .498 ** .317 ** .391 ** .393 ** .440 ** .174 * .445 ** 2.CommonDC 16.83（4.5） 14.74（5.45） -4.838 *** .399 ** .266 ** .292 ** .328 ** .354 ** .160 * .353 ** 3.Partners’ supportive DC 33.68（8.08） 29.21（10.61） -5.678 *** .411 ** .281 ** .312 ** .302 ** .381 ** 0.034 .357 ** 4. negative DC 22.05（7.01） 24.48（8.7） 3.576 *** .341 ** .171 * .302 ** .266 ** .303 ** 0.109 .332 ** 5. pressure communication 24.87（7.48） 21.13（8.39） -5.888 *** .432 ** .299 ** .329 ** .365 ** .365 ** .226 ** .367 ** 6. parental intimacy 97.77（11.75） 86.15（10.12） -10.65 *** .224 ** .178 * .204 ** 0.127 .179 * 0.097 .224 ** 7. parental disclosure 46.88（8.42） 36.35（11.90） 0.179 .448 ** .316 ** .329 ** .346 ** .406 ** .163 * .154 * Correlations within dyads (i.e. between mothers and fathers) are presented in bold on the diagonal. Mothers’ correlations are below the diagonal and fathers’ correlations are above the diagonal. For example, the correlation of overall dyadic coping score (variable 1) among couples is 0.49. The correlation between the overall score of common DC (variable 2) and partners’ supportive DC (variable 3) is 0.28 ** among mothers and 0.29 ** among fathers. *P<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 07 Feb, 2024 Reviews received at journal 01 Feb, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Feb, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 01 Feb, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 16 Jan, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 16 Jan, 2024 First submitted to journal 08 Jan, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3844754","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":267532212,"identity":"da811ed0-2ff8-4a47-8667-e8d65afb4498","order_by":0,"name":"Bing Xie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen Children's Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bing","middleName":"","lastName":"Xie","suffix":""},{"id":267532213,"identity":"36ede171-8371-44cd-8939-797c83c2ac92","order_by":1,"name":"Yanan Xu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1klEQVRIie2RsQrCMBRFHwTSpZC1BfEbAkL9nTwEnQTHDlUEpQ7Wf3F0rBTSJeLasV3cXUQ3Y1HHNKNgzhAy3MPlJgAOxy9CgIIA8CnxjrWIE3ulz7xsxGslrXro6xiEWR6FzZp053lJZN0c5rivxDjGJQW22QqjEq7ohKMqtYKywkMPAnXaGxVG/CjAVLYtFSoKPJiaFUrY7aNEM0xJt6JbqFaSdj5YKXrLkGOat48cCCX9zi38XFyaR7pov/J6j5M+2+zMypvie/Nt4i8WtkGHw+H4R56REEq7BADROAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Shenzhen Children's Hospital","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yanan","middleName":"","lastName":"Xu","suffix":""},{"id":267532214,"identity":"d94749da-61dc-4440-8aa3-a51849a92cb8","order_by":2,"name":"Yanqiong Ouyang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yanqiong","middleName":"","lastName":"Ouyang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-08 07:14:51","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":49824242,"identity":"13d3fbe3-b17e-42e6-9a8e-98ccb11f8cb9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-18 15:34:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1968318,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3844754/v1/04af114e767b4034691d043a.png"},{"id":49824241,"identity":"0c3f1b24-4177-4e15-b560-6c336a852114","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-18 15:34:02","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1396058,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3844754/v1/d1a06fc13fd84cc7e56b3ddc.png"},{"id":49824860,"identity":"7ff2e80b-d921-43e0-a91b-2c4f42d11410","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-18 15:42:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":587683,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3844754/v1/ee0ef6f4-4b30-45e5-8398-ac87a2dba9b6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of Parental Intimacy and Self-disclosure on Dyadic Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Entering School","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication, social interaction, and behavior (Baio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In China, the prevalence of ASD in children aged approximately 6\u0026ndash;12 years has been rising annually and was 0.7% in 2020 (Zhou et al., 2020). Children with ASD face many challenges when they begin school, including difficulties in forming meaningful relationships with both peers and teachers, and struggle to understand the social rules of the classroom (Brisini and Solomon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e). These children often have difficulty understanding the social cues and nuances of the school environment, which can lead to problems with communication and social interaction (Nicholas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA robust support network is essential to helping these students (Brisini et al.). This could include parents, professionals, teachers, and other individuals who can provide practical and emotional assistance. During this transitional period, parents can play the most significant role by responding to their child\u0026rsquo;s difficulties with a consistent attitude. Children with ASD may behave in uncommon and unexpected ways in response to multiple problems, which can break bonds between parents and exacerbate existing conflicts (Fontil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDyadic coping (DC) (Downes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) refers to parents\u0026rsquo; collaborative efforts to manage stress, and it is an important promoting factor for resilience in couples facing adversity. However, little is known about how parental intimacy and self-disclosure influence dyadic coping among parents with a child with ASD who is starting school.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe applied relationship turbulence theory to examine the interplay between parental intimacy and self-disclosure in dyadic coping in the context of parenting children with ASD. Understanding these factors can offer insights useful for developing interventions that promote resilience in families with children with ASD during the child\u0026rsquo;s transition to school.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImpact of Parental Intimacy on Dyadic Coping (DC)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental intimacy can greatly influence the dyadic coping of children with ASD when they first enter school (Brisini and Solomon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e). Prior research (Brisini and Solomon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020a\u003c/span\u003e, Solomon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) has shown that children with ASD are more likely to feel safe when their parents have a strong and intimate relationship. Moreover, parental intimacy can positively impact children\u0026rsquo;s social skill development (Downes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). When parents share an intimate relationship, they model healthy social behaviors and communication styles for their children, who can learn from their example and subsequently apply these behaviors and communication styles to their own social interactions (Ledermann and Kenny, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRole of Self-disclosure in Dyadic Coping\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-disclosure is the process of revealing personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences to another person (Sivagurunathan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). When parents engage in self-disclosure, they create a safe space for their children to express their emotions and share their experiences. Studies (Adelstein Yardeni et al., 2022) have shown that high-quality self-disclosure between couples can reduce their negative emotions, increase their intimacy, and strengthen their desire for physical expression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA growing number of researchers have been focusing on dyadic response methods (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and most previous studies have been conducted with mothers and their partners. However, prior studies have not adequately examined self-expression and dyadic coping in the relationship between mothers and their partners with children with ASD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRelationship Turbulence Theory in the ASD Context\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship turbulence theory is a framework that explains the ups and downs couples experience within their relationship (Solomon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This theory suggests that marital relationships do not always go smoothly, and couples are likely to experience turbulent periods (Brisini and Solomon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelationship turbulence theory is particularly relevant in the context of ASD because parents of children with ASD often face unique stressors and challenges that can impact their intimate relationships (Brisini et al.), such as managing their child\u0026rsquo;s behavior, navigating the healthcare system, and dealing with the emotional toll of caring for a child with special needs (Fontil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Intimacy may help parents cope with relationship turbulence in this context (Brisini et al., 2017). Research (Fallahchai and Fallahi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, Garc\u0026iacute;a-L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) has shown that higher levels of intimacy are associated with better relationship outcomes, including lower levels of stress and conflict. Overall, understanding the impact of relationship turbulence and identifying factors of positive coping strategies for parents of children with ASD are crucial for promoting the well-being of parents and their children (Song et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study used relationship turbulence theory and the actor\u0026ndash;partner interdependence model (APIM) to examine the effects of parental intimacy and self-disclosure on dyadic coping in children with ASD when they begin school. Overall, this research aims to provide valuable insights into the factors associated with successful dyadic coping in families of children with ASD and has practical implications for interventions intended to improve family functioning and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom October 2021 to December 2022, we used snowball sampling in five cities across mainland China to select participants. Nursing staff communicated the details, intention, and importance of the research via an online livestream. The participating parents volunteered to take part in this study, and then added the QR code we provided to the group. Enrolled parents were encouraged to inform other parents of the study to expand the sample size. In total, 276 couples (parents) of children with a clinical diagnosis of ASD who had recently entered school (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 year) were selected as participants (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). However, 63 couples (parents) did not agree to participate due to privacy issues or a lack of interest in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure 1 here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample characteristics are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;1. The ages of the participants ranged from 26\u0026ndash;35 and 36\u0026ndash;45 years. The participants\u0026rsquo; educational level also varied\u0026mdash;57.2% of parents had a high school degree or equivalent, 28.3% had no high school degree, 12.2% had an undergraduate degree, and 2.2% had a graduate degree. Overall, 26.4% of fathers had a monthly household income between 8000 and 12000 \u0026yen; compared to 12.4% of mothers. Meanwhile, 5.5% of fathers had a monthly household income less than 3000 \u0026yen; compared to 27.4% of mothers. A total of 364 parents stated that they had health issues\u0026mdash;163 had physical health issues and 201 had psychological issues; 38 of these parents advised that their health issues affected their daily life. In total, 47% of children with ASD first entered school between 3\u0026ndash;7 months of age, 34.8% between 1\u0026ndash;3 months of age, and 18.2% at less 1 month of age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;1 here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) mother or father aged at least 20 and 22 years, respectively (this ensured that the participants met the minimum age requirements for marriage and thus had a valid marriage certificate); (2) proficient in reading and writing Chinese; (3) no history of psychological disorders, depression, or other psychological conditions; (4) the parent of at least one child with a clinical diagnosis of ASD; (5) the parent of a child with ASD who was between 6\u0026ndash;8 years of age, which is the minimum age for enrolling in primary school in China (due to the characteristics of children with ASD, there may be delayed enrollment); and (6) having parental authority and providing a signed informed consent document. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) not of legal age to marry; (2) no marriage documentation was supplied; (3) no informed consent was provided; (4) a history of psychological disorders, such as depression; and (5) parent of a child who had not received a formal diagnosis of ASD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The research was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research at a Chinese University.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographic Information\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamilies completed a questionnaire that collected demographic information on parents and their children with ASD. For parents, this information included age, employment status, education level, monthly household income, health issues, and number of children. Additional information was collected on children with ASD, including their age when diagnosed, average weekly amount of specialized care received, and the number of months they had been enrolled in school.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDyadic Coping Inventory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBodenmann\u0026rsquo;s (Bodenmann, 1997) Dyadic Coping Inventory, created to evaluate the efficacy of communication and collaborative problem-solving in tense situations, was used in this study. Specifically, the Chinese version was adopted by Xu et al. (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This scale is suitable for a Chinese population after cross-cultural adjustments (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84). The scale has 37 items and 6 dimensions (common DC, partners\u0026rsquo; supportive DC, negative DC, pressure communication, coping quality assessment, and authorized DC), and is rated using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (rarely) to 5 (very frequently). Total scores ranged between 35\u0026ndash;175 points, with 35\u0026ndash;110 points considered below average and 111\u0026ndash;145 points considered to meet the standard. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients for mothers and fathers in this study were 0.82 and 0.91, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMarriage Adjustment Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Chinese version of the Marriage Adjustment Test (Jiang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), originally developed by Locke and Wallace in 1959, was used to assess levels of marital closeness and intimacy. The scale has 15 items, and total scores range between 2\u0026ndash;158. Higher scores indicate better marital intimacy and higher marital quality. Scores below 100 are considered to indicate marital distress, whereas scores of 100 or more indicate marital contentment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDistress Disclosure Index\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eKahn and Hessling (Kahn and Hessling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) created this original Distress Disclosure Index to evaluate the extent to which people share their personal difficulties, pressures, and other confidential details with others. We used the Chinese version adapted by Zheng (Zheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), who translated and revised the scale with the permission of the original authors and assessed the reliability of the scale with the Chinese population (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.866).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed using SPSS 25.0. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the variables\u0026rsquo; frequency and percentages and summarize the sample\u0026rsquo;s characteristics. For missing data, if participants did not provide responses for fewer than 10% of the total items on the questionnaire, then the missing values were substituted with the means of the values for the male and female groups. If participants did not provide responses for more than 10% of the total items, they were excluded. Paired t-tests were used to compare the differences between male and female partners in terms of demographic characteristics and scores for closeness, self-disclosure, and dyadic coping. Pearson correlation analysis was used to investigate the correlations among parental intimacy, self-disclosure, and dyadic coping. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the dyadic data. To examine interpersonal processes and dyadic patterns, dyadic data must be regarded as interdependent rather than independent. The main study variables were assessed using descriptive statistics and correlational analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo independent APIMs were used to test two within-dyad independent variables (overall parental intimacy and parental disclosure) in association with one within-dyad dependent variable (dyadic coping). The APIMs accounted for the interdependence between partners while assessing the interpersonal and intrapersonal influences within dyads. Each couple was treated as a distinct dyadic member due to gender differences. The SEM used maximum-likelihood estimation, and Z-tests were used to determine the coefficients. For SEM implemented in APIM_SEM, goodness-of-fit statistics were not calculated because the independent and dependent variables were saturated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreliminary Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1 reports the descriptive statistics for the participants\u0026rsquo; sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Overall, fathers had higher incomes than mothers (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;42.71, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), whereas mothers\u0026rsquo; intimacy scores were higher than those of fathers (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -10.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2 presents the standard deviations, means, paired t-tests, and correlations among the main study variables. Only the mean parental disclosure scores were in the normal range with no significant differences between scores for mothers and fathers (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Mothers showed significantly higher scores than fathers for parental intimacy (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -10.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), partners\u0026rsquo; supportive DC (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -5.67, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), common DC (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -4.83, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -5.13, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;2 here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations between maternal and paternal variables highlight the interdependence between partners. As expected, only scores for parental intimacy showed no correlation (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05), whereas the other variables were highly correlated. Only parental disclosure demonstrated a general degree of correlation (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Parental dyadic coping was highly correlated with parental disclosure (mothers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; fathers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.44, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), common dyadic coping (mothers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.35, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; fathers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.32, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), supportive dyadic coping by one\u0026rsquo;s partner (mothers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.36, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; fathers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.33, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), and parents\u0026rsquo; pressure communication (mothers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; fathers: \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.41, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). Mothers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping was related to relationship cognition and negative emotional expression between couples when their child with ASD first entered school, depending on their partners\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and negative dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). For fathers, negative dyadic coping was not correlated with parental intimacy (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.13, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05), and intimacy was not related to their partners\u0026rsquo; supportive dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.03, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAPIM Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hypothesized APIM is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2. Both parental intimacy and parental disclosure were included as independent variables, and dyadic coping was used as the dependent variable. The model results are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2. Results of the overall test of distinguishability based on gender (father or mother), conducted by performing model comparisons between a model with distinguishable members and a model with indistinguishable members, showed that participants were distinguishable by gender (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76.466, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;67, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure 2 here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious models were tested for saturation to find those that were the most parsimonious. The model (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) examined the effect of overall intimacy on dyadic coping and presented a qualified fit: (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76.466, comparative fit index (CFI)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.99, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.027. Regarding the actor effects of intimacy on dyadic coping, higher levels of intimacy predicted better dyadic coping for both mothers and fathers (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emother\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .312, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003efather\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .413, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). The partner effect of fathers\u0026rsquo; intimacy on mothers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping was statistically significant (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.344, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), whereas mothers\u0026rsquo; intimacy was not significantly related to fathers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.064, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.24). Regarding the actor effects, both mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; disclosures had a positive effect on dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emother\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .410, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003efather\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = .355, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Mothers\u0026rsquo; disclosure had a significant positive partner effect on fathers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.365, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), whereas the partner effect of fathers\u0026rsquo; disclosure on dyadic coping was not statistically significant (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e This study found a strong positive correlation between parental intimacy and parents\u0026rsquo; own dyadic coping levels; however, the findings for partner effects indicated that only fathers\u0026rsquo; intimacy predicted mothers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping. Our model supports previous research showing a relationship between parents\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure and their own dyadic coping (Hagedoorn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e); however, only mothers\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure was linked to an increased level of dyadic coping among fathers in this work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, we found that higher levels of parental intimacy were linked to higher levels of dyadic coping for mothers and fathers; this supports other studies on couples raising children with ASD that reported intimacy as a resource (Brisini and Solomon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e, Baird et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Chan and Leung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The positive relationship between parental intimacy and individual coping levels suggest that more intimate parents are better able to cope with parenting their children with ASD. Therefore, efforts to improve the intimacy of parents with children with ASD entering school can attenuate the negative relational consequences of this experience. This is concordant with findings from longitudinal and observational studies conducted among the general population showing that supportive relationships between parents positively impact various domains of dyadic coping (Le et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This may reflect a general increase in influence between parents as a result of increased relationship intimacy. Furthermore, spouses\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their partner\u0026rsquo;s relationship intimacy were stronger predictors of marital quality than spouses\u0026rsquo; actual attempts to improve their relationship through daily interactions (Bodenmann, 1997). Thus, recognizing one\u0026rsquo;s own and one\u0026rsquo;s partner\u0026rsquo;s attempts the negative outcomes associated with relational turbulence during the transition of ASD children as they first enter school. Notably, only fathers\u0026rsquo; intimacy was significantly related to mothers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping in our study. As a result, mothers showed better intimacy when both they and their partners engaged in higher levels of dyadic coping, whereas fathers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping was only related to their own level of intimacy. Fathers raising a child with ASD may be more likely to experience decreased relationship intimacy when their stress levels are higher than mothers (Berg and Upchurch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, Davies et al., 2004, Ramazanu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); this may be because fathers usually bear the financial burden. In our sample, fathers also spent more time at work; therefore, they may rely more on their partners for support and information, whereas mothers had more direct access to professional support (Paynter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results indicate that the extent to which parents share information about themselves is correlated with their own dyadic coping strategies. This means that the amount of information a parent is willing to share about their experiences, thoughts, and feelings is linked to the strategies they use to manage stress in their relationship with their partner. Self-disclosure can have a significant impact on dyadic coping, as it allows couples to better understand each other and their individual needs, as well as to communicate and solve problems more effectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, fathers of children with ASD showed lower levels of self-disclosure compared to their partners. This is consistent with the findings of several previous studies (Ramazanu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) that reported potential differences in how fathers and their partners communicate with each other. Self-disclosure is critical for developing close relationships and understanding how fathers are affected by the needs of children with ASD; these insights could improve family communication and future research (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Men who engage in relationship-focused behaviors during difficult transitions may perceive dyadic coping as more chaotic than men who may otherwise have engaged in less self-disclosure-focused communication. In addition, fathers\u0026rsquo; increased turbulence may be related to their personality and life experience. Furthermore, Baker et al. (Baker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) found that, among newlyweds, increased relational maintenance was associated with improved individual well-being when followed by improved relationship quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly mothers\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure had a positive effect on their partner\u0026rsquo;s dyadic coping level. Through being open and honest about their emotions, mothers were able to help their partners better manage the situation they were facing. This finding is consistent with the findings of a previous study (Putney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which indicated that mothers\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure can beneficially impact their partner\u0026rsquo;s dyadic coping. These results emphasize the importance of self-disclosure in the context of dyadic coping and suggest that interventions for couples coping with adversity should focus on mothers\u0026rsquo; self-disclosure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presented model shows that the level of intimacy between fathers and mothers has a direct impact on the quality of mothers\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping. This suggests that the ability of fathers to maintain a close marital relationship is a key factor in determining the capacity of mothers to successfully engage in dyadic coping. This allows parents to use their resources and strengths to deal with problems together, which is essential for the well-being of the family unit, as it facilitates the development of more adaptive coping strategies. Therefore, in a family, the father\u0026rsquo;s ability to maintain a close connection with the mother is essential for the mother to be able to successfully manage the stress of children with ASD. This connection is key for the mother\u0026rsquo;s well-being, as it provides her with the ability to cope with the stress of daily life and find solutions to problems she may be facing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In summary, the study\u0026rsquo;s findings offer insights into what kind of resources and support parents may turn to while raising their children. In particular, the findings emphasize the importance of shared coping among parents and parental intimacy in the context of raising children with ASD. This knowledge can inform the development of guidelines for best practices, as well as how parents of children with ASD may best move forward in their own relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the exploratory nature of this study, it involved certain limitations that future research may address. First, this study was cross-sectional; however, it is essential to explore the variables using a longitudinal study design to account for turning points and the broader developmental process. Second, this research was also limited in terms of the types of families included in the sample; moving forward, scholars should include other kinds of family structures (e.g., single parents, separated couples). Third, future studies could use larger sample sizes to explore more complicated models.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBing Xie contributed to the conception of the study and performed the experiment.Yanan Xu contributed significantly to analysis and manuscript preparation.Yanqiong Ouyang helped perform the analysis with constructive discussions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement：\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData available on request from the authors. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., ... \u0026amp; Dowling, N. F. (2018). 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Locke-Wallace Short Marital-Adjustment Test: Psychometric evaluation in caregivers for persons with primary malignant brain tumor. \u003cem\u003eJournal of nursing measurement\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(3), 502-515. https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.21.3.502\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKahn, J. H., \u0026amp; Hessling, R. M. (2001). Measuring the tendency to conceal versus disclose psychological distress. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Social and Clinical Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e20\u003c/em\u003e(1), 41-65.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLe, Y., McDaniel, B. T., Leavitt, C. E., \u0026amp; Feinberg, M. E. (2016). Longitudinal associations between relationship quality and coparenting across the transition to parenthood: A dyadic perspective. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(8), 918. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/fam0000217\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLedermann, T., \u0026amp; Kenny, D. A. 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Recognising the \u0026ldquo;forgotten man\u0026rdquo;: Fathers\u0026rsquo; experiences in caring for a young child with autism spectrum disorder. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Intellectual \u0026amp; Developmental Disability\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e43\u003c/em\u003e(1), 112-124. https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2017.1293235\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePutney, J. M., Greenlee, J. L., \u0026amp; Hartley, S. L. (2021). Use and benefit of dyadic coping for couple relationship satisfaction in parents of children with autism. \u003cem\u003eFamily process\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e60\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1331-1346. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12617\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRamazanu, S., Loke, A. Y., \u0026amp; Chiang, V. C. L. (2020). Couples coping in the community after the stroke of a spouse: A scoping review. \u003cem\u003eNursing Open\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e(2), 472-482. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.413\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSivagurunathan, M., Orchard, T., MacDermid, J. C., \u0026amp; Evans, M. (2019). Barriers and facilitators affecting self-disclosure among male survivors of child sexual abuse: The service providers\u0026rsquo; perspective. \u003cem\u003eChild abuse \u0026amp; neglect\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e88\u003c/em\u003e, 455-465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.015\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSolomon, D. H., Knobloch, L. K., Theiss, J. A., \u0026amp; McLaren, R. M. (2016). Relational turbulence theory: Explaining variation in subjective experiences and communication within romantic relationships. \u003cem\u003eHuman Communication Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e(4), 507-532. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12091\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSong, Y. Y., Liu, H., Wang, S., \u0026amp; Jiang, X. L. (2022). Dyadic effects of rumination and self-disclosure on posttraumatic growth in newly diagnosed gynecological cancer couples: an actor-partner interdependence modeling approach. \u003cem\u003eSupportive Care in Cancer\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(6), 5167-5174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-022-06869-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXu, F., Hilpert, P., Randall, A. K., Li, Q., \u0026amp; Bodenmann, G. (2016). Validation of the Dyadic Coping Inventory with Chinese couples: Factorial structure, measurement invariance, and construct validity. \u003cem\u003ePsychological assessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(8), e127. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000329\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZheng, J., Wang, Y., Ye, X., Xiao, L., Ye, J., Li, X., \u0026amp; Zhong, M. (2018). Validation of diabetes medication self-efficacy scale in Chinese with type 2 diabetes. \u003cem\u003ePatient preference and adherence\u003c/em\u003e, 2517-2525. https://doi.org/10.2147/ppa.s170144\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhou, Y., Che, C. C., Chong, M. C., Zhao, H., \u0026amp; Lu, Y. (2023). Effects of marital self-disclosure on marital relationship and psychological outcome for cancer patients: a systematic review. \u003cem\u003eSupportive Care in Cancer\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e(6), 361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-023-07826-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZemp, M., Milek, A., Cummings, E. M., \u0026amp; Bodenmann, G. (2017). Longitudinal interrelations between dyadic coping and coparenting conflict in couples. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Child and Family Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e26\u003c/em\u003e, 2276-2290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0742-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable1 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSample characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"645\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal(n=401)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMothers(n=201)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFathers(n=201)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003et/X\u003csup\u003e2 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e，\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN(%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.81 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.05\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50(12.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18(9.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32（15.9）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26-35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180(44.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86(42.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94（46.8）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36-45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e134(33.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72(35.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62（30.8）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38(9.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25(12.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13（6.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployment status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFull-time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e258(64.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e130(64.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128（63.7）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePart-time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116(28.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58(28.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58（28.9）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStay at home\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28(7.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13(6.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15（7.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo high-school degree\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114(28.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59(29.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55（27.4）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh-school or equivalent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e230(57.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96(47.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92（45.8）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUndergraduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49(12.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37(18.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42（20.9）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGraduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(2.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9(4.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12（6.0）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMonthly household income(\u0026yen;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;3000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48(11.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55(27.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11（5.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3000-5000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94(23.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49(24.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45（22.4）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5000-8000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144(35.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65(32.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79（39.3）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8000-12000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97(24.1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25(12.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53（26.4）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;12000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19(4.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7(3.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13（6.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"83.56589147286822%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealth issues\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.682170542635658%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.751937984496124%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e163(40.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81(40.3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82（40.8）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePsychological\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e201(50.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101(50.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100（49.8）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAffects daily life\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38(9.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19(9.5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19（9.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"83.56589147286822%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of chidlren\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.682170542635658%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.751937984496124%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e264(65.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127(31.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11(2.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; Intimacy score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e129(64.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72(35.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16(8.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e185(92.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild on the autism spectrum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime since diagnosis at age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1 year\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48(11.9)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-2 years old\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e173(43.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-4 years old\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127(31.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;5 years old\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54(13.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"48.4472049689441%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage weekly amount of specialized care\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86(21.4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5-10 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e213(53.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;10 hours\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103(25.6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime since enrolled in months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;1months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73(18.2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e \u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-3 months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140(34.8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.298136645962735%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-6 months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.149068322981368%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e189(47.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.012422360248447%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026shy;\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.080745341614907%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.695652173913043%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.763975155279503%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive statistics and significant correlations between study variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"938\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.10021321961621%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptives\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.10021321961621%\" colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMothers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFathers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiff \u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e-\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.10021321961621%\" colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM(SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM(SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Dyadic coping\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;191.62（42.73）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e175.92（52.30）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.583\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.498\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.317\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.391\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.393\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.440\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.174\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.445\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.CommonDC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.83（4.5）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.74（5.45）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.838\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.399\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.266\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.292\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.328\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.354\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.160\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.353\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.Partners\u0026rsquo; supportive DC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.68（8.08）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.21（10.61）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.678\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.411\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.281\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.312\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.302\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.381\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.357\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. negative DC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.05（7.01）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.48（8.7）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.576\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.341\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.171\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.302\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.266\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.303\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.332\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. pressure communication\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.87（7.48）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.13（8.39）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.888\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.432\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.299\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.329\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.365\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.365\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.226\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.367\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. parental intimacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.77（11.75）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.15（10.12）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-10.65\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.224\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.178\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.204\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.179\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.224\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.616204690831555%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. parental disclosure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.392324093816631%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.88（8.42）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.432835820895523%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.35（11.90）\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.275053304904052%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.448\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.316\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.329\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.346\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.406\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.163\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.183368869936034%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.154\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrelations within dyads (i.e. between mothers and fathers) are presented in bold on the diagonal. Mothers\u0026rsquo; correlations are below the diagonal and fathers\u0026rsquo; correlations are above the diagonal. For example, the correlation of overall dyadic coping score (variable 1) among couples is 0.49. The correlation between the overall score of common DC (variable 2) and partners\u0026rsquo; supportive DC (variable 3) is 0.28\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eamong mothers\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e and 0.29\u003csup\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eamong fathers. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*P\u0026lt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e**p\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***p\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discpsy","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Psychology](https://www.springer.com/44202)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Psychology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"autism spectrum disorder, transitions, parents, intimacy, disclosure, dyadic coping","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive and often difficult health condition, especially during the stage in which children with ASD enter school, which can have ripple effects throughout family relationships. This study applied relational turbulence theory (which addresses communication in intimate relationships) and the actor\u0026ndash;partner interdependence model, to examine how self-disclosure communication and relationship intimacy between parents of children with ASD affects dyadic coping during a major transitional period in their child\u0026rsquo;s life. Transition processing includes parental self-disclosure and parental intimacy, which can help parents navigate difficult life events by promoting connection, interaction, and confidence in the relationship. A total of 201 married couples parenting a child with ASD who was beginning school or who had started school in the past six months completed three questionnaires and provided demographic information. The study examined the effects of partners\u0026rsquo; intimacy and disclosure levels on their own and their spouses\u0026rsquo; experiences of relational uncertainty, changes in interdependence, and relational turbulence. The findings suggest that parental intimacy and self-disclosure in dyadic coping significantly affect some relationship qualities. In addition, individuals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their spouses\u0026rsquo; dyadic coping abilities were a stronger predictor of relational turbulence than self-reported dyadic coping. This study\u0026rsquo;s results provide several implications for understanding how married partners can protect their marriage when dealing with their child\u0026rsquo;s health-related transitions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of Parental Intimacy and Self-disclosure on Dyadic Coping in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Entering School","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-18 15:33:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3844754/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-02-07T05:33:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-02-02T04:21:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"4dd38aa1-6185-435c-bc1b-378aae98acaa","date":"2024-02-01T21:39:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-02-01T21:37:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-01-17T02:49:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-01-17T02:46:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Psychology","date":"2024-01-08T07:02:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"discpsy","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Psychology](https://www.springer.com/44202)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Psychology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3975f30a-3247-45d1-96cc-0059896497fa","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-15T00:59:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-18 15:33:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3844754","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3844754","identity":"rs-3844754","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}