Comparative Study of Architectural Schools and Climate Influence in Uzbekistan

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The main goals are to examine how local climate conditions shape architectural styles and to explore how cultural and historical factors affect these structures. The methodology included an extensive review of existing literature, supplemented by fieldwork in cities such as Tashkent, Bukhara, Khorezm, and others. During these visits, detailed observations and measurements were made of traditional residential buildings. The results reveal significant regional differences in architectural features, including variations in wall thickness, roofing styles, and courtyard layouts, each closely linked to specific local climate conditions. For instance, in earthquake-prone areas, thicker walls improve structural stability, while roof designs adapt to different levels and types of precipitation. The study concludes that the architectural diversity across Uzbekistan results from the dynamic interaction of environmental factors and cultural traditions. These findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive approaches in traditional architecture and offer valuable insights for fostering sustainability in modern construction design. Social Traditions Construction Practices Site Visits Regional Differences Historical Evolution Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 INTRODUCTION Uzbekistan's architectural landscape is a vibrant mosaic shaped by a confluence of cultural, historical, and environmental influences. This review synthesizes existing literature to compare architectural styles across various regions of Uzbekistan, with a particular focus on how climatic conditions have influenced these designs. Researchers have extensively explored the role of climate in shaping Uzbek architecture. For example, Samigov's study [17] highlighted how variations in wall thickness enhance seismic resilience across different seismic zones. This is a crucial factor in architectural design, demonstrating a direct link between environmental conditions and construction methods. The impact of cultural and historical factors is equally significant. Pugachenkova et al. [12] examined how traditional customs and lifestyle preferences shape housing layouts and design elements, while Azimov [1] traced the evolution of architectural styles from ancient to modern times, reflecting Uzbekistan's rich historical tapestry. Comparative studies further elucidate regional architectural diversity. Notkin [10] and Voronina [23] analyzed differences between urban and rural architecture, emphasizing how urbanization and socioeconomic factors influence design approaches. Zahidov studied the distinct architectural forms and ornamentation in cities such as Bukhara and Samarkand, revealing the unique aesthetic preferences and cultural identities of these cities [24]. Overall, this literature underscores the multifaceted nature of Uzbekistan's architectural diversity, shaped by a combination of climatic, cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between cultural heritage and architectural expression in Uzbekistan. Figure 1 illustrates the timeline of single-story Uzbek houses from early times to the present day, highlighting the study's focus year – the 20th century- and is adapted from various research sources, including Pugachenkova et al. [13], Notkin [10], and Voronina [23]. OVERVIEW OF LOCAL HOUSING Khorezm's millennium-long history showcases unique economic and architectural developments. Its homesteads feature phased constructions centered around courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by local climate conditions. Design elements include carved wooden columns, artistic courtyard walls, and strategically placed windows, doors, and alcoves. Khorezm's architectural identity is distinguished by thicker, higher walls, a response to regional water scarcity that also shapes interior design limitations compared to Fergana. Fergana, nestled between mountains, retained its independence and played a crucial role in the Silk Road. Early collaborations with China introduced silk cultivation and iron smelting (UNESCO, 2021). Fergana's homesteads, with walls 60–70 cm thick, are designed for insulation, using deep niches for both function and aesthetics [23]. Urban homesteads in Fergana feature southern-facing terraces, Kashgar-style windows, and open spaces integrated into winter designs. In contrast, Bukhara's homesteads have distinct external rooms—winter quarters face north, while summer quarters face south. Guest rooms are elevated and adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. A unique feature is the "pshik" winter hearth, adding to Bukhara's architectural identity [14]. Tashkent's homesteads blend architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana, characterized by a flat-to-steep gradient design. Homes connect via open or covered terraces, with extensive Kashgar-style windows particularly prominent in winter quarters. Shakhrisabz, in southern Uzbekistan, is noted for its simplicity and open homestead designs. Houses are planned around courtyards, with a single-level terrace at the front. The surrounding walls are moderately thick, about 40 cm, and courtyards focus on preserving greenery, with pools for family and guest enjoyment [23]. Examining climatic influences, suburban houses often include pools for cooling, while urban houses feature blossoming gardens. In rural areas, architecture centres around tree cultivation for shade and building materials. Voronina [23] drew parallels between Uzbek homesteads and ancient Greek and Roman houses, emphasizing how climate and life necessities shape home construction. Both styles integrate rooms around courtyards, highlighting the connection between indoor and outdoor spaces. Overall, the architectural schools of Khorezm, Bukhara, and Fergana illuminate Uzbekistan's history. Khorezm's intricacies, shaped by climate and detailing, contrast with Fergana's identity, influenced by geography and economic ties. These nuances reflect unique histories and the craftsmanship of Uzbekistan's architectural legacy [9]. 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS 2.1 Literature Review The primary method of data collection for this study was an extensive review of the existing literature, as detailed in the Introduction section. This review encompassed a wide range of scholarly articles, historical records, and architectural studies, providing a comprehensive understanding of the various influences on Uzbek architecture, including climatic, cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors. 2.2 Site Visits and Field Analysis To complement the literature review, field visits were conducted to observe and analyze traditional architectural styles firsthand. In the winter of 2022, the first author visited Tashkent, the capital city of Uzbekistan, as well as the historical cities of Bukhara and Khorezm, and their surrounding areas. These visits aimed to gather empirical data through direct observation and measurement of architectural features. During these site visits, detailed measurements and analyses were conducted on various elements of traditional houses, including: - Dimensions and structural details of house plans and facades - Thickness and materials of walls and ceilings - Design and placement of windows, doors, and alcoves - Decorative elements such as carved wooden columns and artistic patterns This hands-on approach identified several gaps in the existing literature, providing new insights into the architectural practices and adaptations influenced by the unique climatic and cultural conditions of each region. 2.3 Data Collection and Analysis Measurements were systematically recorded to ensure accuracy and consistency. Figure 2 illustrates the process of measuring ceiling thickness and examining traditional brickwork in these old houses. The collected data were then analyzed to identify common patterns and regional variations in architectural features. 2.4 Comparative Analysis Data gathered from the literature and field visits were compared to highlight similarities and differences in architectural styles across regions of Uzbekistan. This comparative analysis focused on understanding how climatic conditions, cultural practices, and historical developments have shaped the architectural landscape of each area. By integrating findings from both literature and field observations, this study aims to provide a holistic view of the architectural diversity in Uzbekistan, emphasizing the interplay between environmental factors and cultural heritage in shaping traditional housing designs. 3 HISTORICAL AND REGIONAL CONTEXT 3.1 Karakalpak Architectural School Traditional housing typology in Karakalpakstan, as explored by Shnekeev [18], reflects a deep understanding of the region's hot arid climate. Through centuries of experience, folk architects in Karakalpakstan developed dwellings tailored to extreme weather conditions. These traditional homes, such as those found in Kochkarboy, Kazakboy, Dilimbet, and Quralboy, exhibit distinctive features, including courtyards, porches, and strategic room layouts to maximize comfort and functionality [19]. For instance, the Kochkarboy courtyard, built in the late 18th century, boasts a central courtyard enclosed by walls, providing shelter from sandstorms and facilitating family life (Fig. 3). Similarly, Dilimbet's residence, built in 1870, integrates industrial facilities, such as oil mills, within the household, showcasing a harmonious blend of living and working spaces. Despite the disruption caused by Soviet-era policies and modernization, the architectural wisdom of Karakalpakstan's traditional housing offers valuable insights for sustainable construction in today's dry, hot climates worldwide. Khodjeyli. Planning solution of Kochkarbay's residence and interior of the house (early XIX century). 1-yard; 2 living rooms; 3-porch; 4-Corridor; 5-halls; 6-dwelling (settlement for yurt); 7-granary (warehouse) 3.2 Khorezm Architectural School With its millennium-long history, Khorezm showcases economic advancements and architectural uniqueness. Its homesteads feature phased constructions centered around courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by climatic conditions. Design intricacies include carved wooden columns, artistic patterns on courtyard walls, and thoughtful placement of windows, doors, and alcoves (Fig. 4). The region's water scarcity necessitates thicker, higher walls, which impose greater interior design constraints than in Fergana. Khorezm, renowned for its historical significance, is home to a unique architectural tradition characterized by phased compositional structures. Urban dwellings in Khorezm showcase an emphasis on intricate craftsmanship and distinctive features, such as high, north-facing ayvans and auxiliary rooms [2]. This arrangement, found primarily in bustling markets and trading zones, reflects the vibrant spatial organization of urban homesteads. The architectural composition consists of interconnected courtyards, exemplifying the region's artisanal finesse. Contrarily, rural homesteads in Khorezm exhibit a simpler design, reflecting modest yet efficient abodes, limited by the challenge of dividing the interior from the exterior in such settings [5]. 3.3 Bukhara Architectural School Bukhara, with a millennial history, stands as a testament to an architectural legacy distinguished by distinct northern and southern orientations [14]. The urban homesteads in Bukhara, aligned with the Bukhara school's tenets, demonstrate a thoughtful response to climate. North-facing facades facilitate winter warmth, while south-facing areas provide respite during the summer. The architectural features of Bukhara homes include high-walled courtyards, spatial divisions, and rear entrances that connect houses via open or covered terraces. The influence of the Kashgar school is apparent in the extensive use of windows, promoting internal illumination and ventilation. Bukhara's urban homesteads exemplify a harmonious blend of form and function, responding to climatic needs while showcasing aesthetic finesse (Fig. 5). The precision in design reflects a deep cultural understanding and adaptation to environmental conditions [10]. 3.4 Samarkand Architectural School Samarkand, a city steeped in history, boasts a distinctive architectural school. Urban homes in Samarkand are primarily single-story structures that emphasize simplicity and functionality. The homes are characterized by central courtyards and a harmonious interplay of exterior and interior spaces [13]. The city's architectural tradition emphasizes spacious layouts and intricately adorned courtyards, demonstrating a commitment to aesthetic refinement (Fig. 6). Samarkand's urban homesteads showcase a profound connection to cultural heritage, with design elements inspired by historical practices. The use of traditional materials and patterns underscores a commitment to preserving the city's architectural identity [20]. The Samarkand school, with its emphasis on simplicity and cultural continuity, adds a unique dimension to Uzbekistan's architectural diversity. 3.5 Shakhrisabz Architectural School Shakhrisabz, with its unique geographic location, has cultivated a distinct architectural tradition. Urban homesteads in Shakhrisabz feature courtyard-centric layouts and modest elevations, reflecting a pragmatic approach to climatic challenges [23]. The homes in this region demonstrate a keen understanding of local conditions, with a focus on temperature regulation and effective use of space. The Shakhrisabz school emphasizes integrating greenery into living spaces. Courtyards feature gardens, promoting natural cooling and providing a sanctuary for residents [7]. The city's architectural identity is shaped by an awareness of environmental sustainability, creating a unique aesthetic that aligns with the region's climatic considerations (Fig. 7). 3.6 Tashkent Architectural School Tashkent, as the capital and cultural hub, encompasses a diverse architectural landscape. Urban dwellings, influenced by the Bukhara and Ferghana schools, feature spacious courtyards and distinctive facades, emphasizing comfort and aesthetics [8]. The city's architectural evolution is characterized by the integration of modern elements with traditional structures, creating a unique synthesis (Fig. 8). Specifically, the Tashkent school employs a mix of open and closed spaces, enabling flexible use. Courtyards serve as focal points, promoting social interactions, while the interconnected layout optimizes natural light and ventilation. Tashkent's urban homesteads, reflecting a fusion of historical and contemporary influences, underline the city's dynamic cultural and architectural narrative [15]. 3.7 Ferghana Architectural School Nestled between mountains, Fergana retained independence and played a crucial role in the Silk Road. Early collaborations with China introduced silk cultivation and iron smelting. Fergana's architectural school emphasizes open homesteads with courtyard layouts, central hearths, single-room alignments, and distinctive wall patterns influenced by Chinese craftsmanship. The thick walls (60-70 cm) in Fergana's homesteads provide insulation and stability, utilizing deep niches for both function and aesthetics. The design includes southern-facing terraces and Kashgar-style windows to regulate temperature and integrate open spaces into winter designs. The Ferghana Valley, shaped by climate, sees homes built to suit sociocultural patterns. Over epochs, homesteads in Ferghana evolved to accommodate the diverse social lives of the residents [6]. Large family compounds, with multiple rooms, unique courtyards, and elevated porches, characterize the architectural landscape. The arrangement and ornamentation of homes highlight an intention to enhance the living experience through aesthetic and functional considerations. A dual construction approach is observed in the architectural practices of the Ferghana Valley (Fig. 9). Urban homes mirror historical large family compounds, complete with central courtyards. Conversely, rural homesteads remain constrained by space, limiting the division of homes into two sections. Despite regional variations, Ferghana's architectural heritage reflects a profound connection to the social fabric and unique climatic conditions [4]. In summary, Uzbekistan's architectural landscape is shaped by a diverse array of schools, each contributing a unique perspective to the country's urban homesteads. The Tashkent, Samarkand, Shakhrisabz, Khorezm, Fergana, and Bukhara schools collectively form a rich tapestry of architectural diversity, blending tradition with contemporary needs. Understanding these diverse approaches provides valuable insights into how cultural, climatic, and historical factors have shaped the evolution of Uzbekistan's urban architecture, offering lessons for sustainable and contextually aware construction practices. 3.8 Comparison of Local Uzbek Architectural Schools Based on Environmental Conditions The comparative analysis section delves into the architectural schools of Uzbekistan, focusing on key regions such as Khorezm, Bukhara, Samarkand, Shakhrisabz, Tashkent, and Ferghana (see Table 1). Each subsection presents an in-depth examination of the distinctive architectural features, construction methods, and climatic adaptations that characterize the architectural identity of these areas. By comparing these architectural schools, the section underscores both their commonalities and distinctions, shedding light on the cultural, historical, and environmental influences that shape architectural practices across Uzbekistan [19-20]. Table 1. Comparison of Architectural Characteristics in Traditional Typologies of the Bukhara, Tashkent, and Shakhrisabz Schools (Author creates source). Region Architectural Nuances Bukhara Distinct seasonal orientations: winter quarters facing north, summer quarters facing south. Guest rooms are elevated and adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. The iconic "pshik" winter hearth is a notable feature. Tashkent Echoes architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana. Characterized by flat-to-steep gradient designs. Homes connect through open or covered terraces via rear entrances. Some houses feature extensive Kashgar-style windows in winter quarters. Shakhrisabz Known for simplicity. Homesteads are planned around courtyards with single-level terraces. The walls are moderately thick (around 40 cm). Courtyard designs focus on preserving greenery and providing family-friendly pools. Uzbekistan's architectural schools can be categorized according to their responses to environmental conditions, specifically through the concepts of "space in volume" and "volume in space," which are influenced by their geographic locations (see Table 2). Space in Volume: This concept refers to architectural designs where the adjacent area around the main living space is dominant. These designs are prevalent in regions with arid, windy, and highly continental climates. The dominant enclosed spaces protect against harsh weather conditions, creating a microclimate that enhances comfort and usability. Volume in Space: This approach describes buildings in which the main living area is situated within an open space. These structures are typical in areas with higher humidity and less wind, where the climate allows for more open and airy living arrangements. The emphasis is on integrating the living space with the surrounding environment, promoting ventilation and interaction with nature (Fig. 10). 4 CLIMATE INFLUENCE ON DWELLINGS The thickness of roofing material is directly influenced by precipitation in a given area. For instance, cities with high annual precipitation (519 mm), such as Kitab, typically feature robust roof constructions exceeding 50 cm in thickness, excluding supporting beams. In contrast, in regions like Khorezm, where annual precipitation is only 77 mm, roof thickness can be as low as 15–18 cm in some cases. This disparity necessitates diverse roofing designs; for example, eaves are commonly incorporated in areas like Shahrisabz and Tashkent to facilitate water runoff, whereas in Khorezm, where precipitation is scarce, parapets are used to shield walls rather than eaves [3]. Similarly, wall thickness primarily addresses seismic resilience rather than thermal insulation requirements. In Fergana, where seismicity is significant and annual temperatures range from 12.6 to 13.4°C, dwellings feature walls 60–70 cm thick, contributing to structural stability and thermal efficiency. Contrastingly, in Namangan, where seismic activity is even higher, walls can reach thicknesses of up to 90 cm. The architectural design also reflects cultural practices and lifestyle needs, as seen in the orientation of rooms, the presence of alcoves, and the utilisation of traditional elements like the "mekhmon" and "ayvan" to mitigate climatic extremes. The interplay between climate, seismicity, and cultural preferences underscores the intricate relationship between architectural form and environmental context in Uzbekistan's traditional dwellings [2]. Understanding seven architectural typologies in section 3 helps to appreciate how traditional designs are adapted to suit local environmental conditions, offering insights into sustainable and climate-responsive construction practices. Table 3 below classifies the seven architectural schools in Uzbekistan according to their reliance on "space in volume" and "volume in space" concepts. This classification helps differentiate the typologies and understand the climatic conditions in these regions. Table 3 Classification of Uzbek Architectural Schools by Space and Volume Dependence (Source is created by the author). Architectural School Concept Environmental Condition Karakalpak Architectural School Space in Volume Arid, windy, highly continental climate Khorezm Architectural School Space in Volume Arid, windy, highly continental climate Bukhara Architectural School Space in Volume Arid, windy, highly continental climate Samarkand Architectural School Volume in Space Humid, less windy climate Shakhrisabz Architectural School Volume in Space Humid, less windy climate Tashkent Architectural School Volume in Space Humid, less windy climate Ferghana Architectural School Volume in Space Humid, less windy climate Traditional Uzbek residences, designed with artistry, reflect a blend of architectural aesthetics and cultural significance. Site visits in Tashkent provided first-hand observations of these houses, offering precise measurements. Historically, urban and rural structures varied, responding to climatic conditions and societal changes. We explore these architectural nuances, considering real-world examples observed in Tashkent, to understand the unique developments that define Uzbekistan's architectural legacy. The 18th century brought economic transformation amid political upheavals, witnessing the resurgence of cities and the emergence of independent homesteads in Central Asia. Craftsmanship flourished, with Khorezm, Bukhara, and Fergana hosting three primary architectural schools [23]. Khorezm, with its millennium-long history, highlights economic advancements and architectural uniqueness. Its homesteads feature phased constructions, centered on courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by climatic conditions. Design intricacies include carved wooden columns, artistic patterns on courtyard walls, and thoughtful placement of windows, doors, and alcoves. Distinguishing itself, Khorezm's architectural identity is marked by thicker and higher walls due to regional water scarcity, influencing interior design limitations compared to Fergana. Fergana, nestled between mountains, retained independence and played a crucial role in the silk route. Fergana's architectural school emphasizes open homesteads, courtyard arrangements, central hearths, singular room alignments, and unique wall patterns influenced by Chinese artisanship. Examining construction, Fergana's homesteads have 60–70 cm thick walls for insulation, strategically using deep niches for both function and aesthetics. Fergana's urban homesteads are designed for temperature regulation, featuring southern-facing terraces, Kashgar-style windows, and open spaces integrated into winter designs. In conclusion, Khorezm and Fergana's architectural schools illuminate Uzbekistan's history. Khorezm's intricacies shaped by climate and detailing, contrast with Fergana's identity influenced by geography and economic ties. These nuances reflect unique histories and the craftsmanship of Uzbekistan's architectural legacy [11]. In Uzbekistan, every region designs its homesteads with distinctive features. The exemplar is found in Bukhara's homesteads, where external rooms are precisely allocated – facing north are winter quarters, while summer quarters are oriented towards the south. Homestead owners strategically elevate guest rooms, adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. The Bukhara signature includes the iconic "pshik" winter hearth, contributing to its unique identity. Tashkent's homesteads echo architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana. The flat-to-steep gradient design of Tashkent's homesteads serves as a prominent example. Through rear entrances, homes connect via open or covered terraces. Some houses boast extensive Kashgar-style windows, particularly in winter quarters. Shakhrisabz, located in the southern part of Uzbekistan, stands out for its simplicity and open design in homestead construction. Houses are intricately planned around courtyards, with a single-level terrace attached to the front of each dwelling. The walls surrounding these houses are single-layered and moderately thick, measuring around 40 cm. The courtyard's design focuses on preserving greenery, with pools created for family and guest enjoyment. Examining the climatic influence, suburban houses boast specially designed pools for cooling purposes. In cities, houses are often adorned with blossoming gardens. However, in rural settings, the architecture revolves around the cultivation of trees that serve both as a source of shade and building material. Architect Voronina, after studying Uzbekistan's ancient homesteads, drew parallels with ancient Greek and Roman houses, emphasizing the impact of climate and life necessities on the volumetric and phased construction of homes. The ancient Greek and Roman houses, similar to Uzbek homesteads, were divided into external and internal areas, with walls encompassing both. The similarity extended to the arrangement of rooms around courtyards, emphasizing the integral connection between rooms and courtyards. CONCLUSION This comparative study of architectural schools in Uzbekistan reveals the profound influence of climate on design and construction practices across the country. By examining traditional houses in various regions such as Tashkent, Bukhara, Khorezm, Fergana, Samarkand, and Shakhrisabz, we have identified significant regional variations in architectural features. These variations are largely driven by local climatic conditions, cultural practices, and historical contexts. Key findings include : Wall Thickness and Seismic Resilience: Regions prone to seismic activity, such as Fergana, feature thicker walls to enhance structural stability. For instance, Fergana’s homes have walls up to 70 cm thick, contributing to both thermal efficiency and earthquake resistance. Roof Design and Precipitation: Areas with higher annual precipitation, like Kitab, have roofs exceeding 50 cm in thickness to manage heavy rainfall, whereas regions with lower precipitation, such as Khorezm, have thinner roofs around 15–18 cm, often incorporating parapets instead of eaves for rain protection. Cultural and Historical Influences: The architectural identity of each region is shaped by its unique historical and cultural context. For example, Khorezm's homesteads feature intricately carved wooden columns and artistic courtyard walls, reflecting a rich quality tradition, while Fergana's designs are influenced by early collaborations with China, evident in the use of Kashgar-style windows. These findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive design in traditional architecture and offer insights for sustainable construction practices, emphasizing the need to integrate climatic considerations into modern architectural designs. The study underscores the importance of climate-responsive design in traditional architecture and highlights how these principles can inform sustainable construction practices today. Understanding the interplay between environmental factors and cultural heritage is crucial for preserving Uzbekistan's architectural legacy and ensuring that new developments remain sensitive to their historical and ecological contexts. Future research should continue to explore these themes, expanding the scope to include more detailed analyses of urban and rural variations, the impact of modernization, and the potential for integrating traditional practices with contemporary sustainable design technologies. By doing so, we can foster a holistic approach to architectural design that honours Uzbekistan's rich heritage while addressing the challenges of the present and future. Declarations Ethics declaration: not applicable. Funding: The authors declare that no funding was received from any organization or agency in support of this research. Author Contribution B.A., E.R., M.J. and M.W. wrote the main manuscript text, and A.KH. and B.M. prepared all figures (1-10). D.Y. improved texts for readability and style.All authors reviewed the manuscript. References Azimov, I, 2000. Arxitektura Uzbekistana XVIII-nach. XX vv. (tradicii i lokalniye osobennosti). Moscow. Azizova, Bonu, 2017. 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Shnekeev, Jumaboy, 2020. Traditional Settlements of the South Aral Sea (Traditional housing of the South Aral Sea region). Solid State Technology, 63 (5), 6973-6982. Siravo, Francesco, 1997. Planning for the historic city of Samarkand. In 2. ed. (Ed.), Historic cities support programme (p. 57). Geneva: The Aga Kahn Trust for Culture. Turksoy will foster its cooperation with the Province of Fergana . (2022, June 9). From turksoy.org: https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/news/2022-06-09-turksoy-will-foster-its-cooperation-with-the-province-of-fergana (consulted on 00/00 / 0000) UNESCO, P. d. 2021. Silk Roads: Fergana-Syrdarya Corridor . Retrieved 04 09, 2024 from https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6568/ (consulted on 00/00 / 0000) Voronina, Veronika, (1951). Narodniye tradicii arxitekturi. Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye izdatelstvo arxitekturii i gradostroitelstvo. Zahidov, Pulat 1996. The world of the architect. Tashkent: Komuslar editor-in-chief Table Table 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8461157","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":597977191,"identity":"aa02dc15-3c91-4288-975b-10a474ef19ae","order_by":0,"name":"Bonu Azizova","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"TU Berlin","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bonu","middleName":"","lastName":"Azizova","suffix":""},{"id":597977192,"identity":"df0da0da-9883-478e-bbe1-09c1c3f1c467","order_by":1,"name":"Eike Roswag-Klinge","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"TU Berlin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eike","middleName":"","lastName":"Roswag-Klinge","suffix":""},{"id":597977193,"identity":"460ce27a-2901-4cbd-ad64-c4d1dfcf65f7","order_by":2,"name":"Markus Jahreis","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Markus","middleName":"","lastName":"Jahreis","suffix":""},{"id":597977194,"identity":"7140b733-9cc7-48a9-b651-51a2395e201d","order_by":3,"name":"Martin Welp","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Martin","middleName":"","lastName":"Welp","suffix":""},{"id":597977195,"identity":"5f22748a-9d54-4357-a9b8-893143a9c52f","order_by":4,"name":"Dilfuza Yuldasheva","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dilfuza","middleName":"","lastName":"Yuldasheva","suffix":""},{"id":597977196,"identity":"0aa4fe50-d1bb-48b5-8f53-cfbf5f60a443","order_by":5,"name":"Azamat Khasanov","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tashkent Institute of Architecture and Construction","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Azamat","middleName":"","lastName":"Khasanov","suffix":""},{"id":597977197,"identity":"6ef1d345-eb14-41de-bee4-5cc00d98cdf4","order_by":6,"name":"Bahodir Matchanov","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tashkent Institute of Architecture and Construction","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bahodir","middleName":"","lastName":"Matchanov","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-27 12:53:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8461157/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8461157/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":103927649,"identity":"5cfc51bf-dfe9-4cb8-aec0-7ee98a42a121","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-04 15:48:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":194543,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTimeline of single-story Uzbek houses from early times to the present day.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/7cc90347bf94b8739fe768a0.png"},{"id":104402107,"identity":"97d22382-f127-47a5-b591-f16f2a3d9cec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:14:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":737576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcess of measuring the thickness of ceilings and examining traditional brick styles in these old houses (Source: Author’s private gallery).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/0115fd150726614b91882783.png"},{"id":104401905,"identity":"93e842d4-8a05-4243-85c3-a6c21c5d1eff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:52","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":384867,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade view and plan example for Karakalpak traditional dwellings’ (yurts) typology (Source: Shnekeev (2020)).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhodjeyli. Planning solution of Kochkarbay's residence and interior of the house (early XIX century). 1-yard; 2 living rooms; 3-porch; 4-Corridor; 5-halls; 6-dwelling (settlement for yurt); 7-granary (warehouse)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/295ff8b0d775395a4e5adc88.png"},{"id":104401785,"identity":"da582891-0fae-45e4-b3c7-f7d659c53a73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:33","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":421589,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section (above) and plan example for Khorezmian traditional dwellings’ typology (below) (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 22)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/a8f1f357fec78160a762d268.png"},{"id":104401798,"identity":"8c1a1a2e-40b6-4692-b82a-66b8db2b17ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":453524,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section and plan example for Bukharian traditional dwellings’ typology (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 20)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/e711085dc452ad9db5a04e4b.png"},{"id":104401781,"identity":"6b09cb90-23bd-4969-8999-20c9e1ab5f65","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:32","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":291218,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section and plan example for Samarkand traditional dwellings’ typology (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 26)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/fc8627b69a4f59cd806f156e.png"},{"id":104402218,"identity":"0bbb7788-6dd0-4324-8885-75bdfc7a7c66","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:14:42","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":277188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section and plan example for Shakhrisabz traditional dwellings’ typology (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 24)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/0895f8a7245fea4f7439ac17.png"},{"id":104401806,"identity":"335d138d-92fb-45e9-b7c7-607d8291618e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:36","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186733,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section and plan example for Tashkent traditional dwellings’ typology (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 25)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/92c59c66128df14bfbfe74e1.png"},{"id":104402477,"identity":"5ee9a604-0056-401f-8b23-d8c13242d12d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:15:27","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":260757,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFacade section and plan example for Ferghana traditional dwellings’ typology (Source: Voronina (1951, p. 23)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/9e845263ecf459917e34fd33.png"},{"id":104401331,"identity":"ac50f3ee-e427-40b1-8798-9f27d75405e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:12:25","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":148769,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThis figure provides a graphical representation of the \"space in volume\" (left?) and \"volume in space\" (right?) concepts, illustrating their application across different climatic conditions (Source: created by the author).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/71eb65cba1b4110ac59cda3e.png"},{"id":105032625,"identity":"ca324b1b-4d09-403d-926c-6731f66bf5a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:02:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4148920,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/ea720e98-04e0-4a0c-a438-7dfd83838657.pdf"},{"id":104401635,"identity":"1e1e665a-d8d6-4a48-b7c9-e20442c496aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-11 12:13:10","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1337283,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8461157/v1/f5157529b98a561bd60b5047.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Comparative Study of Architectural Schools and Climate Influence in Uzbekistan","fulltext":[{"header":"1 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eUzbekistan's architectural landscape is a vibrant mosaic shaped by a confluence of cultural, historical, and environmental influences. This review synthesizes existing literature to compare architectural styles across various regions of Uzbekistan, with a particular focus on how climatic conditions have influenced these designs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearchers have extensively explored the role of climate in shaping Uzbek architecture. For example, Samigov's study [17] highlighted how variations in wall thickness enhance seismic resilience across different seismic zones. This is a crucial factor in architectural design, demonstrating a direct link between environmental conditions and construction methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of cultural and historical factors is equally significant. Pugachenkova et al. [12] examined how traditional customs and lifestyle preferences shape housing layouts and design elements, while Azimov [1] traced the evolution of architectural styles from ancient to modern times, reflecting Uzbekistan's rich historical tapestry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative studies further elucidate regional architectural diversity. Notkin [10] and Voronina [23] analyzed differences between urban and rural architecture, emphasizing how urbanization and socioeconomic factors influence design approaches. Zahidov studied the distinct architectural forms and ornamentation in cities such as Bukhara and Samarkand, revealing the unique aesthetic preferences and cultural identities of these cities [24].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this literature underscores the multifaceted nature of Uzbekistan's architectural diversity, shaped by a combination of climatic, cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between cultural heritage and architectural expression in Uzbekistan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the timeline of single-story Uzbek houses from early times to the present day, highlighting the study's focus year \u0026ndash; the 20th century- and is adapted from various research sources, including Pugachenkova et al. [13], Notkin [10], and Voronina [23].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOVERVIEW OF LOCAL HOUSING\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhorezm's millennium-long history showcases unique economic and architectural developments. Its homesteads feature phased constructions centered around courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by local climate conditions. Design elements include carved wooden columns, artistic courtyard walls, and strategically placed windows, doors, and alcoves. Khorezm's architectural identity is distinguished by thicker, higher walls, a response to regional water scarcity that also shapes interior design limitations compared to Fergana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFergana, nestled between mountains, retained its independence and played a crucial role in the Silk Road. Early collaborations with China introduced silk cultivation and iron smelting (UNESCO, 2021). Fergana's homesteads, with walls 60\u0026ndash;70 cm thick, are designed for insulation, using deep niches for both function and aesthetics [23]. Urban homesteads in Fergana feature southern-facing terraces, Kashgar-style windows, and open spaces integrated into winter designs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, Bukhara's homesteads have distinct external rooms\u0026mdash;winter quarters face north, while summer quarters face south. Guest rooms are elevated and adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. A unique feature is the \"pshik\" winter hearth, adding to Bukhara's architectural identity [14].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTashkent's homesteads blend architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana, characterized by a flat-to-steep gradient design. Homes connect via open or covered terraces, with extensive Kashgar-style windows particularly prominent in winter quarters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShakhrisabz, in southern Uzbekistan, is noted for its simplicity and open homestead designs. Houses are planned around courtyards, with a single-level terrace at the front. The surrounding walls are moderately thick, about 40 cm, and courtyards focus on preserving greenery, with pools for family and guest enjoyment [23].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamining climatic influences, suburban houses often include pools for cooling, while urban houses feature blossoming gardens. In rural areas, architecture centres around tree cultivation for shade and building materials. Voronina [23] drew parallels between Uzbek homesteads and ancient Greek and Roman houses, emphasizing how climate and life necessities shape home construction. Both styles integrate rooms around courtyards, highlighting the connection between indoor and outdoor spaces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the architectural schools of Khorezm, Bukhara, and Fergana illuminate Uzbekistan's history. Khorezm's intricacies, shaped by climate and detailing, contrast with Fergana's identity, influenced by geography and economic ties. These nuances reflect unique histories and the craftsmanship of Uzbekistan's architectural legacy [9].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 MATERIAL AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Literature Review\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary method of data collection for this study was an extensive review of the existing literature, as detailed in the Introduction section. This review encompassed a wide range of scholarly articles, historical records, and architectural studies, providing a comprehensive understanding of the various influences on Uzbek architecture, including climatic, cultural, historical, and socioeconomic factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Site Visits and Field Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo complement the literature review, field visits were conducted to observe and analyze traditional architectural styles firsthand. In the winter of 2022, the first author visited Tashkent, the capital city of Uzbekistan, as well as the historical cities of Bukhara and Khorezm, and their surrounding areas. These visits aimed to gather empirical data through direct observation and measurement of architectural features.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring these site visits, detailed measurements and analyses were conducted on various elements of traditional houses, including:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Dimensions and structural details of house plans and facades\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Thickness and materials of walls and ceilings\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Design and placement of windows, doors, and alcoves\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Decorative elements such as carved wooden columns and artistic patterns\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis hands-on approach identified several gaps in the existing literature, providing new insights into the architectural practices and adaptations influenced by the unique climatic and cultural conditions of each region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Data Collection and Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeasurements were systematically recorded to ensure accuracy and consistency. Figure 2 illustrates the process of measuring ceiling thickness and examining traditional brickwork in these old houses. The collected data were then analyzed to identify common patterns and regional variations in architectural features.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Comparative Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData gathered from the literature and field visits were compared to highlight similarities and differences in architectural styles across regions of Uzbekistan. This comparative analysis focused on understanding how climatic conditions, cultural practices, and historical developments have shaped the architectural landscape of each area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy integrating findings from both literature and field observations, this study aims to provide a holistic view of the architectural diversity in Uzbekistan, emphasizing the interplay between environmental factors and cultural heritage in shaping traditional housing designs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 HISTORICAL AND REGIONAL CONTEXT","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Karakalpak Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditional housing typology in Karakalpakstan, as explored by Shnekeev\u0026nbsp;[18], reflects a deep understanding of the region\u0026apos;s hot arid climate. Through centuries of experience, folk architects in Karakalpakstan developed dwellings tailored to extreme weather conditions. These traditional homes, such as those found in Kochkarboy, Kazakboy, Dilimbet, and Quralboy, exhibit distinctive features, including courtyards, porches, and strategic room layouts to maximize comfort and functionality\u0026nbsp;[19]. For instance, the Kochkarboy courtyard, built in the late 18th century, boasts a central courtyard enclosed by walls, providing shelter from sandstorms and facilitating family life\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Similarly, Dilimbet\u0026apos;s residence, built in 1870, integrates industrial facilities, such as oil mills, within the household, showcasing a harmonious blend of living and working spaces. Despite the disruption caused by Soviet-era policies and modernization, the architectural wisdom of Karakalpakstan\u0026apos;s traditional housing offers valuable insights for sustainable construction in today\u0026apos;s dry, hot climates worldwide.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhodjeyli. Planning solution of Kochkarbay\u0026apos;s residence and interior of the house (early XIX century). 1-yard; 2 living rooms; 3-porch; 4-Corridor; 5-halls; 6-dwelling (settlement for yurt); 7-granary (warehouse) \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Khorezm Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith its millennium-long history, Khorezm showcases economic advancements and architectural uniqueness. Its homesteads feature phased constructions centered around courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by climatic conditions. Design intricacies include carved wooden columns, artistic patterns on courtyard walls, and thoughtful placement of windows, doors, and alcoves\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). The region\u0026apos;s water scarcity necessitates thicker, higher walls, which impose greater interior design constraints than in Fergana.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhorezm, renowned for its historical significance, is home to a unique architectural tradition characterized by phased compositional structures. Urban dwellings in Khorezm showcase an emphasis on intricate craftsmanship and distinctive features, such as high, north-facing ayvans and auxiliary rooms\u0026nbsp;[2]. This arrangement, found primarily in bustling markets and trading zones, reflects the vibrant spatial organization of urban homesteads. The architectural composition consists of interconnected courtyards, exemplifying the region\u0026apos;s artisanal finesse. Contrarily, rural homesteads in Khorezm exhibit a simpler design, reflecting modest yet efficient abodes, limited by the challenge of dividing the interior from the exterior in such settings\u0026nbsp;[5].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Bukhara Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBukhara, with a millennial history, stands as a testament to an architectural legacy distinguished by distinct northern and southern orientations\u0026nbsp;[14]. The urban homesteads in Bukhara, aligned with the Bukhara school\u0026apos;s tenets, demonstrate a thoughtful response to climate. North-facing facades facilitate winter warmth, while south-facing areas provide respite during the summer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe architectural features of Bukhara homes include high-walled courtyards, spatial divisions, and rear entrances that connect houses via open or covered terraces. The influence of the Kashgar school is apparent in the extensive use of windows, promoting internal illumination and ventilation. Bukhara\u0026apos;s urban homesteads exemplify a harmonious blend of form and function, responding to climatic needs while showcasing aesthetic finesse\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). The precision in design reflects a deep cultural understanding and adaptation to environmental conditions\u0026nbsp;[10].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Samarkand Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamarkand, a city steeped in history, boasts a distinctive architectural school. Urban homes in Samarkand are primarily single-story structures that emphasize simplicity and functionality. The homes are characterized by central courtyards and a harmonious interplay of exterior and interior spaces\u0026nbsp;[13]. The city\u0026apos;s architectural tradition emphasizes spacious layouts and intricately adorned courtyards, demonstrating a commitment to aesthetic refinement\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamarkand\u0026apos;s urban homesteads showcase a profound connection to cultural heritage, with design elements inspired by historical practices. The use of traditional materials and patterns underscores a commitment to preserving the city\u0026apos;s architectural identity\u0026nbsp;[20]. The Samarkand school, with its emphasis on simplicity and cultural continuity, adds a unique dimension to Uzbekistan\u0026apos;s architectural diversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Shakhrisabz Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShakhrisabz, with its unique geographic location, has cultivated a distinct architectural tradition. Urban homesteads in Shakhrisabz feature courtyard-centric layouts and modest elevations, reflecting a pragmatic approach to climatic challenges\u0026nbsp;[23]. The homes in this region demonstrate a keen understanding of local conditions, with a focus on temperature regulation and effective use of space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Shakhrisabz school emphasizes integrating greenery into living spaces. Courtyards feature gardens, promoting natural cooling and providing a sanctuary for residents\u0026nbsp;[7]. The city\u0026apos;s architectural identity is shaped by an awareness of environmental sustainability, creating a unique aesthetic that aligns with the region\u0026apos;s climatic considerations\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.6 Tashkent Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTashkent, as the capital and cultural hub, encompasses a diverse architectural landscape. Urban dwellings, influenced by the Bukhara and Ferghana schools, feature spacious courtyards and distinctive facades, emphasizing comfort and aesthetics\u0026nbsp;[8]. The city\u0026apos;s architectural evolution is characterized by the integration of modern elements with traditional structures, creating a unique synthesis\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecifically, the Tashkent school employs a mix of open and closed spaces, enabling flexible use. Courtyards serve as focal points, promoting social interactions, while the interconnected layout optimizes natural light and ventilation. Tashkent\u0026apos;s urban homesteads, reflecting a fusion of historical and contemporary influences, underline the city\u0026apos;s dynamic cultural and architectural narrative\u0026nbsp;[15].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.7 Ferghana Architectural School\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNestled between mountains, Fergana retained independence and played a crucial role in the Silk Road. Early collaborations with China introduced silk cultivation and iron smelting. Fergana\u0026apos;s architectural school emphasizes open homesteads with courtyard layouts, central hearths, single-room alignments, and distinctive wall patterns influenced by Chinese craftsmanship. The thick walls (60-70 cm) in Fergana\u0026apos;s homesteads provide insulation and stability, utilizing deep niches for both function and aesthetics. The design includes southern-facing terraces and Kashgar-style windows to regulate temperature and integrate open spaces into winter designs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ferghana Valley, shaped by climate, sees homes built to suit sociocultural patterns. Over epochs, homesteads in Ferghana evolved to accommodate the diverse social lives of the residents\u0026nbsp;[6]. Large family compounds, with multiple rooms, unique courtyards, and elevated porches, characterize the architectural landscape. The arrangement and ornamentation of homes highlight an intention to enhance the living experience through aesthetic and functional considerations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA dual construction approach is observed in the architectural practices of the Ferghana Valley\u0026nbsp;(Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). Urban homes mirror historical large family compounds, complete with central courtyards. Conversely, rural homesteads remain constrained by space, limiting the division of homes into two sections. Despite regional variations, Ferghana\u0026apos;s architectural heritage reflects a profound connection to the social fabric and unique climatic conditions\u0026nbsp;[4].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, Uzbekistan\u0026apos;s architectural landscape is shaped by a diverse array of schools, each contributing a unique perspective to the country\u0026apos;s urban homesteads. The Tashkent, Samarkand, Shakhrisabz, Khorezm, Fergana, and Bukhara schools collectively form a rich tapestry of architectural diversity, blending tradition with contemporary needs. Understanding these diverse approaches provides valuable insights into how cultural, climatic, and historical factors have shaped the evolution of Uzbekistan\u0026apos;s urban architecture, offering lessons for sustainable and contextually aware construction practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.8 Comparison of Local Uzbek Architectural Schools Based on Environmental Conditions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe comparative analysis section delves into the architectural schools of Uzbekistan, focusing on key regions such as Khorezm, Bukhara, Samarkand, Shakhrisabz, Tashkent, and Ferghana (see Table 1). Each subsection presents an in-depth examination of the distinctive architectural features, construction methods, and climatic adaptations that characterize the architectural identity of these areas. By comparing these architectural schools, the section underscores both their commonalities and distinctions, shedding light on the cultural, historical, and environmental influences that shape architectural practices across Uzbekistan [19-20].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc167790553\"\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1. Comparison of Architectural Characteristics in Traditional Typologies of the Bukhara, Tashkent, and Shakhrisabz Schools (Author creates source).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"602\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArchitectural Nuances\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBukhara\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistinct seasonal orientations: winter quarters facing north, summer quarters facing south. Guest rooms are elevated and adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. The iconic \u0026quot;pshik\u0026quot; winter hearth is a notable feature.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTashkent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEchoes architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana. Characterized by flat-to-steep gradient designs. Homes connect through open or covered terraces via rear entrances. Some houses feature extensive Kashgar-style windows in winter quarters.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShakhrisabz\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnown for simplicity. Homesteads are planned around courtyards with single-level terraces. The walls are moderately thick (around 40 cm). Courtyard designs focus on preserving greenery and providing family-friendly pools.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUzbekistan\u0026apos;s architectural schools can be categorized according to their responses to environmental conditions, specifically through the concepts of \u0026quot;space in volume\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;volume in space,\u0026quot; which are influenced by their geographic locations (see Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpace in Volume:\u003c/strong\u003e This concept refers to architectural designs where the adjacent area around the main living space is dominant. These designs are prevalent in regions with arid, windy, and highly continental climates. The dominant enclosed spaces protect against harsh weather conditions, creating a microclimate that enhances comfort and usability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVolume in Space:\u003c/strong\u003e This approach describes buildings in which the main living area is situated within an open space. These structures are typical in areas with higher humidity and less wind, where the climate allows for more open and airy living arrangements. The emphasis is on integrating the living space with the surrounding environment, promoting ventilation and interaction with nature (Fig. 10).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 CLIMATE INFLUENCE ON DWELLINGS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe thickness of roofing material is directly influenced by precipitation in a given area. For instance, cities with high annual precipitation (519 mm), such as Kitab, typically feature robust roof constructions exceeding 50 cm in thickness, excluding supporting beams. In contrast, in regions like Khorezm, where annual precipitation is only 77 mm, roof thickness can be as low as 15\u0026ndash;18 cm in some cases. This disparity necessitates diverse roofing designs; for example, eaves are commonly incorporated in areas like Shahrisabz and Tashkent to facilitate water runoff, whereas in Khorezm, where precipitation is scarce, parapets are used to shield walls rather than eaves [3].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, wall thickness primarily addresses seismic resilience rather than thermal insulation requirements. In Fergana, where seismicity is significant and annual temperatures range from 12.6 to 13.4\u0026deg;C, dwellings feature walls 60\u0026ndash;70 cm thick, contributing to structural stability and thermal efficiency. Contrastingly, in Namangan, where seismic activity is even higher, walls can reach thicknesses of up to 90 cm. The architectural design also reflects cultural practices and lifestyle needs, as seen in the orientation of rooms, the presence of alcoves, and the utilisation of traditional elements like the \"mekhmon\" and \"ayvan\" to mitigate climatic extremes. The interplay between climate, seismicity, and cultural preferences underscores the intricate relationship between architectural form and environmental context in Uzbekistan's traditional dwellings [2].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding seven architectural typologies in section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e helps to appreciate how traditional designs are adapted to suit local environmental conditions, offering insights into sustainable and climate-responsive construction practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e below classifies the seven architectural schools in Uzbekistan according to their reliance on \"space in volume\" and \"volume in space\" concepts. This classification helps differentiate the typologies and understand the climatic conditions in these regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification of Uzbek Architectural Schools by Space and Volume Dependence\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Source is created by the author).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArchitectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcept\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Condition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKarakalpak Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpace in Volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArid, windy, highly continental climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhorezm Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpace in Volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArid, windy, highly continental climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBukhara Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpace in Volume\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArid, windy, highly continental climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamarkand Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume in Space\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumid, less windy climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShakhrisabz Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume in Space\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumid, less windy climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTashkent Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume in Space\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumid, less windy climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFerghana Architectural School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume in Space\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHumid, less windy climate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional Uzbek residences, designed with artistry, reflect a blend of architectural aesthetics and cultural significance. Site visits in Tashkent provided first-hand observations of these houses, offering precise measurements. Historically, urban and rural structures varied, responding to climatic conditions and societal changes. We explore these architectural nuances, considering real-world examples observed in Tashkent, to understand the unique developments that define Uzbekistan's architectural legacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 18th century brought economic transformation amid political upheavals, witnessing the resurgence of cities and the emergence of independent homesteads in Central Asia. Craftsmanship flourished, with Khorezm, Bukhara, and Fergana hosting three primary architectural schools [23].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhorezm, with its millennium-long history, highlights economic advancements and architectural uniqueness. Its homesteads feature phased constructions, centered on courtyards with elevated terraces, influenced by climatic conditions. Design intricacies include carved wooden columns, artistic patterns on courtyard walls, and thoughtful placement of windows, doors, and alcoves.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistinguishing itself, Khorezm's architectural identity is marked by thicker and higher walls due to regional water scarcity, influencing interior design limitations compared to Fergana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFergana, nestled between mountains, retained independence and played a crucial role in the silk route.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFergana's architectural school emphasizes open homesteads, courtyard arrangements, central hearths, singular room alignments, and unique wall patterns influenced by Chinese artisanship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamining construction, Fergana's homesteads have 60\u0026ndash;70 cm thick walls for insulation, strategically using deep niches for both function and aesthetics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFergana's urban homesteads are designed for temperature regulation, featuring southern-facing terraces, Kashgar-style windows, and open spaces integrated into winter designs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, Khorezm and Fergana's architectural schools illuminate Uzbekistan's history. Khorezm's intricacies shaped by climate and detailing, contrast with Fergana's identity influenced by geography and economic ties. These nuances reflect unique histories and the craftsmanship of Uzbekistan's architectural legacy [11].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Uzbekistan, every region designs its homesteads with distinctive features. The exemplar is found in Bukhara's homesteads, where external rooms are precisely allocated \u0026ndash; facing north are winter quarters, while summer quarters are oriented towards the south. Homestead owners strategically elevate guest rooms, adorned with exquisite carvings, creating an ambiance of reverence. The Bukhara signature includes the iconic \"pshik\" winter hearth, contributing to its unique identity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTashkent's homesteads echo architectural nuances from Bukhara and Fergana. The flat-to-steep gradient design of Tashkent's homesteads serves as a prominent example. Through rear entrances, homes connect via open or covered terraces. Some houses boast extensive Kashgar-style windows, particularly in winter quarters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShakhrisabz, located in the southern part of Uzbekistan, stands out for its simplicity and open design in homestead construction. Houses are intricately planned around courtyards, with a single-level terrace attached to the front of each dwelling. The walls surrounding these houses are single-layered and moderately thick, measuring around 40 cm. The courtyard's design focuses on preserving greenery, with pools created for family and guest enjoyment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamining the climatic influence, suburban houses boast specially designed pools for cooling purposes. In cities, houses are often adorned with blossoming gardens. However, in rural settings, the architecture revolves around the cultivation of trees that serve both as a source of shade and building material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArchitect Voronina, after studying Uzbekistan's ancient homesteads, drew parallels with ancient Greek and Roman houses, emphasizing the impact of climate and life necessities on the volumetric and phased construction of homes. The ancient Greek and Roman houses, similar to Uzbek homesteads, were divided into external and internal areas, with walls encompassing both. The similarity extended to the arrangement of rooms around courtyards, emphasizing the integral connection between rooms and courtyards.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis comparative study of architectural schools in Uzbekistan reveals the profound influence of climate on design and construction practices across the country. By examining traditional houses in various regions such as Tashkent, Bukhara, Khorezm, Fergana, Samarkand, and Shakhrisabz, we have identified significant regional variations in architectural features. These variations are largely driven by local climatic conditions, cultural practices, and historical contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eKey findings include\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWall Thickness and Seismic Resilience: Regions prone to seismic activity, such as Fergana, feature thicker walls to enhance structural stability. For instance, Fergana\u0026rsquo;s homes have walls up to 70 cm thick, contributing to both thermal efficiency and earthquake resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoof Design and Precipitation: Areas with higher annual precipitation, like Kitab, have roofs exceeding 50 cm in thickness to manage heavy rainfall, whereas regions with lower precipitation, such as Khorezm, have thinner roofs around 15\u0026ndash;18 cm, often incorporating parapets instead of eaves for rain protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural and Historical Influences: The architectural identity of each region is shaped by its unique historical and cultural context. For example, Khorezm's homesteads feature intricately carved wooden columns and artistic courtyard walls, reflecting a rich quality tradition, while Fergana's designs are influenced by early collaborations with China, evident in the use of Kashgar-style windows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive design in traditional architecture and offer insights for sustainable construction practices, emphasizing the need to integrate climatic considerations into modern architectural designs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study underscores the importance of climate-responsive design in traditional architecture and highlights how these principles can inform sustainable construction practices today. Understanding the interplay between environmental factors and cultural heritage is crucial for preserving Uzbekistan's architectural legacy and ensuring that new developments remain sensitive to their historical and ecological contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should continue to explore these themes, expanding the scope to include more detailed analyses of urban and rural variations, the impact of modernization, and the potential for integrating traditional practices with contemporary sustainable design technologies. By doing so, we can foster a holistic approach to architectural design that honours Uzbekistan's rich heritage while addressing the challenges of the present and future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funding was received from any organization or agency in support of this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB.A., E.R., M.J. and M.W. wrote the main manuscript text, and A.KH. and B.M. prepared all figures (1-10). D.Y. improved texts for readability and style.All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAzimov, I, 2000. Arxitektura Uzbekistana XVIII-nach. XX vv. (tradicii i lokalniye osobennosti). Moscow.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAzizova, Bonu, 2017. Architectural Longevity-in the Case of the Summer Palace Chandra-Hauly in Khiva City, Uzbekistan, \u003cem\u003eMOJ Civil Eng., 2\u003c/em\u003e(5), 158‒160. doi.org/10.15406/mojce.2017.02.00045\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAzizova, Bonu; Osello, Anna, 2020. Integration of Natural Elements into the Traditional House (of Khorezm Region, Uzbekistan) for Climate Improvement. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Engineering - Inženjerstvo okoli\u0026scaron;a, 7\u003c/em\u003e(1), 43-49. \u0026nbsp;https://doi.org/10.37023/ee.7.1.6\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDedakhanov, Bahodir; Kasimov, Ilkhom, 2022. Ancient Architecture of the Ferghana Valley: Features of Formation and Development (On the Example of Civil Architecture and Urban Planning). \u003cem\u003eScience and innovation. International scientific journal, 1\u003c/em\u003e(6), 278-285.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDurdieva, Gavkhar, Azizova, Bonu, 2021. Significance of Ancient \u0026quot;Zakhkash-Zovur\u0026quot; around \u0026quot;Ichan-kala\u0026quot; in life extension of Architectural Monuments. \u003cem\u003eDesign Engineering\u003c/em\u003e(9), 10200 - 10206.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFrederick Starr, Stephan,2011. \u003cem\u003eFerghana Valley: The Heart of Central Asia.\u003c/em\u003e (M. Sharpe, Ed.) United Kingdom: Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJurayeva, Elvira, Nurmuradova, Yulduz, 2023. Architecture of historical monuments of Shakhrisabz. \u003cem\u003eCentral Asian journal of arts and design, 4\u003c/em\u003e(10), 6-10.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMeuser, Phillip, 2016. \u003cem\u003eSeismic Modernism: Architecture and Housing in Soviet Tashkent.\u003c/em\u003e DOM Publishers.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNilsen, Vladimir, 1988. \u003cem\u003eU istokov sovremennogo gradostroitel\u0026rsquo;stva Uzbekistana XIX \u0026ndash; nachalo XX vekov.\u003c/em\u003e Tashkent: Gafur Gulom.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNotkin, Iosif, 1961. \u003cem\u003eBuxarskaya rezba po ganchu v rabotax Usto Shirina Muradova.\u003c/em\u003e Tashkent: Gosudarstvennoye izdatelstvo xudojestvennoy literaturi UzSSR.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNurmukhamedova, Shoira, 2016. 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From turksoy.org: https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/news/2022-06-09-turksoy-will-foster-its-cooperation-with-the-province-of-fergana (consulted on 00/00 / 0000)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUNESCO, P. d. 2021. \u003cem\u003eSilk Roads: Fergana-Syrdarya Corridor\u003c/em\u003e. Retrieved 04 09, 2024 from https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6568/ (consulted on 00/00 / 0000)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVoronina, Veronika, (1951). \u003cem\u003eNarodniye tradicii arxitekturi.\u003c/em\u003e Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye izdatelstvo arxitekturii i gradostroitelstvo.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZahidov, Pulat 1996. \u003cem\u003eThe world of the architect. Tashkent: Komuslar editor-in-chief\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Social Traditions, Construction Practices, Site Visits, Regional Differences, Historical Evolution","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8461157/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8461157/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study compares architectural schools across different regions of Uzbekistan, focusing particularly on how climate influences architectural design. The main goals are to examine how local climate conditions shape architectural styles and to explore how cultural and historical factors affect these structures. The methodology included an extensive review of existing literature, supplemented by fieldwork in cities such as Tashkent, Bukhara, Khorezm, and others. During these visits, detailed observations and measurements were made of traditional residential buildings. The results reveal significant regional differences in architectural features, including variations in wall thickness, roofing styles, and courtyard layouts, each closely linked to specific local climate conditions. For instance, in earthquake-prone areas, thicker walls improve structural stability, while roof designs adapt to different levels and types of precipitation. The study concludes that the architectural diversity across Uzbekistan results from the dynamic interaction of environmental factors and cultural traditions. These findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive approaches in traditional architecture and offer valuable insights for fostering sustainability in modern construction design.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Comparative Study of Architectural Schools and Climate Influence in Uzbekistan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-04 15:48:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8461157/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5157a557-d1b8-4266-a9bd-9a6b2c6e86fd","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 4th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-17T01:54:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-04 15:48:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8461157","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8461157","identity":"rs-8461157","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}