Exploring the impact of prolonged climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Tanzania

Exploring the impact of prolonged climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Tanzania | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Exploring the impact of prolonged climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Tanzania Aghaton Elias Madonda, Fadhili Damas Machage, Norbert Makarius Nombo, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Climate change is one of the main threats to global food security that affects food availability, accessibility, utilisation, and stability at all levels, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), including Tanzania, where the majority of livelihoods depend on rain-fed agriculture. This study explores the effects of long-term changes in climate variability on food security in Kongwa District, Dodoma Region, Tanzania, based upon four dimensions of food security: availability, accessibility, stability, and utilisation. A qualitative research method was used, and the data were obtained from semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews in the field with a total of 46 respondents from small-scale farmers, agricultural extension officers, and district agricultural officers. The results indicate that climatic variability, expressed by increases in temperature, erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and escalating incidence of pests and diseases, harms agricultural productivity and household food security. Crop yield losses, price rises, loss of food safety and nutritional value, as well as instability in food supply, have occurred due to the impact of climate change. While increased CO 2 levels have some limited monetary compensation effects on yields, the positive effect is more than offset by negative impacts from extreme weather and land degradation. The study concludes that climate variability has greatly exacerbated food insecurity in Kongwa district and suggests specific adaptation and mitigation measures such as improved water management, investment in climate-resilient technologies, rural infrastructural development, and institutional support, as well as enhancing financial support for smallholder farmers to cope with food insecurity associated with climatic challenges. Climate change climate variability food security smallholder farmers Tanzania Figures Figure 1 1.0. Introduction Food security is crucial to overall well-being locally, globally, or within communities. Hunger and food insecurity violate fundamental human rights and lead to problems with development, nutrition, and health (Wahid, 2018 ). Agricultural production is essential for global food security. Still, climate change significantly threatens the productivity of farming systems worldwide and the food security they provide (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, 2014). Climate change is likely to affect global food production directly. Higher average seasonal temperatures can shorten the growing period for many crops, leading to reduced yields (Kumar et al., 2018 ). Climate change poses a significant threat for the coming decades, especially in Africa. The drivers of climate change can directly affect plant physiology, which affects food production through changes in air composition. The severe effects of agriculture's contribution to climate change and the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture are expected to have a significant impact on food production, and they may threaten food security (Gebre et al., 2023 ). The primary causes of climate change are greenhouse gas emissions, supported by deforestation, the degradation of forests, and the combustion of fossil fuels. Developing countries, like Tanzania, are especially susceptible to extreme weather events because of their heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources for sustenance, ignorance of climate change, lack of resources for adaptation, and limited ability to lessen their effects (Kahimba et al., 2015 ). It is considered the most significant risk to agricultural production and food security, particularly in many of Africa's poor, agriculture-based countries, which have limited capacity to effectively implement adaptation mechanisms to address declining yields and other impacts (Wang et al., 2022 ). Climate change's effects on food security are increasingly recognised worldwide, including in Africa. Africa is often seen as the most vulnerable continent to climate change (Bwalya 2013). In sub-Saharan Africa, the effects of climate change and severe droughts already hinder cattle raising and crop cultivation. To ensure food security and well-being, pastoralists must adapt to changes in water availability (Gebre et al., 2023 ). Climate change in Africa is expected to cause temperature increases, variations in rainfall intensity, more frequent extreme events like floods and droughts, increased desertification, and changes in disease vectors that affect the transmission of infectious diseases. Since 2001, CO₂ emissions have fluctuated but generally continued to rise, while the amount of arable land has declined markedly. This reduction is largely driven by global warming, which has intensified drought conditions and contributed to land degradation and food shortage because many rural households rely primarily on subsistence farming, the loss of productive farmland places them at greater risk of food insecurity (Masipa & Masipa, 2017 ). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food security exists when “all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life. (Rome Declaration 1996). ‘All people at all times’ implies the need for equitable and stable food distribution. Still, it is increasingly recognized that it also covers the need for inter-generational equity and, therefore, ‘sustainability’ in food production. ‘Safe and nutritious food … for a healthy life’ implies that food insecurity can occur if the diet is not nutritious, including when consuming an excess of calories, or if food is not safe, meaning free from harmful substances (Bongaarts, 1993 ). In other words, food security consists of four key aspects: food availability, food system stability, food utilization, and access to food. Achieving food security requires meeting all four criteria simultaneously. Climate change affects food security by altering agroecological conditions and impacting the development and distribution of income, which in turn influences the demand for agricultural products (Kahimba et al., 2015 ). Natural catastrophes and the effects of climate change are the leading causes of hunger and impact all aspects of food security, including nutrition, availability, and stability of supplies, and food access globally. Due to the global food crisis, food and nutrition insecurity reveal current and potential vulnerabilities in households, governments, and the international system (Uy et al., 2016 ). Tanzania has experienced extreme weather phenomena, such as windstorms, floods, and droughts, which have a significant financial impact (Future Climate for Africa, 2017). The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture and the World Bank (2017) anticipated that the agriculture industry would suffer economic losses linked to climate change of about US $ 200 million per year (Gebre et al., 2023 ). Tanzania is expected to experience increasing climate change effects, which might negatively impact the country's critical socioeconomic sectors and impede future growth. Additionally, there are adverse effects on the nation's food supply and accessibility due to both direct and indirect impacts of climate change on food security (IPCC, 2014). This study explores the impact of climate change on food security, specifically looking at the four dimensions of food security, which are food accessibility, food availability, food utilization, and food stability in the Kongwa district in the Dodoma region in Tanzania. 2.0. Literature review This section reviews empirical studies on the relationship between climate change and food security in its four dimensions: accessibility, availability, utilization, and stability. The review from various scholars describes how climate change affects the four dimensions of food security. Therefore, the discussion will focus on the effects of climate change on each dimension of food security. Food accessibility refers to the ability of the country, communities, and individuals to purchase food in sufficient quantities and quality (Masipa, T., 2017 ). Food availability refers to the presence of adequate amounts of food of suitable quality supplied through domestic production or imports. Food accessibility is key to determining whether an individual, a household, or even a given region is food-secured. Climate change negatively impacts the essential components of food production, including water, soil, and biodiversity (Wahid, 2018 ). Climate change affects food accessibility in the following ways: It leads to higher CO2 concentrations associated with drought stress tolerance because it reduces the number of open stomata required for gas exchange by plants, reducing water loss through transpiration and increasing water usage efficiency. CO2 fertilization has limited positive effects on crop production, while extreme changes in temperature and rainfall significantly affect yields negatively; also, impacts of climate change on agricultural food processing, storage, distribution, and consumption patterns, which lead to food scarcity due to supply chain failures, post-harvest losses, and food waste (Firdaus et al., 2019 ). The influence of climate change on agriculture varies geographically, as seen by long-term increases in heat stress, drought frequency, and flooding. Global cereal production has decreased as a result of droughts and intense heat. Food availability is the total quantity of food in a country or area through domestic production, import, exchange, processing, and stocks after deducting the total exports. Climate change impacts the quantity and quality of livestock, fisheries, and agricultural production, thereby affecting efforts to enhance food availability (Firdaus et al., 2019 ). Rising temperatures negatively impact crop production and natural ecosystems. In emerging nations, decreasing crop yields are attributed to extreme weather patterns and the depletion of natural resources (Wollenberg et al., 2016 ). Climate change affects food availability by impacting food production, storage, processing, distribution, and exchange. Climate change impacts food production, with significantly higher average global temperatures and more extreme weather events associated with climate change, which will reduce the reliability of food production (IPCC, 2021). The IPCC has also observed that the increase in heat and rainfall due to climate change is progressively degrading land, reducing soil productivity. This degradation results from losing soil nutrients and organic matter, negatively impacting food production. Food Utilization is defined as “the nutritional value of the diet, including its composition and methods of preparation; the social values of foods, which dictate what kinds of food should be served and eaten at different times of the year and on different occasions, and the quality and safety of the food supply, which can cause loss of nutrients in the food and the spread of foodborne diseases if not of a sufficient standard” (FAO, 2008a). A key concern, especially for developing countries, is the impact of climate change on food utilization. These changes will adversely affect the realization of human rights, particularly the rights to clean water and food, which are closely interconnected. Therefore, the components of climate change significantly impact food utilization, especially in nutrition, safety, and social value. Food utilization is typically measured using indicators of nutritional status and can be considered the final step toward achieving adequate nutrition. With stable availability and access, proper food utilization leads to adequate nutrition (Freedman, 2014 ). The consequences of climate change, especially the increase in global mean temperatures, may significantly affect food safety. Rising temperatures will cause food to spoil more quickly unless refrigeration and cooling issues are addressed, necessitating faster food production to extend shelf life. Water scarcity, especially in subtropical areas, will impact food preparation and processing, potentially requiring a shift to dry processing methods or the development of new cooking techniques(Wahid, 2018 ) Food stability means that the remaining three aspects of food security, such as accessibility, availability, and utilization, should remain constant over time and should not be negatively affected by natural, social, political, or economic factors, including the potential for unfavorable outcomes and unexpected shocks resulting from economic changes, climate fluctuations, or cyclical events (Antwi, 2013 ). In Northern Nigeria's semi-arid region, increases in temperature and a dramatic decrease in rainfall have led to a decline in crop and livestock productivity. This worsening water shortage negatively impacts household income and subsistence, creating artificial food shortages, malnutrition, and health issues. Additionally, it contributes to the loss of agricultural and pasture land. 3.0 Materials and Methods 3.1. Study Area The study was conducted in the Kongwa district council in the four wards, namely Chiwe, Kibaigwa, Mtanana, and Njoge. The selection of the study area resulted from the experience of repeated climate change in the area, and Dodoma is one of the semi-arid areas in Tanzania. Usually, the semi-arid region of Tanzania has always been characterized by severe, prolonged spells of drought. This trend has resulted in a serious food shortage in the Kongwa district (Abass et al., 2024 ). In the study, Kongwa district, with the highest impact of climate change in recent years, in this reason Kongwa district was purposively selected for the study (Fig. 1 ). Kongwa District lies within the drought-prone, semi-arid agroecological region in central Tanzania. The study area is situated between latitudes 5°30' to 6°00' South and longitudes 36°15' to 36°00' East (Temba and Said, 2023 ). It encompasses approximately 404,100 hectares of land (Mkonda & He, 2017a). Kongwa is one of the seven districts of the Dodoma region. The climatic condition of Kongwa-Dodoma is mainly characterized by a long dry season, lasting from late April to early December, and a short-wet season. The region receives an average annual rainfall of 570mm, almost 85 percent falling between December and April (Mayaya et al., 2015 ). The average maximum temperature in Dodoma is 31°C, while the minimum is 18°C (Temba and Said, 2023 ). Given these climatic conditions, the region is classified as arid and semi-arid, particularly in its eastern and central parts. The main economic activities in the council are crop production, including the cultivation of both food and commercial crops such as corn, sorghum, peanuts, sunflowers, and maize, and livestock keeping, such as cows, goats, and sheep. 3.2 Research design This study employed a qualitative case study to investigate the impact of climate change on food security in the Kongwa district council. Qualitative research explores the underlying drivers and connectors, unintended consequences, and context-embedded and actionable information by examining the lived experiences, perceptions, values, and behaviors of those most affected by climate change – people and communities. A case study approach was chosen because it provides an in-depth, context-specific understanding of complex social transformations, especially those related to gender norms, social identities, and lived experiences, which cannot be adequately captured by quantitative surveys alone (Mbunda, 2025 ). It also facilitates data integration across multiple sources, thereby enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings. 3 .3 Methods of data collection and analysis The study employed a triangulation approach whereby both primary and secondary data were collected to minimize bias and mitigate the limitations of using a single method. The study used 40 farmers (25 men and 15 women) for semi-structured interviews from four wards to gain insight into respondents' beliefs, perceptions, and experiences regarding the impacts of climate change on food security based upon four dimensions of food security: availability, accessibility, stability, and utilization. In this study, 6 (4 agricultural extension officers and 2district agricultural officers) as key informants were interviewed during data collection in the study area. Participants were selected purposively based on the following criteria: (i) gender (men and women); (ii) age between 20 and 50 years; (iii) marital status; (iv) direct involvement in farming/agriculture (v) residency in the study ward/villages for at least one year; and (vi) willingness and availability to participate in the research. The study also employed Four group discussions, whereby four group discussions were carried out at four wards (One per ward), with separate sessions for men and women to encourage candid discussions. Each FGD involved 5–8 participants selected using the same criteria above, and discussions covered themes of climate change, food availability, accessibility, stability, and utilization Since the study used a qualitative approach, a thematic analysis was conducted, which created broad themes and a coding system based on the collected data samples. Data analysis followed thematic analysis using Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) six-step framework (Braun et al., 2006). First familiarisation with the data, whereby data from the interview and FGD were reviewed, listened to, read, and re-read, and memos and summaries were composed as needed. Second, the initial code from the dataset by the important codes. Third, related codes were grouped into preliminary themes, which were then reviewed in the fourth step to ensure consistency and coherence across the dataset. Fifth, themes were clearly defined and named to capture their underlying meanings, such as the impact of climate change and food security. Finally, the sixth step involved producing the report, integrating themes into a coherent narrative supported by illustrative quotes. 3.4 Ethical considerations The ethical approval for this study was received from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Institute of Adult Education which is among of the academic institution in Tanzania with reference number (Ref. IAE.72/302/01/07) and the Kongwa District Council (KDC/R.10/6/Vol.III/132). The study adhered the principles of 1964 Helsinki Declaration, ensuring respect for the participants autonomy, privacy and welfare of throughout of the research process. Informed oral consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the study’s purpose, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any point without consequence. Respondents' confidentiality was also maintained with due care; their names were not disclosed and quotes are reported without personally identifying details. 4.0 Results and Discussion 4.1 Description of the respondents’ socio-demographic profiles A total of 46 respondents participated in the study, comprising 40 small-scale farmers (25 men and 15 women) and 6 (5 agricultural extension officers and 1 district agricultural officer). The majority of household respondents (52%) were aged between 41 and 50 years, which suggests that climate change impacts on food security are being experienced most by the active and economically productive farming population (Table 1 ). This age group, who are the members responsible for major household food cultivation and income earning, and so experience the direct impact of climate threats like droughts, abnormal rainfall patterns, and reduced yield, were found to threaten the availability, stability, and safety of household food in Kongwa District. In terms of educational level, 56% of respondents had completed primary education, 15% secondary education, and 11% had no formal schooling. This suggests low human capital for comprehension, accessing, and making the right use of climate change information and adaptation technologies. Low educational levels may limit farmers’ opportunity to understand climate forecasts, implement enhanced agricultural technologies. Table 1 Demographic profile of interviewed respondents Demographic information Male (N = 25 Female(N = 15) Officers (N = 6) Total (N = 46) Age group 18–25 years 5 1 6 26–40 years 6 5 2 13 41–50 years 13 8 3 24 51+ 1 1 1 3 Education level No formal education 3 2 5 Primary education 18 8 26 Secondary education 3 4 7 College/University 1 0 6 7 Source : Author, 2025 4.2 Impact of climate change on food security 4.2.1 Climate change Impact on food Accessibility Food access involves the ability of individuals to obtain adequate food through purchase, barter, or social networks (Omokpariola et al., 2025 ). The study results from the respondent revealed that climate change affects food accessibility in the following ways: an increased incidence and severity of crop pathogen outbreaks can be caused by changing climatic conditions, including temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events, and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and increase of temperature is threatened by increased exposure to climate change events, which reduce people's entitlement to food. This climate-induced crop failures and reduced agricultural productivity, leading to higher food prices, making it difficult for low-income households to afford sufficient food. Also, the findings indicated that variations in temperature and precipitation occur year-round and impact cereal yields nationwide, with seasonal temperature exerting the most significant effect. Changes in the levels and volatility of food prices significantly influence food access. These findings align with the study conducted by Mang’enya ( 2021 ); Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007 ), which states that changes in climatic events, such as temperature and rainfall, significantly affect the yield of crops. The effect of rising temperatures, precipitation variation, and CO2 fertilisation varies according to the crop, location, and magnitude of change in the parameters. Temperature increases have been found to reduce crop yield and affect food accessibility. The findings are consistent with those of Corwin ( 2021 ), who noted that climate change is likely to intensify food insecurity in regions that are already vulnerable, indirectly constraining both food access and utilisation. Projections indicate that a seasonal temperature rise of 2°C by 2050 could decrease average maize, sorghum, and rice yields. In addition, increased rainfall variability is expected to further contribute to reductions in crop productivity and affect households' food security. The results from the farmers revealed that food prices are rising partly due to climate change, making food less affordable. Depending on the household's food access channel, there is a medium to high degree of evidence or agreement regarding how vulnerable families are to decreased food access. Families are divided into five major food access categories based on how much or little food there is. Because impoverished consumers spend much of their income on food, price increases disproportionately negatively impact them, raising concerns about how rising food costs may affect food security and poverty. The rising and unstable costs of agricultural products undermine the poor's purchasing power and food security. During the Focus group discussion, one of the respondents had this to say about the impact of climate change on food accessibility ” Food price increases as a result of poor harvests and lower supply also mean that poorer households are less able to afford the nutrition they need, which is compounded for poor communities in poorly integrated markets or areas lacking infrastructure that inhibits the free movement and distribution of food”. These findings are similar to those of (2019) and Grote et al. (2021), who examined that extreme climate events could also affect food product availability, trigger food price hikes, and affect the earnings of poor people, especially in low-income countries. The purchasing power of people experiencing poverty will thus be significantly impacted as they allocate more earnings to food supplies, and the loss of crop yields will increase food prices. It can absurdly affect agricultural welfare globally, with a 0.3% annual loss of future GDP by 2100. Also, the findings align with the study conducted by Schilling et al. ( 2020), which explained that climate change is predicted to have a detrimental effect on agricultural production in North Africa. This could increase food prices and insecurity, sparking riots and protests against the government. Also, these findings are in line with a study conducted by (2017); food prices impact households' food accessibility by making it more challenging to purchase foods that are appropriate for a balanced diet and by reducing the purchasing power of food assistance programs. Variations in the climate will likely result in a significant increase in food prices. “One of the respondents in the interview revealed that “Climate change brought drought, which actually leads to crop yield not being well stabilised, and it finally leads to the high price of food and food is not much available in our area” (Interview,2025). However, the results from the farmers revealed that food allocation will shift as a result of climate change, which will impact food accessibility. Market-based and non-market distribution methods are used to distribute food for low-income rural and urban households who are not farmers and for African rural groups that grow a significant portion of their food. The effects of climate change on food production may make food scarce to the point where family allocation decisions must be made. Moreover, the findings revealed that climate change's impacts on agricultural products affect consumer access to popularly chosen food varieties and food availability. Households may change their food basket to retain purchasing power when a preferred item's price rises or drastically reduce their disposable income to keep the same food basket. These findings align with the study conducted by Firdaus et al. ( 2019 ), which stated that the effects of climate change influence the spatial distribution of native wild crop species and impact the traditional staple foods consumed by indigenous groups. Moreover, the findings from the respondents revealed that a household's food purchases are influenced by its preferences. Still, climate change can affect the economic and physical availability of preferred foods, making it harder to buy them. Changes in the price and availability of staple foods may force households to adjust their usual food choices or spend a more significant portion of their income when prices rise. The results are in line with the study conducted by Alam et al. ( 2017 ), (FAO, 2018), who observed that climate change may reduce the economic and physical availability of certain desired foods, making it harder to purchase preferred items. Food affordability depends on the cost of a typical food basket relative to household income. Increased price volatility in global food markets can disrupt farmers' profits and limit access to purchased food for impoverished farming and non-farming households. 4.2.2 Climate Change Impacts on Food Availability Food availability is the total quantity of food in a country or area in the form of domestic production, imports, exchange, processing, and stocks after deducting the total exports. In food availability, the study assessed the impact of climate change on production, distribution, and exchange. The findings from respondents revealed that climate variability directly impacts agricultural productivity, as agriculture is highly susceptible to the risks and effects of global climate change and is intrinsically sensitive to climate conditions. The indirect temperature effects on these environmental elements may also impact the direct negative temperature influence on yield. The impacts of rising temperatures are typically linked to other environmental variables like severe winds and drought, which affect agricultural productivity. One of the respondents during the interview revealed that Climate variability has a direct bearing on food availability in our village as it results in to decrease in crop yield because of changes in rainfall schedules, extended drought spells, and high temperatures, which affect the productivity of primary crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet. Also, it noted that climate change-related increases in heat and precipitation are deteriorating land and reducing soil productivity. This harms crop production and is caused by the loss of organic matter and soil nutrients. These findings are in line with a study conducted by Skendžić et al. ( 2021 ), Muluneh ( 2021 ), and Wheeler ( 2015 ), who describe the effects of temperature increase as generally associated with other environmental factors such as water availability, the occurrence of strong winds, and the intensity and duration of sunlight, which affect the production. The farmers revealed that the increases in temperature in the study area were associated with increasing heat wave frequency and its effects on weeds, pests, diseases, and plant illnesses, which led to the decline of agricultural production. Climate change affects crops and the pests that prey on them directly and indirectly. It directly impacts the reproduction, development, survival, and spread of pests while indirectly influencing the interactions between pests, their habitat, and other insect species, such as natural enemies, rivals, vectors, and mutualists, which affects the availability of food in the area. The results align with (Malhi et al., 2021), who elaborated that climate change can potentially increase the number of pests' movement, which might negatively affect agricultural production and even viability because most insect populations depend on abiotic conditions like temperature and humidity. The findings revealed that water availability significantly affects crop production, so climate changes affect runoff, evaporation, soil moisture storage, and rainfall patterns. Rainfall is thought to contribute more than 80% of crop production worldwide. Hence, variations in seasonal rainfall totals or patterns are essential, so changes in rainfall lead to drought, which affects agricultural production. Changes in precipitation patterns may be of greater importance to agriculture than temperature changes, especially in regions where dry seasons may be a limiting factor for crop production. The findings are in line with a study conducted by Michael Alurame Eruaga, 2024 ) and Habib-ur-Rahman et al. ( 2022 ), who elaborated that climate change is a significant obstacle to agriculture, affecting all aspects of the food system from production to distribution. Altered precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and spreading pests and diseases threaten agricultural sustainability and global food security. However, the findings from the respondents show that the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) counteracts the crop yield losses brought on by increasing temperatures and decreasing soil moisture, which primarily reduces agricultural consumptive water usage; the increased CO 2 concentration significantly lowers worldwide yield losses and production. The results are in line with the study conducted by (Skendžić et al. ( 2021 ), Sarkar et al., 2020 ), and Corwin, 2021 ), who describe that global food production is seriously threatened by rising temperatures, climate extremes, rising CO 2 , and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), and changing precipitation patterns and increased CO 2 concentration is related to drought stress resilience which affects the agricultural production. 4.2.3 Climate Change Impacts on Food Utilization Food utilization includes household use of the food to which they have access and the individuals’ ability to absorb and metabolize the nutrients. The results from respondents revealed that climate change affects food safety along the supply chain, and it has an impact on health that moderates nutritional outcomes. The farmers revealed that climatic change has impacts on food utilization; the farmers revealed that increased temperature as one of climate change decreases the nutrient content of crops, whereby reduced crop yields affect the number of nutrients that the poor and vulnerable consume by potentially reducing the availability of highly nutritious foods and by encouraging adaptation behaviours such as replacing more robust, less nutritious crops with crops that are higher in nutrients. One of the respondents revealed that; Low crop and livestock productivity due to climate change exerts pressure on households to consume less diverse and less nutritionally rich foods The findings align with the study conducted by several studies (Abebe, 2025 ) ;(Owino et al., 2021 ), and the production of these diverse foods is compromised due to climate change, affecting the dietary variety of households. The body's need for food and its utilization are determined by an individual's physiological requirements, health, accessibility to clean water, sanitary circumstances, and medical treatment. The results indicated that to improve one's nutritional status, one must consume enough protein, calories, and micronutrients for a balanced, nutrient-dense diet. Changes in income and consumption patterns may have an impact on use. A decrease in income is likely to lead to developing and using various coping mechanisms, such as consuming fewer fruits, vegetables, and protein sources, and reducing the quantity and quality of food consumed. The findings align with a study conducted (Omokpariola et al., 2025 ), climate change affects food utilization, as such, when crop yields decline, communities may rely more heavily on less nutritious staple crops, leading to a lack of essential nutrients in their diets. Moreover, the results from the respondents revealed that climate change and climate variability are believed to threaten the safety of the food supply chain through different mechanisms. Climate change also affects other aspects of food security. One of the respondents from the FGD revealed that Extreme weather events disrupt food supply chains, reduce household and individual disposable income in affected areas, and restrict access to food. Furthermore, when climate change makes providing safe drinking water more challenging and alters food's nutritional makeup, it can negatively influence food stability and utilization due to changes in food prices and links to other goods and services like sanitation. Lastly, the results from the respondents revealed that drought is a period of decreasing soil moisture that can impact both irrigated and rain-fed farming. The results align with several studies (Guo et al., 2023 ; Bodirsky et al, 2025 ; Checkley et al.,2000; lama et al., 2004 ), which revealed that temperature increases have been linked to bacteria-related illnesses stemming from poor food storage and handling practices. 4.2.4 Climate Change Impacts on Food Stability The global challenge of climate change continues to impact human socioeconomic activity, health, livelihoods, and food security. The result revealed that food productivity is affected by climate change in various ways, including direct effects on biophysical elements like plant growth and development, and the physical infrastructure involved in the delivery and processing of food. In the interview with one of the respondents, he had the saying the following Climate change affects food stability because variations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events lower crop yields and result in unstable food stability and production. Some areas experience more prolonged droughts or heavy rainfall, which can harm crop yields. Rising temperatures can decrease crop yield, and the appropriate land for particular crops can be changed, reducing food production resulting from heat stress's effects on cattle health and plant development. These findings are in line with the study conducted by Mekonnen ( 2021 ), Climate change impacts food stability by increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms. One of the respondents revealed that: - In our village, we are experiencing the frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, such as droughts, which pose significant threats to the stability of food availability, access, and utilization. Moreover, the results from the respondents revealed that extreme weather occurrences in the study area, such as droughts and abnormally high temperatures during crucial times for agricultural growth, seriously threaten the stability of food access and consumption. It is anticipated that climate change will increase the frequency of these causes of food insecurity, which might increase the frequency of food shortages and stress the available resources. The result aligns with the study conducted by Mutale et al. ( 2025 ), which states that increased frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, such as floods, droughts, and storms, pose significant threats to the stability of food availability, access, and utilization. However, the results indicated that weather-related variations in food availability, price, and policy also have a growing impact on the stability of food supplies. The variability observed in crop yields and local food production can negatively impact the stability of food supplies and, consequently, food security. The study revealed that climate change affects food stability in the way that climate change destroys crop yields, increases food prices, and causes food instability in the area. 5. Conclusion The objective of the study was to assess the influence of climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Dodoma region, by considering four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. The results indicate that long-term climate variabilities, mainly characterized by increased temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, frequent droughts, and an upsurge in pest and disease infestations, have also substantially impacted agricultural productivity and household food security negatively. Climate change has depressed crop yields due to soil degradation, moisture stress, and increased biological pressures, resulting in food shortages for many countries. These production limitations have led to food price hikes and decreased households' access to food economically, especially the poor and vulnerable. Furthermore, climate-induced shifts have harmed food consumption by damaging the safety, quality, and diversity of diet; in addition to the disruption of food supply and seasonal production cycles caused by more often extreme weather events, all weakening food security. While increasing the CO2‚ levels provides some marginal yield benefits under certain sets of conditions, this does not compensate for the negative impacts of heat stress, rainfall variability, degraded lands, and water limits. In general, the study suggests that climate change is a major threat to food security in Kongwa District, and failure to address it will lead to an increasing level of poor food security, livelihood insecurity, and poverty among small-scale farming households. 6. Recommendations Climate change threatens food security in developing countries. To mitigate these challenges, the study suggests enhancing climate-smart agricultural practices such as promoting drought-tolerant crop varieties, crop diversification, conservation agriculture, and agroforestry to boost resistance in the face of increased climatic variability. More effective water resources management, including investment in small-scale irrigation and rainwater harvesting technologies, is essential to reduce reliance on erratic rainfall and stabilize food production. More institutional and financial support is needed for smallholder farmers, such as access to extension services, credit, climate finance, and agricultural inputs, to facilitate sustainable adaptation. Priority should also be given to improving food systems, including enhancing rural infrastructure, storage, and market access to minimize post-harvest losses and stabilizing food prices. In addition, including nutrition-sensitive interventions and food safety activities in climate adaptation plans will contribute to safeguarding dietary quality and public health. The institutionalized delivery of near-real-time climate information, early warning systems, and localized seasonal forecasts can lead to more effective farm-level decision making, while the integration of climate change adaptation and food security into national and local development policies will guarantee the sustainability of the food system in Kongwa District and similar semi-arid regions. Declarations Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank all the participants involved in this study. Author contributions: Conceptualisation, methodology, writing of original draft, and editing were done by AEM, FDM, NMN, and KTK. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript before submission. Funding: The authors declare that they received no funding for this study Ethical approval: The ethical approval for this study was received from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Institute of Adult Education which is among of academic institution in Tanzania with reference number (Ref. IAE.72/302/01/07) and the Kongwa District Council (KDC/R.10/6/Vol.III/132). The study adhered the principles of 1964 Helsinki Declaration, ensuring respect for the participants autonomy, privacy and welfare of throughout of the research process. Informed oral consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the study’s purpose, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any point without consequence. Respondents' confidentiality was also maintained with due care; their names were not disclosed and quotes are reported without personally identifying details. Consent to Participate : All participants provided informed consent to participate in this study. Consent to Publish: Not applicable Competing interests : The authors declare no competing interests. Data availability : The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Clinical trial declaration : Not applicable Clinical trial number: Not applicable Aghaton E. Madonda https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6417-9525 References Abass, A. B., Ndunguru, G., Mamiro, P., Alenkhe, B., Mlingi, N., & Bekunda, M. (2024). Post-harvest food losses in a maize-based farming system of the semi-arid savannah area of Tanzania. Journal of Stored Products Research , 57 , 49-57. Abebe MG (2025) Climate change and food security nexus in Ethiopia : challenges to food sustainability — a systematic literature review. DOI: 10.3389/fsufs 2025.1563379. Alam MM, Siwar C, Talib BA, et al. (2017) Climatic changes and vulnerability of household food accessibility: A study on Malaysian East Coast Economic Region. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 9(3): 387–401. Antwi A (2013) Climate Change and Food Security : An overview about the issueAntwi, A. 2013. Climate Change and Food Security : An overview of the issue. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC (2001), 1(August), 1–13. http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC (2001) 1(August): 1–13. Bongaarts J (1993) The State of Food and Agriculture 1991. Bodirsky, B. L., Beier, F., Humpenöder, F., Leip, D., Crawford, M. S., Chen, D. M. C., ... & Popp, A. (2025). A food system transformation pathway reconciles 1.5 °C global warming with improved health, environment, and social inclusion. Nature Food, 6(12), 1133-1152. doi: 10.1038/s43016-025-01268-y Braun V., Clarke V., (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology Using thematic analysis in psychology. 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10. 1191/1478088706qp063oa Corwin DL (2021) Climate change impacts on soil salinity in agricultural areas. European Journal of Soil Science 72(2): 842–862. Checkley, W., Epstein, L. D., Gilman, R. H., Figueroa, D., Cama, R. I., Patz, J. A., & Black, R. E. (2000). Effects of EI Niño and ambient temperature on hospital admissions for diarrhoeal diseases in Peruvian children. The Lancet , 355 (9202), 442-450. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)82010-3 Firdaus RBR, Senevi Gunaratne M, Rahmat SR, et al. (2019) Does climate change only affect food availability? What else matters? Cogent Food and Agriculture 5(1). Cogent. Freedman B (2014) Global environmental change. Global Environmental Change (July 2014): 1–973. Gebre GG, Amekawa Y, Fikadu A (2023). Do climate change adaptation strategies improve farmers’ food security in Tanzania? Food Security 15(3). Springer Netherlands: 629–647. Guo, W., Rayamajhee, V., & Bohara, A. K. (2023). Impacts of climate change on food utilization in Nepal. Review of Development Economics , 27 (1), 630-659. DOI: 10.1111/rode. 12953 Habib-ur-Rahman M, Ahmad A, Raza A, (2022) Impact of climate change on agricultural production; Issues, challenges, and opportunities in Asia. Frontiers in Plant Science 13. Kahimba FC, Sife AS, Maliondo SMS (2015). Climate Change and Food Security in Tanzania: Analysis of Current Knowledge and Research Gaps. Tanzania Journal of Agricultural Sciences 14(1): 21–33. Kumar P, Tokas J, Kumar N, et al. (2018) Climate change consequences and its impact on agriculture and food security. ~ 124 ~ International Journal of Chemical Studies 6(6): 124–133. Lama, J. R., Seas, C. R., León-Barúa, R., Gotuzzo, E., & Sack, R. B. (2004). Environmental temperature, cholera, and acute diarrhoea in adults in Lima, Peru. Journal of health, population, and nutrition , 22 (4), 399–403. Mang’enya E (2021). The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security in Tanzania: A Case Study of Kilosa District. Journal of the Geographical Association of Tanzania 39(1): 173–188. Masipa, TS and Masipa, T. (2017) Jàmbá-Journal of Disaster Risk Studies Affiliation. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 9(1): 1–7. Mayaya H, Opata G and Kipkorir E (2015) Understanding Climate Change and Manifestation of its Driven Impacts in the Semi-Arid Areas of Dodoma Region, Tanzania. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management 8(4): 364. Mbunda K, (2025) Climate change, gendered identities, and adaptation strategies in rural Tanzanian households. Climate and Development 5529: 1–8. Mekonnen A (2021) Climate change impacts on household food security and adaptation strategies in southern Ethiopia. (September 2020): 1–14. Michael Alurame Eruaga (2024). Policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change and agriculture. International Journal of Scholarly Research and Reviews 4(1): 021–032. Mutale, B., Dai, S., Chen, Z., & Maulu, S. (2025). Enhancing food security amid climate change: assessing impacts and developing adaptive strategies. Cogent Food & Agriculture , 11 (1), 2519800. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2519800 Muluneh, M. G. (2021). Impact of climate change on biodiversity and food security: a global perspective—a review article. Agriculture & Food Security , 10 (1),1-25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00318-5 Omokpariola DO, Agbanu-kumordzi C, Samuel T (2025). Climate change, crop yield, and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Epub ahead of print 2025. 10.1007/s43621-025-01580-4 Owino V, Kumwenda C, Ekesa B (2021). The impact of climate change on food systems, diet quality, nutrition, and health outcomes : A narrative review. 2020. Sarkar MSK, Begum RA, and Pereira JJ (2020). Impacts of climate change on oil palm production in Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27(9). Environmental Science and Pollution Research: 9760–9770. Schilling J, Hertig E, Tramblay Y (2020). Climate change vulnerability, water resources, and social implications in North Africa. Regional Environmental Change 20(1). Schmidhuber J and Tubiello FN (2007) Global food security under climate change. 2007. Skendžić S, Zovko M, Živković IP (2021). The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Insect Pests . Temba AN and Said MK (2023) Small-holder Farmers’ Perceptions of the Impacts of Climate Change on Maize Crop in Dodoma, Tanzania. Ghana Journal of Geography 15(2): 184–211. Uy N, Delfino RJP, and Shaw R (2016) Ecosystem-Based Disaster Risk Reduction: Experiences, Challenges, and Opportunities in the Post-2015 Development Agenda . Wahid ANM (2018). Climatic changes and vulnerability of household food utilisation in the Malaysian East Coast Economic Region. Mahmudul Alam * Chamhuri Siwar Basri Abdul Talib. 17(4). Wang D, Li R, Gao G, et al. (2022). Impact of Climate Change on Food Security in Kazakhstan. Agriculture (Switzerland) 12(8). Wollenberg E, Vermeulen SJ, Girvetz E (2016). Reducing risks to food security from climate change. Global Food Security 11. Elsevier: 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.06.002 Wheeler, T. (2015). Climate change impacts on food systems and implications for climate-compatible food policies. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8448782","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":581380555,"identity":"215add86-bcd1-49cf-be73-cf19e72d1991","order_by":0,"name":"Aghaton Elias Madonda","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHhgjAcS2ATIYGw8Q1HIAoSUNpKWBJC2HwUy8Wvj71x78/KHiTjR/e/KxB29qztutbT8MtKXGJhqXFokb75IlDpx5ljvjzLN0wznHbidvO5MI1HIsLbcBl54bZwwkDrYdzm24kWMmzcN2O9nsAFALY8NhnFrkb5wx/gHSMh+s5d+5ZLPzD/FrMTjfYwa2ZQNIC2/bATuzGwRsMbzBY2Zx5szh3I1nnqVJzu1LTjC7AbQlAY9f5M6fMb5RUXE4d97x5GMSb77Z2ZudT3/44EONDW7vSySg8hPBKhMw1CEB/gOofHt8ikfBKBgFo2BkAgD3Y3B5ODffzwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"INSTITUTE OF ADULT EDUCATION","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aghaton","middleName":"Elias","lastName":"Madonda","suffix":""},{"id":581380557,"identity":"6a391c75-e894-45b9-963f-a5fdc596798a","order_by":1,"name":"Fadhili Damas Machage","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Moshi Co-operative University,","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fadhili","middleName":"Damas","lastName":"Machage","suffix":""},{"id":581380559,"identity":"675f5ce6-9e9d-442a-b0d3-4b9645a09c6f","order_by":2,"name":"Norbert Makarius Nombo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"INSTITUTE OF ADULT EDUCATION","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Norbert","middleName":"Makarius","lastName":"Nombo","suffix":""},{"id":581380560,"identity":"dcc41012-cea9-4f64-b5c0-7f9883b68540","order_by":3,"name":"Kelvin Traviel Kaaya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kelvin","middleName":"Traviel","lastName":"Kaaya","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-25 11:53:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101404500,"identity":"6a29a304-6b00-48d7-aea1-3b44f29ad4fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-29 10:33:43","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":411502,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8448782/v1/6699aef840611cb4ac09bb83.png"},{"id":105408191,"identity":"e321bea8-a796-423f-919f-06763c72f33d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-25 16:56:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1125572,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8448782/v1/b31bb12a-2396-49e1-8942-e79b660dd141.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Exploring the impact of prolonged climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Tanzania","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFood security is crucial to overall well-being locally, globally, or within communities. Hunger and food insecurity violate fundamental human rights and lead to problems with development, nutrition, and health (Wahid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Agricultural production is essential for global food security. Still, climate change significantly threatens the productivity of farming systems worldwide and the food security they provide (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, 2014). Climate change is likely to affect global food production directly. Higher average seasonal temperatures can shorten the growing period for many crops, leading to reduced yields (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change poses a significant threat for the coming decades, especially in Africa. The drivers of climate change can directly affect plant physiology, which affects food production through changes in air composition. The severe effects of agriculture's contribution to climate change and the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture are expected to have a significant impact on food production, and they may threaten food security (Gebre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The primary causes of climate change are greenhouse gas emissions, supported by deforestation, the degradation of forests, and the combustion of fossil fuels. Developing countries, like Tanzania, are especially susceptible to extreme weather events because of their heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources for sustenance, ignorance of climate change, lack of resources for adaptation, and limited ability to lessen their effects (Kahimba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is considered the most significant risk to agricultural production and food security, particularly in many of Africa's poor, agriculture-based countries, which have limited capacity to effectively implement adaptation mechanisms to address declining yields and other impacts (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change's effects on food security are increasingly recognised worldwide, including in Africa. Africa is often seen as the most vulnerable continent to climate change (Bwalya 2013). In sub-Saharan Africa, the effects of climate change and severe droughts already hinder cattle raising and crop cultivation. To ensure food security and well-being, pastoralists must adapt to changes in water availability (Gebre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change in Africa is expected to cause temperature increases, variations in rainfall intensity, more frequent extreme events like floods and droughts, increased desertification, and changes in disease vectors that affect the transmission of infectious diseases. Since 2001, CO₂ emissions have fluctuated but generally continued to rise, while the amount of arable land has declined markedly. This reduction is largely driven by global warming, which has intensified drought conditions and contributed to land degradation and food shortage because many rural households rely primarily on subsistence farming, the loss of productive farmland places them at greater risk of food insecurity (Masipa \u0026amp; Masipa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food security exists when \u0026ldquo;all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life. (Rome Declaration 1996). \u0026lsquo;All people at all times\u0026rsquo; implies the need for equitable and stable food distribution. Still, it is increasingly recognized that it also covers the need for inter-generational equity and, therefore, \u0026lsquo;sustainability\u0026rsquo; in food production. \u0026lsquo;Safe and nutritious food \u0026hellip; for a healthy life\u0026rsquo; implies that food insecurity can occur if the diet is not nutritious, including when consuming an excess of calories, or if food is not safe, meaning free from harmful substances (Bongaarts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, food security consists of four key aspects: food availability, food system stability, food utilization, and access to food. Achieving food security requires meeting all four criteria simultaneously. Climate change affects food security by altering agroecological conditions and impacting the development and distribution of income, which in turn influences the demand for agricultural products (Kahimba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Natural catastrophes and the effects of climate change are the leading causes of hunger and impact all aspects of food security, including nutrition, availability, and stability of supplies, and food access globally. Due to the global food crisis, food and nutrition insecurity reveal current and potential vulnerabilities in households, governments, and the international system (Uy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTanzania has experienced extreme weather phenomena, such as windstorms, floods, and droughts, which have a significant financial impact (Future Climate for Africa, 2017). The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture and the World Bank (2017) anticipated that the agriculture industry would suffer economic losses linked to climate change of about US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e200\u0026nbsp;million per year (Gebre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Tanzania is expected to experience increasing climate change effects, which might negatively impact the country's critical socioeconomic sectors and impede future growth. Additionally, there are adverse effects on the nation's food supply and accessibility due to both direct and indirect impacts of climate change on food security (IPCC, 2014). This study explores the impact of climate change on food security, specifically looking at the four dimensions of food security, which are food accessibility, food availability, food utilization, and food stability in the Kongwa district in the Dodoma region in Tanzania.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section reviews empirical studies on the relationship between climate change and food security in its four dimensions: accessibility, availability, utilization, and stability. The review from various scholars describes how climate change affects the four dimensions of food security. Therefore, the discussion will focus on the effects of climate change on each dimension of food security.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood accessibility refers to the ability of the country, communities, and individuals to purchase food in sufficient quantities and quality (Masipa, T., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Food availability refers to the presence of adequate amounts of food of suitable quality supplied through domestic production or imports. Food accessibility is key to determining whether an individual, a household, or even a given region is food-secured. Climate change negatively impacts the essential components of food production, including water, soil, and biodiversity (Wahid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change affects food accessibility in the following ways: It leads to higher CO2 concentrations associated with drought stress tolerance because it reduces the number of open stomata required for gas exchange by plants, reducing water loss through transpiration and increasing water usage efficiency. CO2 fertilization has limited positive effects on crop production, while extreme changes in temperature and rainfall significantly affect yields negatively; also, impacts of climate change on agricultural food processing, storage, distribution, and consumption patterns, which lead to food scarcity due to supply chain failures, post-harvest losses, and food waste (Firdaus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The influence of climate change on agriculture varies geographically, as seen by long-term increases in heat stress, drought frequency, and flooding. Global cereal production has decreased as a result of droughts and intense heat.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood availability is the total quantity of food in a country or area through domestic production, import, exchange, processing, and stocks after deducting the total exports. Climate change impacts the quantity and quality of livestock, fisheries, and agricultural production, thereby affecting efforts to enhance food availability (Firdaus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Rising temperatures negatively impact crop production and natural ecosystems. In emerging nations, decreasing crop yields are attributed to extreme weather patterns and the depletion of natural resources (Wollenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change affects food availability by impacting food production, storage, processing, distribution, and exchange. Climate change impacts food production, with significantly higher average global temperatures and more extreme weather events associated with climate change, which will reduce the reliability of food production (IPCC, 2021). The IPCC has also observed that the increase in heat and rainfall due to climate change is progressively degrading land, reducing soil productivity. This degradation results from losing soil nutrients and organic matter, negatively impacting food production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood Utilization is defined as \u0026ldquo;the nutritional value of the diet, including its composition and methods of preparation; the social values of foods, which dictate what kinds of food should be served and eaten at different times of the year and on different occasions, and the quality and safety of the food supply, which can cause loss of nutrients in the food and the spread of foodborne diseases if not of a sufficient standard\u0026rdquo; (FAO, 2008a). A key concern, especially for developing countries, is the impact of climate change on food utilization. These changes will adversely affect the realization of human rights, particularly the rights to clean water and food, which are closely interconnected. Therefore, the components of climate change significantly impact food utilization, especially in nutrition, safety, and social value. Food utilization is typically measured using indicators of nutritional status and can be considered the final step toward achieving adequate nutrition. With stable availability and access, proper food utilization leads to adequate nutrition (Freedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consequences of climate change, especially the increase in global mean temperatures, may significantly affect food safety. Rising temperatures will cause food to spoil more quickly unless refrigeration and cooling issues are addressed, necessitating faster food production to extend shelf life. Water scarcity, especially in subtropical areas, will impact food preparation and processing, potentially requiring a shift to dry processing methods or the development of new cooking techniques(Wahid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood stability means that the remaining three aspects of food security, such as accessibility, availability, and utilization, should remain constant over time and should not be negatively affected by natural, social, political, or economic factors, including the potential for unfavorable outcomes and unexpected shocks resulting from economic changes, climate fluctuations, or cyclical events (Antwi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In Northern Nigeria's semi-arid region, increases in temperature and a dramatic decrease in rainfall have led to a decline in crop and livestock productivity. This worsening water shortage negatively impacts household income and subsistence, creating artificial food shortages, malnutrition, and health issues. Additionally, it contributes to the loss of agricultural and pasture land.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Kongwa district council in the four wards, namely Chiwe, Kibaigwa, Mtanana, and Njoge. The selection of the study area resulted from the experience of repeated climate change in the area, and Dodoma is one of the semi-arid areas in Tanzania. Usually, the semi-arid region of Tanzania has always been characterized by severe, prolonged spells of drought. This trend has resulted in a serious food shortage in the Kongwa district (Abass et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In the study, Kongwa district, with the highest impact of climate change in recent years, in this reason Kongwa district was purposively selected for the study (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Kongwa District lies within the drought-prone, semi-arid agroecological region in central Tanzania. The study area is situated between latitudes 5\u0026deg;30' to 6\u0026deg;00' South and longitudes 36\u0026deg;15' to 36\u0026deg;00' East (Temba and Said, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It encompasses approximately 404,100 hectares of land (Mkonda \u0026amp; He, 2017a). Kongwa is one of the seven districts of the Dodoma region. The climatic condition of Kongwa-Dodoma is mainly characterized by a long dry season, lasting from late April to early December, and a short-wet season. The region receives an average annual rainfall of 570mm, almost 85 percent falling between December and April (Mayaya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The average maximum temperature in Dodoma is 31\u0026deg;C, while the minimum is 18\u0026deg;C (Temba and Said, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Given these climatic conditions, the region is classified as arid and semi-arid, particularly in its eastern and central parts. The main economic activities in the council are crop production, including the cultivation of both food and commercial crops such as corn, sorghum, peanuts, sunflowers, and maize, and livestock keeping, such as cows, goats, and sheep.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Research design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative case study to investigate the impact of climate change on food security in the Kongwa district council. Qualitative research explores the underlying drivers and connectors, unintended consequences, and context-embedded and actionable information by examining the lived experiences, perceptions, values, and behaviors of those most affected by climate change \u0026ndash; people and communities. A case study approach was chosen because it provides an in-depth, context-specific understanding of complex social transformations, especially those related to gender norms, social identities, and lived experiences, which cannot be adequately captured by quantitative surveys alone (Mbunda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It also facilitates data integration across multiple sources, thereby enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e.3 Methods of data collection and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study employed a triangulation approach whereby both primary and secondary data were collected to minimize bias and mitigate the limitations of using a single method. The study used 40 farmers (25 men and 15 women) for semi-structured interviews from four wards to gain insight into respondents' beliefs, perceptions, and experiences regarding the impacts of climate change on food security based upon four dimensions of food security: availability, accessibility, stability, and utilization. In this study, 6 (4 agricultural extension officers and 2district agricultural officers) as key informants were interviewed during data collection in the study area. Participants were selected purposively based on the following criteria: (i) gender (men and women); (ii) age between 20 and 50 years; (iii) marital status; (iv) direct involvement in farming/agriculture (v) residency in the study ward/villages for at least one year; and (vi) willingness and availability to participate in the research. The study also employed Four group discussions, whereby four group discussions were carried out at four wards (One per ward), with separate sessions for men and women to encourage candid discussions. Each FGD involved 5\u0026ndash;8 participants selected using the same criteria above, and discussions covered themes of climate change, food availability, accessibility, stability, and utilization\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the study used a qualitative approach, a thematic analysis was conducted, which created broad themes and a coding system based on the collected data samples. Data analysis followed thematic analysis using Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) six-step framework (Braun et al., 2006). First familiarisation with the data, whereby data from the interview and FGD were reviewed, listened to, read, and re-read, and memos and summaries were composed as needed. Second, the initial code from the dataset by the important codes. Third, related codes were grouped into preliminary themes, which were then reviewed in the fourth step to ensure consistency and coherence across the dataset. Fifth, themes were clearly defined and named to capture their underlying meanings, such as the impact of climate change and food security. Finally, the sixth step involved producing the report, integrating themes into a coherent narrative supported by illustrative quotes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Ethical considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The ethical approval for this study was received from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Institute of Adult Education which is among of the academic institution in Tanzania with reference number (Ref. IAE.72/302/01/07) and the Kongwa District Council (KDC/R.10/6/Vol.III/132). The study adhered the principles of 1964 Helsinki Declaration, ensuring respect for the participants autonomy, privacy and welfare of throughout of the research process. Informed oral consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the study\u0026rsquo;s purpose, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any point without consequence. Respondents' confidentiality was also maintained with due care; their names were not disclosed and quotes are reported without personally identifying details.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Description of the respondents\u0026rsquo; socio-demographic profiles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 46 respondents participated in the study, comprising 40 small-scale farmers (25 men and 15 women) and 6 (5 agricultural extension officers and 1 district agricultural officer). The majority of household respondents (52%) were aged between 41 and 50 years, which suggests that climate change impacts on food security are being experienced most by the active and economically productive farming population (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This age group, who are the members responsible for major household food cultivation and income earning, and so experience the direct impact of climate threats like droughts, abnormal rainfall patterns, and reduced yield, were found to threaten the availability, stability, and safety of household food in Kongwa District. In terms of educational level, 56% of respondents had completed primary education, 15% secondary education, and 11% had no formal schooling. This suggests low human capital for comprehension, accessing, and making the right use of climate change information\u0026ensp;and adaptation technologies. Low educational levels\u0026ensp;may limit farmers\u0026rsquo; opportunity to understand climate forecasts, implement enhanced agricultural technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic profile of interviewed respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale(N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficers (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;25 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;40 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation level\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondary education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege/University\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e: Author, 2025\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Impact of climate change on food security\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Climate change Impact on food Accessibility\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood access involves the ability of individuals to obtain adequate food through purchase, barter, or social networks (Omokpariola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The study results from the respondent revealed that climate change affects food accessibility in the following ways: an increased incidence and severity of crop pathogen outbreaks can be caused by changing climatic conditions, including temperature, rainfall, extreme weather events, and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and increase of temperature is threatened by increased exposure to climate change events, which reduce people's entitlement to food. This climate-induced crop failures and reduced agricultural productivity, leading to higher food prices, making it difficult for low-income households to afford sufficient food. Also, the findings indicated that variations in temperature and precipitation occur year-round and impact cereal yields nationwide, with seasonal temperature exerting the most significant effect. Changes in the levels and volatility of food prices significantly influence food access.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings align with the study conducted by Mang\u0026rsquo;enya (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e); Schmidhuber and Tubiello \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), which states that changes in climatic events, such as temperature and rainfall, significantly affect the yield of crops. The effect of rising temperatures, precipitation variation, and CO2 fertilisation varies according to the crop, location, and magnitude of change in the parameters. Temperature increases have been found to reduce crop yield and affect food accessibility. \u003cem\u003eThe\u003c/em\u003e findings are consistent with those of Corwin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that climate change is likely to intensify food insecurity in regions that are already vulnerable, indirectly constraining both food access and utilisation. Projections indicate that a seasonal temperature rise of 2\u0026deg;C by 2050 could decrease average maize, sorghum, and rice yields. In addition, increased rainfall variability is expected to further contribute to reductions in crop productivity and affect households' food security.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results from the farmers revealed that food prices are rising partly due to climate change, making food less affordable. Depending on the household's food access channel, there is a medium to high degree of evidence or agreement regarding how vulnerable families are to decreased food access. Families are divided into five major food access categories based on how much or little food there is. Because impoverished consumers spend much of their income on food, price increases disproportionately negatively impact them, raising concerns about how rising food costs may affect food security and poverty. The rising and unstable costs of agricultural products undermine the poor's purchasing power and food security. During the Focus group discussion, one of the respondents had this to say about the impact of climate change on food accessibility\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026rdquo; Food price increases as a result of poor harvests and lower supply also mean that poorer households are less able to afford the nutrition they need, which is compounded for poor communities in poorly integrated markets or areas lacking infrastructure that inhibits the free movement and distribution of food\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings are similar to those of (2019) and Grote et al. (2021), who examined that extreme climate events could also affect food product availability, trigger food price hikes, and affect the earnings of poor people, especially in low-income countries. The purchasing power of people experiencing poverty will thus be significantly impacted as they allocate more earnings to food supplies, and the loss of crop yields will increase food prices. It can absurdly affect agricultural welfare globally, with a 0.3% annual loss of future GDP by 2100. Also, the findings align with the study conducted by Schilling et al. ( 2020), which explained that climate change is predicted to have a detrimental effect on agricultural production in North Africa. This could increase food prices and insecurity, sparking riots and protests against the government. Also, these findings are in line with a study conducted by (2017); food prices impact households' food accessibility by making it more challenging to purchase foods that are appropriate for a balanced diet and by reducing the purchasing power of food assistance programs. Variations in the climate will likely result in a significant increase in food prices.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;One of the respondents in the interview revealed that \u0026ldquo;Climate change brought drought, which actually leads to crop yield not being well stabilised, and it finally leads to the high price of food and food is not much available in our area\u0026rdquo; (Interview,2025).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the results from the farmers revealed that food allocation will shift as a result of climate change, which will impact food accessibility. Market-based and non-market distribution methods are used to distribute food for low-income rural and urban households who are not farmers and for African rural groups that grow a significant portion of their food. The effects of climate change on food production may make food scarce to the point where family allocation decisions must be made.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the findings revealed that climate change's impacts on agricultural products affect consumer access to popularly chosen food varieties and food availability. Households may change their food basket to retain purchasing power when a preferred item's price rises or drastically reduce their disposable income to keep the same food basket. These findings align with the study conducted by Firdaus et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which stated that the effects of climate change influence the spatial distribution of native wild crop species and impact the traditional staple foods consumed by indigenous groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the findings from the respondents revealed that a household's food purchases are influenced by its preferences. Still, climate change can affect the economic and physical availability of preferred foods, making it harder to buy them. Changes in the price and availability of staple foods may force households to adjust their usual food choices or spend a more significant portion of their income when prices rise. The results are in line with the study conducted by Alam et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), (FAO, 2018), who observed that climate change may reduce the economic and physical availability of certain desired foods, making it harder to purchase preferred items. Food affordability depends on the cost of a typical food basket relative to household income. Increased price volatility in global food markets can disrupt farmers' profits and limit access to purchased food for impoverished farming and non-farming households.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Climate Change Impacts on Food Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood availability is the total quantity of food in a country or area in the form of domestic production, imports, exchange, processing, and stocks after deducting the total exports. In food availability, the study assessed the impact of climate change on production, distribution, and exchange. The findings from respondents revealed that climate variability directly impacts agricultural productivity, as agriculture is highly susceptible to the risks and effects of global climate change and is intrinsically sensitive to climate conditions. The indirect temperature effects on these environmental elements may also impact the direct negative temperature influence on yield. The impacts of rising temperatures are typically linked to other environmental variables like severe winds and drought, which affect agricultural productivity. One of the respondents during the interview revealed that\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eClimate variability has a direct bearing on food availability in our village as it results in to decrease in crop yield because of changes in rainfall schedules, extended drought spells, and high temperatures, which affect the productivity of primary crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, it noted that climate change-related increases in heat and precipitation are deteriorating land and reducing soil productivity. This harms crop production and is caused by the loss of organic matter and soil nutrients. These findings are in line with a study conducted by Skendžić et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Muluneh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and Wheeler (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), who describe the effects of temperature increase as generally associated with other environmental factors such as water availability, the occurrence of strong winds, and the intensity and duration of sunlight, which affect the production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe farmers revealed that the increases in temperature in the study area were associated with increasing heat wave frequency and its effects on weeds, pests, diseases, and plant illnesses, which led to the decline of agricultural production. Climate change affects crops and the pests that prey on them directly and indirectly. It directly impacts the reproduction, development, survival, and spread of pests while indirectly influencing the interactions between pests, their habitat, and other insect species, such as natural enemies, rivals, vectors, and mutualists, which affects the availability of food in the area. The results align with (Malhi et al., 2021), who elaborated that climate change can potentially increase the number of pests' movement, which might negatively affect agricultural production and even viability because most insect populations depend on abiotic conditions like temperature and humidity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed that water availability significantly affects crop production, so climate changes affect runoff, evaporation, soil moisture storage, and rainfall patterns. Rainfall is thought to contribute more than 80% of crop production worldwide. Hence, variations in seasonal rainfall totals or patterns are essential, so changes in rainfall lead to drought, which affects agricultural production. Changes in precipitation patterns may be of greater importance to agriculture than temperature changes, especially in regions where dry seasons may be a limiting factor for crop production. The findings are in line with a study conducted by Michael Alurame Eruaga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Habib-ur-Rahman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who elaborated that climate change is a significant obstacle to agriculture, affecting all aspects of the food system from production to distribution. Altered precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and spreading pests and diseases threaten agricultural sustainability and global food security.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the findings from the respondents show that the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) counteracts the crop yield losses brought on by increasing temperatures and decreasing soil moisture, which primarily reduces agricultural consumptive water usage; the increased CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e concentration significantly lowers worldwide yield losses and production. The results are in line with the study conducted by (Skendžić et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Sarkar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and Corwin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who describe that global food production is seriously threatened by rising temperatures, climate extremes, rising CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), and changing precipitation patterns and increased CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e concentration is related to drought stress resilience which affects the agricultural production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.3 Climate Change Impacts on Food Utilization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood utilization includes household use of the food to which they have access and the individuals\u0026rsquo; ability to absorb and metabolize the nutrients. The results from respondents revealed that climate change affects food safety along the supply chain, and it has an impact on health that moderates nutritional outcomes. The farmers revealed that climatic change has impacts on food utilization; the farmers revealed that increased temperature as one of climate change decreases the nutrient content of crops, whereby reduced crop yields affect the number of nutrients that the poor and vulnerable consume by potentially reducing the availability of highly nutritious foods and by encouraging adaptation behaviours such as replacing more robust, less nutritious crops with crops that are higher in nutrients. One of the respondents revealed that;\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eLow crop and livestock productivity due to climate change exerts pressure on households to consume less diverse and less nutritionally rich foods\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings align with the study conducted by several studies (Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) ;(Owino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and the production of these diverse foods is compromised due to climate change, affecting the dietary variety of households. The body's need for food and its utilization are determined by an individual's physiological requirements, health, accessibility to clean water, sanitary circumstances, and medical treatment. The results indicated that to improve one's nutritional status, one must consume enough protein, calories, and micronutrients for a balanced, nutrient-dense diet. Changes in income and consumption patterns may have an impact on use. A decrease in income is likely to lead to developing and using various coping mechanisms, such as consuming fewer fruits, vegetables, and protein sources, and reducing the quantity and quality of food consumed. The findings align with a study conducted (Omokpariola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), climate change affects food utilization, as such, when crop yields decline, communities may rely more heavily on less nutritious staple crops, leading to a lack of essential nutrients in their diets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the results from the respondents revealed that climate change and climate variability are believed to threaten the safety of the food supply chain through different mechanisms. Climate change also affects other aspects of food security. One of the respondents from the FGD revealed that\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eExtreme weather events disrupt food supply chains, reduce household and individual disposable income in affected areas, and restrict access to food.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, when climate change makes providing safe drinking water more challenging and alters food's nutritional makeup, it can negatively influence food stability and utilization due to changes in food prices and links to other goods and services like sanitation. Lastly, the results from the respondents revealed that drought is a period of decreasing soil moisture that can impact both irrigated and rain-fed farming. The results align with several studies (Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Bodirsky et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Checkley et al.,2000; lama et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), which revealed that temperature increases have been linked to bacteria-related illnesses stemming from poor food storage and handling practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.4 Climate Change Impacts on Food Stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe global challenge of climate change continues to impact human socioeconomic activity, health, livelihoods, and food security. The result revealed that food productivity is affected by climate change in various ways, including direct effects on biophysical elements like plant growth and development, and the physical infrastructure involved in the delivery and processing of food. In the interview with one of the respondents, he had the saying the following\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eClimate change affects food stability because variations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events lower crop yields and result in unstable food stability and production.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome areas experience more prolonged droughts or heavy rainfall, which can harm crop yields. Rising temperatures can decrease crop yield, and the appropriate land for particular crops can be changed, reducing food production resulting from heat stress's effects on cattle health and plant development. These findings are in line with the study conducted by Mekonnen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Climate change impacts food stability by increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms. One of the respondents revealed that: -\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIn our village, we are experiencing the frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, such as droughts, which pose significant threats to the stability of food availability, access, and utilization.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the results from the respondents revealed that extreme weather occurrences in the study area, such as droughts and abnormally high temperatures during crucial times for agricultural growth, seriously threaten the stability of food access and consumption. It is anticipated that climate change will increase the frequency of these causes of food insecurity, which might increase the frequency of food shortages and stress the available resources. The result aligns with the study conducted by Mutale et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), which states that increased frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, such as floods, droughts, and storms, pose significant threats to the stability of food availability, access, and utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the results indicated that weather-related variations in food availability, price, and policy also have a growing impact on the stability of food supplies. The variability observed in crop yields and local food production can negatively impact the stability of food supplies and, consequently, food security. The study revealed that climate change affects food stability in the way that climate change destroys crop yields, increases food prices, and causes food instability in the area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe objective of the study was to assess the influence of climate change on households\u0026rsquo; food security in Kongwa District, Dodoma region, by considering four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. The results indicate that long-term climate variabilities, mainly characterized by increased temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, frequent droughts, and an upsurge in pest and disease infestations, have also substantially impacted agricultural productivity and household food security negatively. Climate change has depressed crop yields due to soil degradation, moisture stress, and increased biological pressures, resulting in food shortages for many countries. These production limitations have led to food price hikes and decreased households' access to food economically, especially the poor and vulnerable. Furthermore, climate-induced shifts have harmed food consumption by damaging the safety, quality, and diversity of diet; in addition to the disruption of food supply and seasonal production cycles caused by more often extreme weather events, all weakening food security. While increasing the CO2\u0026sbquo; levels provides some marginal yield benefits under certain sets of conditions, this does not compensate for the negative impacts of heat stress, rainfall variability, degraded lands, and water limits. In general, the study suggests that climate change is a major threat to food security in Kongwa District, and failure to address it will lead to an increasing level of poor food security, livelihood insecurity, and poverty among small-scale farming households.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change threatens food security in developing countries. To mitigate these challenges, the study suggests enhancing climate-smart agricultural practices such as promoting drought-tolerant crop varieties, crop diversification, conservation agriculture, and agroforestry to boost resistance in the face of increased climatic variability. More effective water resources management, including investment in small-scale irrigation and rainwater harvesting technologies, is essential to reduce reliance on erratic rainfall and stabilize food production. More institutional and financial support is needed for smallholder farmers, such as access to extension services, credit, climate finance, and agricultural inputs, to facilitate sustainable adaptation. Priority should also be given to improving food systems, \u0026ensp;including enhancing rural infrastructure, storage, and market access to minimize post-harvest losses and stabilizing food prices. In addition, including nutrition-sensitive interventions and food safety activities in climate adaptation plans will contribute to safeguarding dietary quality and public health. The institutionalized delivery of near-real-time climate information, early warning systems, and localized seasonal forecasts can lead to more effective farm-level decision making, while the integration of climate change adaptation and food security into national and local development policies will guarantee the sustainability of the food system in Kongwa District and similar semi-arid regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author wishes to thank all the participants involved in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualisation, methodology, writing of original draft, and editing were done by AEM, FDM, NMN, and KTK. \u0026nbsp;All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript before submission.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they received no funding for this study\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval:\u003c/strong\u003e The ethical approval for this study was received from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Institute of Adult Education which is among of academic institution in Tanzania with reference number (Ref. IAE.72/302/01/07) and the Kongwa District Council (KDC/R.10/6/Vol.III/132). The study adhered the principles of 1964 Helsinki Declaration, ensuring respect for the participants autonomy, privacy and welfare of throughout of the research process. Informed oral consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the study\u0026rsquo;s purpose, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any point without consequence. Respondents\u0026apos; confidentiality was also maintained with due care; their names were not disclosed and quotes are reported without personally identifying details.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e: All participants provided informed consent to participate in this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Publish: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e: The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial declaration\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAghaton E. Madonda\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ehttps://orcid.org/0009-0009-6417-9525\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eAbass, A. B., Ndunguru, G., Mamiro, P., Alenkhe, B., Mlingi, N., \u0026amp; Bekunda, M. (2024). Post-harvest food losses in a maize-based farming system of the semi-arid savannah area of Tanzania. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Stored Products Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e57\u003c/em\u003e, 49-57.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbebe MG (2025) Climate change and food security nexus in Ethiopia : challenges to food sustainability — a systematic literature review. DOI: 10.3389/fsufs 2025.1563379.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlam MM, Siwar C, Talib BA, et al. (2017) Climatic changes and vulnerability of household food accessibility: A study on Malaysian East Coast Economic Region. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management\u003c/em\u003e 9(3): 387–401.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntwi A (2013) Climate Change and Food Security : An overview about the issueAntwi, A. 2013. Climate Change and Food Security : An overview of the issue. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC (2001), 1(August), 1–13. http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/. \u003cem\u003eIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC (2001)\u003c/em\u003e 1(August): 1–13.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBongaarts J (1993) \u003cem\u003eThe State of Food and Agriculture 1991.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBodirsky, B. L., Beier, F., Humpenöder, F., Leip, D., Crawford, M. S., Chen, D. M. C., ... \u0026amp; Popp, A. (2025). A food system transformation pathway reconciles 1.5 °C global warming with improved health, environment, and social inclusion. Nature Food, 6(12), 1133-1152. doi: 10.1038/s43016-025-01268-y \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBraun V., Clarke V., (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology Using thematic analysis in psychology. 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10. 1191/1478088706qp063oa \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorwin DL (2021) Climate change impacts on soil salinity in agricultural areas. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Soil Science\u003c/em\u003e 72(2): 842–862.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCheckley, W., Epstein, L. D., Gilman, R. H., Figueroa, D., Cama, R. I., Patz, J. A., \u0026amp; Black, R. E. (2000). Effects of EI Niño and ambient temperature on hospital admissions for diarrhoeal diseases in Peruvian children. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e355\u003c/em\u003e(9202), 442-450. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)82010-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirdaus RBR, Senevi Gunaratne M, Rahmat SR, et al. (2019) Does climate change only affect food availability? What else matters? \u003cem\u003eCogent Food and Agriculture\u003c/em\u003e 5(1). Cogent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFreedman B (2014) Global environmental change. \u003cem\u003eGlobal Environmental Change\u003c/em\u003e (July 2014): 1–973.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGebre GG, Amekawa Y, Fikadu A (2023). Do climate change adaptation strategies improve farmers’ food security in Tanzania? \u003cem\u003eFood Security\u003c/em\u003e 15(3). Springer Netherlands: 629–647.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGuo, W., Rayamajhee, V., \u0026amp; Bohara, A. K. (2023). Impacts of climate change on food utilization in Nepal. \u003cem\u003eReview of Development Economics\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e(1), 630-659. DOI: 10.1111/rode. 12953 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHabib-ur-Rahman M, Ahmad A, Raza A, (2022) Impact of climate change on agricultural production; Issues, challenges, and opportunities in Asia. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Plant Science\u003c/em\u003e 13.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKahimba FC, Sife AS, Maliondo SMS (2015). Climate Change and Food Security in Tanzania: Analysis of Current Knowledge and Research Gaps. \u003cem\u003eTanzania Journal of Agricultural Sciences \u003c/em\u003e 14(1): 21–33.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKumar P, Tokas J, Kumar N, et al. (2018) Climate change consequences and its impact on agriculture and food security. \u003cem\u003e~ 124 ~ International Journal of Chemical Studies\u003c/em\u003e 6(6): 124–133.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLama, J. R., Seas, C. R., León-Barúa, R., Gotuzzo, E., \u0026amp; Sack, R. B. (2004). Environmental temperature, cholera, and acute diarrhoea in adults in Lima, Peru. \u003cem\u003eJournal of health, population, and nutrition\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e22\u003c/em\u003e(4), 399–403.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMang’enya E (2021). The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security in Tanzania: A Case Study of Kilosa District. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the Geographical Association of Tanzania\u003c/em\u003e 39(1): 173–188.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMasipa, TS and Masipa, T. (2017) Jàmbá-Journal of Disaster Risk Studies Affiliation. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Disaster Risk Studies\u003c/em\u003e 9(1): 1–7.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMayaya H, Opata G and Kipkorir E (2015) Understanding Climate Change and Manifestation of its Driven Impacts in the Semi-Arid Areas of Dodoma Region, Tanzania. \u003cem\u003eEthiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management\u003c/em\u003e 8(4): 364.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMbunda K, (2025) Climate change, gendered identities, and adaptation strategies in rural Tanzanian households. \u003cem\u003eClimate and Development\u003c/em\u003e 5529: 1–8.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMekonnen A (2021) Climate change impacts on household food security and adaptation strategies in southern Ethiopia. (September 2020): 1–14.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMichael Alurame Eruaga (2024). Policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change and agriculture. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Scholarly Research and Reviews\u003c/em\u003e 4(1): 021–032.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMutale, B., Dai, S., Chen, Z., \u0026amp; Maulu, S. (2025). Enhancing food security amid climate change: assessing impacts and developing adaptive strategies. \u003cem\u003eCogent Food \u0026amp; Agriculture\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(1), 2519800. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2519800 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuluneh, M. G. (2021). Impact of climate change on biodiversity and food security: a global perspective—a review article. \u003cem\u003eAgriculture \u0026amp; Food Security\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1),1-25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00318-5 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOmokpariola DO, Agbanu-kumordzi C, Samuel T (2025). Climate change, crop yield, and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Epub ahead of print 2025. 10.1007/s43621-025-01580-4 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOwino V, Kumwenda C, Ekesa B (2021). The impact of climate change on food systems, diet quality, nutrition, and health outcomes : A narrative review. 2020.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSarkar MSK, Begum RA, and Pereira JJ (2020). Impacts of climate change on oil palm production in Malaysia. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e 27(9). Environmental Science and Pollution Research: 9760–9770.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSchilling J, Hertig E, Tramblay Y (2020). Climate change vulnerability, water resources, and social implications in North Africa. \u003cem\u003eRegional Environmental Change\u003c/em\u003e 20(1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSchmidhuber J and Tubiello FN (2007) Global food security under climate change. 2007.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSkendžić S, Zovko M, Živković IP (2021). \u003cem\u003eThe Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Insect Pests\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemba AN and Said MK (2023) Small-holder Farmers’ Perceptions of the Impacts of Climate Change on Maize Crop in Dodoma, Tanzania. \u003cem\u003eGhana Journal of Geography\u003c/em\u003e 15(2): 184–211.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUy N, Delfino RJP, and Shaw R (2016) \u003cem\u003eEcosystem-Based Disaster Risk Reduction: Experiences, Challenges, and Opportunities in the Post-2015 Development Agenda\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWahid ANM (2018). Climatic changes and vulnerability of household food utilisation in the Malaysian East Coast Economic Region. Mahmudul Alam * Chamhuri Siwar Basri Abdul Talib. 17(4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWang D, Li R, Gao G, et al. (2022). Impact of Climate Change on Food Security in Kazakhstan. \u003cem\u003eAgriculture (Switzerland)\u003c/em\u003e 12(8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWollenberg E, Vermeulen SJ, Girvetz E (2016). Reducing risks to food security from climate change. \u003cem\u003eGlobal Food Security\u003c/em\u003e 11. Elsevier: 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.06.002 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWheeler, T. (2015). Climate change impacts on food systems and implications for climate-compatible food policies.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Climate change, climate variability, food security, smallholder farmers, Tanzania","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClimate change is one of the main threats to global food security that affects food availability, accessibility, utilisation, and stability at all levels, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), including Tanzania, where the majority of livelihoods depend on rain-fed agriculture. This study explores the effects of long-term changes in climate variability on food security in Kongwa District, Dodoma Region, Tanzania, based upon four dimensions of food security: availability, accessibility, stability, and utilisation. A qualitative research method was used, and the data were obtained from semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews in the field with a total of 46 respondents from small-scale farmers, agricultural extension officers, and district agricultural officers. The results indicate that climatic variability, expressed by increases in temperature, erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and escalating incidence of pests and diseases, harms agricultural productivity and household food security. Crop yield losses, price rises, loss of food safety and nutritional value, as well as instability in food supply, have occurred due to the impact of climate change. While increased CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e levels have some limited monetary compensation effects on yields, the positive effect is more than offset by negative impacts from extreme weather and land degradation. The study concludes that climate variability has greatly exacerbated food insecurity in Kongwa district and suggests specific adaptation and mitigation measures such as improved water management, investment in climate-resilient technologies, rural infrastructural development, and institutional support, as well as enhancing financial support for smallholder farmers to cope with food insecurity associated with climatic challenges.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring the impact of prolonged climate change on households’ food security in Kongwa District, Tanzania","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-29 10:33:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8448782/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9389b31a-f281-442c-bf2d-7c2032c254ce","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 29th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-25T16:55:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-29 10:33:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8448782","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8448782","identity":"rs-8448782","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}