Biogent Sentinel Traps with Heat (BGSH) reveal seasonal dynamics of between-village   mosquito communities and implications for disease transmission in Northwestern Mali 

Biogent Sentinel Traps with Heat (BGSH) reveal seasonal dynamics of between-village mosquito communities and implications for disease transmission in Northwestern Mali | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Biogent Sentinel Traps with Heat (BGSH) reveal seasonal dynamics of between-village mosquito communities and implications for disease transmission in Northwestern Mali Amadou Guindo, Sidy Doumbia, Brehima Diallo, Lakamy Sylla, Boubacar Tembely, and 9 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7456295/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Mosquito populations in peri-urban, agro-pastoral West African environments from the Soudano-Sahelian climate zone are thought to expand and contract spatially seasonally as rainfall affects the availability of hosts and larval habitats between villages. Currently, the extent of this phenomenon and how it affects different vector species is poorly known, due to the scarcity of effective outdoor sampling tools. Methods In this study, Biogent Sentinel Trap with Heat (BGSH) were deployed outdoors along a 2.5km transect extending from the village of Sogolombougou in Mali into rural and sylvatic habitats. Four traps were placed at 500m intervals and run overnight for 4 consecutive nights during each of four seasonal phases dry, dry-to-rainy, rainy and rainy-to-dry, across two years. Results A total of 3389 mosquitoes were captured. Culex quinquefasciatus (39.2%) and Ae. aegypti (39.0%) were the most abundant species captured, followed by An. coustani (11.1%), An. gambiae s.l. (6.9%), Mansonia sp. (3.6%), An. phaorensis (0.2%), and Toxorhynchites sp. (0.06%). Within An. gambiae s.l., An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii were found in similar proportions, with only a few An. arabiensis . Only An. coluzzii and An. gambiae s.s. carried sporozoites. As predicted, mosquito populations greatly expanded during the dry-to-rainy and rainy season periods, but species differed in the timing and distance from the village at which they did. Notably, a higher proportion of An. coluzzii and gambiae s.s. were found within the village in the dry season, but they were still captured at all distances on the transect. In the dry-to-rainy and rainy periods, An. gambiae s.s. and Ae. aegypti were particularly abundant > 1 km away from the village, whilst An. coustani was common everywhere except in the village. Cx. quinquefasciatus was common at all distances throughout the year, regressing mostly in the dry season. Conclusion Our findings suggest that in Soudano-Sahelian seasonal African habitats, An. gambiae s.s. and coluzzii populations may not contract within settlements in the dry season as much as previously thought. The presence of host-seeking females, some sporozoite positive, outside of villages even in the dry season suggest that aestivation sites may be dispersed and this creates opportunities for mosquito movement and malaria transmission in agro-pastoral habitats. Mosquito ecology Anopheles gambiae Anopheles coluzzii BGSH traps Mali seasonality malaria transmission Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Mosquitoes carry many viruses and other pathogens that affect human and animal health. Despite improvements in treatment and prevention, mosquitoes remain a serious threat to humans and livestock in many rural, suburban and urban areas worldwide [ 1 , 2 ]. In Sub-Saharan West Africa, the malaria mosquito An. gambiae sensu lato represents a complex of nine morphologically identical species distributed throughout Africa, of which the most common species are An. gambiae, An. coluzzii , and An. arabiensis are endophylic and anthropophilic and are the main vectors of capable of transmitting Plasmodium falciparum , P. malariae , P. ovale , and P. vivax , the causative agents of human malaria. These species can also transmit other pathogens, including the parasite responsible for lymphatic filariasis, and several arboviruses, including the virus responsible for O'nyong-nyong fever [ 3 , 4 ]. Two other mosquito species that are anthropophilic and very commonly associated with human settlements are: the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti an important vector of flaviviruses responsible for Yellow Fever, Dengue, and Zika; and the common house mosquito which can transmits the filariasis parasite Wuchereria bancrofti in some parts of Africa as well as West Nile fever virus. Currently, the main vector control tools designed to limit human exposure to mosquito bites indoors and deployed in Sub-Saharan Africa are Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets LLINs and Indoor residual spraying (IRS). Other chemical vector control tools in development are spatial repellents and insecticide treated eaves. Whilst chemical vector control tools increasingly suffer from the evolution of multiple pesticide in mosquito populations, they remain a crucial component of the fight against malaria. Their effectiveness may also be responsible for changes in mosquito community species composition and/or in mosquito behaviour that have led to shifts in the timing of biting activity and location of bites [ 5 ]. For example, malaria vectors have been observed biting earlier in the evening or even during the day, when people are not under the protection of LLINs of other indoor protections. In addition, to the changing behaviour of reputedly endophilic species, the presence of secondary vectors in peri-urban habitats such as cultivated lands and pastures remains a challenge to malaria control. For these reasons, novel control tools that can target anopheline vectors inside and outside homes are needed. Attractive sugar baits are one example of new intervention currently under trial that may be deployed both indoors and outdoors. Perhaps more notably, modern genetic control strategies such as those involving the release of genetically modified mosquitoes capable of inducing mosquito population crashes or blocking transmission of malaria parasites, in principle, can target vectors species wherever they occur in urban and rural settings. The most promising implementation of such genetic engineering advances consists in releasing so-called gene drive mosquitoes in which desirable genetic modifications are paired with a mechanism of extra-mendelian inheritance which facilitates their spread across target malaria vector populations. Laboratory cage experiments have confirmed the efficacy of gene drive strains for population suppression or malaria refractoriness [ 6 , 7 ]. Importantly, the first trials of gene drive technologies depend on regulatory and public acceptance and important modelling efforts are underway to predict the spread of gene drive mosquitoes across landscapes, as well as physical, environmental and genetic factors that can hinder it. Seasonality is one such factor which has a large impact on the simulated spread of gene drive constructs both temporally and spatially [ 8 ]. This is because in habitats with strong seasonality, malaria vector populations recede and sometimes completely disappear during the dry season as larval habitats become increasingly rare and low humidity combined with high temperatures take their toll on adult stages. During such periods, rare active mosquitoes can still be found in some villages, suggesting that some mosquitoes take advantage of the few human-made bodies of water available in settlements (wells, fountains, washing station, etc...) and the few natural aquatic habitats and persist in the dry season, whilst others undergo aestivation. In Mali, for example, small An. coluzzii populations are observed in settlements next to the Niger River even at the height of the dry season [ 9 ]. In contrast, the rainy season brings favorable conditions, which translates into fast expansion of mosquito populations. Mosquito densities outside villages are typically assumed to be lower because there are fewer human and cattle hosts available in those areas. However, in the rainy season, agricultural and pastoral activities take place in the lands between villages thereby increasing human and cattle availability between villages. Thus, the seasonal increase in mosquito abundance within villages could possibly spill over onto adjacent rural habitats via mosquito dispersing and taking advantage of those feeding opportunities and the abundance of larval habitats across the landscape. This would result in mosquito populations from villages becoming interconnected into one large panmictic populations, with important consequences for patterns of gene flow. Understanding seasonal changes in the spatial distribution of anthropophilic mosquito communities that transmit Malaria, Dengue and other vector borne human diseases is crucial for spatial modelling of mosquito-pathogen dynamics and of interventions such as gene drive mosquitoes. Currently, when and to what extent mosquitoes explore habitats away from urban areas and villages is not well known. [ 10 ] in a meta-analysis of mosquito dispersal studies defined three types of mosquito dispersal: proximate dispersal linked to intentional daily flights to find meals, hosts, sexual partners, oviposition sites or feeding or shelter sites; long-distance wind dispersal, where pregnant females may move away from mating sites; and passive transport in, for example, cars, boats or aircraft. It is noteworthy that the determinants of proximate dispersal, probably the form of dispersal that should be the most tractable, have rarely been studied. This form of mosquito movement is crucial for our understanding of seasonal cycles of mosquito population expansion and contraction observed in many areas of sub-Sahelian Africa. One source of such data can be Mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies, albeit these are rarely designed optimally to measure dispersal between villages. For example, a series of MRR experiments conducted in Burkina Faso confirmed the large seasonal size fluctuations in Anopheles coluzzii populations typical of the Sudano-Sahelian climate zone [ 11 ]. These also showed that the net distance travelled by male mosquitoes between release and recapture within village as ranging from 40 m to 549 m. However, their design was not aimed at detecting dispersal away from the release village [ 11 ]. Furthermore, proximal dispersal into areas between villages is most likely driven by host-seeking females or gravid females seeking oviposition sites. Interestingly, MRR studies conducted over two villages separated by 2km in Mali reported similar seasonal population fluctuations and that female dispersal occurred only in the wet season, thereby supporting the hypothesis that dispersal between villages may be seasonal [ 9 ]. It is noteworthy that re-capture sampling techniques for MRR studies such as Pesticide Spray Catch (PSC) or aspiration (ASP) maximize recapture rates but are conducted indoors within villages and thus do not provide information about mosquito distribution in habitats between human settlements. To do so requires a more complex and intensive sampling strategy using techniques effective for outdoor sampling such as human landing catches (HLC) or one of the few other methods effective for outdoor sampling [ 12 ]. The current lack of scalable alternatives to human landing catches for outdoor mosquito sampling greatly limits our ability to monitor outdoor populations [ 13 ]. To address this need, we previously optimized of use of Biogents Sentinel (BGS) trap for Anopheline sampling [ 14 ]. The best orientation and contrast patterns were tested whilst the addition of a heat patch mimicking the temperature of a vertebrate host greatly improved their attractiveness to Anopheline mosquitoes. The resulting BGSH traps proved a promising tool for monitoring the abundance of female mosquitoes outdoors and can usefully complement common indoor collection methods [ 14 ]. The ability to assess the presence and abundance of mosquitoes away from the immediate vicinity of villages without the need for volunteers is an important asset for future surveillance activities [ 14 ]. Here, BGSH traps were used to describe seasonal variation in outdoor mosquito communities along a 2.5km transect extending from the village of Sogolombougou away into rural and pastoral lands in central Mali, West Africa. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that populations of the An. gambiae s.l. complex contract during the dry season and extend outside of villages during the rainy season. Additionally, it collected important data on the distribution of secondary malaria vectors, Dengue vectors and other culicines captured in the same traps. The results demonstrate the suitability of BGSH traps for outdoor sampling and surveillance and provide crucial information on spatiotemporal dynamics of mosquito communities in rural sub-Sahelian Africa. Methods Study area The survey was conducted in the village of Sogolombougou, Koulikoro region. Sogolombougou is located 37 km northwest of Bamako in the Koulikoro region and Diago municipality (8.16 W 12.88 N) along the RN6 road. The village was selected for its relative isolation (~ 2–3 km) from any other village and its accessibility in any season. Sogolombougou village is comprised of about 65 compounds with about 3000 inhabitants (census 2009). Each compound consists in a family unit with two to fifteen houses. The main village is located on the East side of the road, with another smaller urban area named Kababougou located approximately 1 km North-West of the main village on the Western side of the RN6 road. Climate in this region is of the Sudanian ecological zone, characterized by two seasons, a rainy season extending from June to October with about 1200 mm of rainfall and a dry season from November May which is comparatively cooler from November to February (average temp 20 ° C) and hot between March to May (average temp 25–30 ° C) [ 15 ]. Malaria is endemic in this region. The national vector control program conducts bed net distributions resulting in approximately 89.43% bed net coverage. Malaria vector communities are dominated by members of the Anopheles gambiae s.l species complex, i.e. An. coluzzii, An. gambiae and An. Arabiensis [ 16 , 17 ]. Their highest densities are found in the rainy from August to October and the lowest from January to March. The main activities in the village are arable subsistence farming, stock farming, and agroforestry. The latter activities take place in the areas surrounding of the village which consists in grassy savannah with some tree groves. Tree groves consist in large trees such as shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa ), Néré ( Parkia biglobosa ), and mango trees, complemented by orange trees, and some shrubs standing over an herbaceous layer. The Biogents Sentinel Traps with heat (BGSH) BGS traps (Biogents, Regensburg, Germany) are inverted flow mosquito traps that use black and white contrasts, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and an odour lure as attractants to mosquitoes. Upon approaching the trap, mosquitoes are aspirated into the trap via an electrically operated fan. BGS traps have been used extensively for monitoring and sampling of Aedine populations [ 18 – 20 ]. In previous studies, we have demonstrated the importance of an additional heat source to increase anopheles captures [ 14 ]. The so-called BGSH traps captured as much as 8 times more Anophelines as unmodified BGS ones in a similar West African setting [ 14 ]. A shelter made of a metal frame with a metal roof top was placed above each trap to protect them against the rain (Fig. 1 ) Study design Using ArGis software and satellite imagery, we drew 4 parallel transect lines distant by 200m and extending from the main village of Sogolombougou towards the North-East away from the main road. We then drew crosslines at 6 transect distances (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 m) (Fig. 2 ). On each of the 4 transect lines and each of the 6 distances, a Biogent Sentinel Traps with heat (BGSH) [ 14 ] was placed resulting in an array of 4 x 6 = 24 BGSH traps. Traps positioned within the village itself (0m on the transect) were installed > 20m away from any houses to avoid possible interference due to human sleeping in the traps' proximity. The geographical coordinates of each location point were confirmed using a GPS. Each of the twenty-four (24) BGS traps installed in this manner remained in operation at their respective sites for four consecutive nights. Traps were set before sunset (at 6:00 p.m.) and mosquito collections were retrieved early the following morning (at 6:00 a.m.) resulting in a total of 96 trap-nights per sampling period. For two consecutive years (2021 and 2022) field collections of mosquitoes at 4 time points in the year (June-July, August, October, and December) corresponding to the dry-to-rainy season transition, wet season, wet-to-dry season transition, and dry season. These sampling periods were selected to best encapsulate and contrast the changes in mosquito vectors dynamics and malaria transmission typical of villages located in the highly seasonal climate of the Sudano-Sahelian region of Mali, West Africa. Mosquito sampling and identification Following the trapping with BGSHs, the netted catch bags were retrieved from traps and mosquitoes were transferred into a labelled petri dish for identification and recording. Collected mosquitoes from each traps were sexed and identified morphologically in the field using a field stereomicroscope (Perfex Sciences n® Zoom Pro., Perfex Sciences, Toulouse, France) and identification keys [ 21 , 22 ]. Anophelines were morphologically identified to gender, sex, and gonotrophic status and individually kept in labelled Eppendorf tubes over silica gel for further analysis. Individuals from other species were counted and preserved in 80% ethanol. Laboratory processing The preserved female anopheline mosquitoes were cut between thorax and abdomen. Thereafter the abdomen was used for DNA extraction, and the head and thorax for Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites detection by Elisa. In the case of males, the whole body was used for DNA extraction. PCR identification A quick-prep method was used for the extraction of DNA from whole mosquitoes. Lysis buffer was prepared by diluting 1.2 ml of concentrated buffer in 10.8 ml of distilled water. Next 50 µl of lysis buffer was dispensed into each well of a 96-well plate, in which the abdomens of mosquitoes were distributed. The plate was sealed with adhesive film to prevent evaporation. The whole plate was incubated at 95°C for 15 minutes in a thermocycler or on a heating block to allow cell lysis and release of DNA into the solution. Next, An. gambiae s.l. specimens were identified to species using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) according to the method of Wilkins [ 23 ]and using 1 µl of the incubated lysis buffer to prime the reaction. PCR products were run on an agarose gel and visualized using a UV transilluminator. Sporozoite ELISA The head-thorax portion of female Anophelines was processed for CSP-ELISA [ 17 ]. They were thoroughly homogenized in grinding buffer using mortar and pestle. U-bottomed ELISA plates were coated with pre-prepared capture monoclonal antibodies of Pf, Pv-210 and Pv-247, and incubated for 30 min. The content was then emptied and blocking buffer added and incubated for 1 h. After removing the buffer, the test samples and controls were loaded into their respective wells and incubated for 2 h. The wells were then emptied and washed using PBS-Tween-20. Pre-prepared peroxidise-labelled conjugate solution was added to each well and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. After aspirating the contents and washing three times, ABTS substrate was added to each well and incubated for 30 min. Finally, the wells were read using an ELISA plate reader adjusted at 405 nm. Community engagement Mosquito collections are made around the village. In addition to the approval of the scientific and ethical authorities in Mali (authorization: n°2021/57/CE/USTTB-8 March 2021), the administrative and community authorities as well as the communities and all stakeholders in the collection areas were informed and consulted to obtain a social permit. This community involvement was done through meetings, events, focus groups and interviews. This process should begin before the collection activities are implemented. Data analyses Monthly entomological data were recorded in JMP 14. All statistical analyses were performed using JMP 14 software (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Results Mosquito species composition and abundance A total of 3389 mosquitoes were captured over the 2-year study and the 2.5km transect. Culex quinquefasciatus (39.2%) and Ae. aegypti (39.0%) were the two most abundant species captured, with An. coustani (11.1%) and An. gambiae (6.9%) the 3rd and 4th most abundant species, followed by Mansonia sp. (3.6%), An. phaorensis (0.2%), and 2 Toxorhynchites sp. individuals (0.06%) ( Fig. 3 ). In total, 615 Anophelines were captured representing 18.5% of all catches. BGSH catch rates by species and sex Females constituted 98.7% of the catches (3230/3265) in all species for which the sex was determined (Table 1 ). This proportion varied significantly between species (Fisher Exact Test: P < 0.001). An. coustani and An. pharoensis had the lowest sex-ratios, with no males trapped in either of these species. In contrast, over 1% of males were captured in Cx. quinquefasciatus , Ae. aegypti and An. gambiae (Table 1 ). Table 1 Number and percentage of females and males of the main species captured in BGSH traps. Species Count (%) Total Sex Females Males An. gambiae 231 (98.7) 3 (1.3) 234 An. coustani 375 (100) 0 (0) 375 An. pharoensis 6 (100) 0 (0) 6 Ae. aegypti 1310 (99.0) 13 (1.0) 1323 Cx. quinquefasciatus 1308 (98.6) 19 (1.4) 1327 Total 3230 (98.9) 35 (1.1) 3265 Seasonal dynamics of mosquito community A larger number of mosquitoes ( n = 2107) were captured in year 2 than in year 1 ( n = 1282)(Chi-square Likelihood Ratio (LR): χ 2 = 202.9, P < 0.001). The sampling period greatly affected the number of mosquitoes trapped (Chi-square LR: χ 2 = 202.9, P < 0.001); more mosquitoes were collected in the dry-to-rainy transition ( n = 1518) and rainy season ( n = 1010) than in the wet-to-dry transition ( n = 776), and dry season ( n = 85)(Table 2 ). Table 2 Total number of mosquitoes collected by species, sex and sampling period over the 2 year study Study year 1 Study year 2 Species Sex Dry-to-Rainy Rainy Rainy-to-Dry Dry Dry-to-Rainy Rainy Rainy-to-Dry Dry All An. gambiae s.l. Female 7 42 16 7 2 76 50 31 231 An. gambiae s.l. Male 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 An. gambiae s.l. Both 9 42 16 7 2 77 50 31 234 An. coustani Female 2 23 11 1 0 217 116 5 375 An. coustani Male 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 An. coustani Both 2 23 11 1 0 217 116 5 375 An. pharoensis Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 6 An. pharoensis Male 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 An. pharoensis Both 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 6 Ae. aegypti Female - - - 2 583 77 93 0 1310 Ae. aegypti Male - - - 0 11 1 0 1 13 Ae. aegypti Both 374 125 56 2 594 78 93 1 1323 Cx. quinquefasciatus Female 243 183 156 14 290 251 160 11 1308 Cx. quinquefasciatus † Male - - - 2 2 11 2 2 19 Cx. quinquefasciatus Both 243 183 156 16 292 262 162 13 1327 Mansonia spp. Both 0 0 12 2 0 3 103 2 122 Toxorhynchites sp. Both 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Total 630 373 251 28 888 637 525 57 3389 † Culex quinquefasciatus females and males were not distinguished in the 3 first collections Between-village seasonal mosquito population dynamics The effects of year, sampling period and species on the number of individuals captured per trap per night were analyzed via General Linear Modelling (Poisson Distribution) using the data from the 4 most abundant species, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti, An. coustani, An. gambiae s.l.. The model confirmed the strong significant effect of species, sampling period and their interaction on the number of individuals captured (Table 3 ). Importantly, the distance from Sogolombougou village on the transect also impacted the number of mosquitoes captured and this effect was dependent on the species considered and sampling period as highlighted by strong significant interactions (Table 3 ) (Figure. 4). There was no effect of study year in the main model. Table 3 General Linear Model (Poisson distribution) of the effects of species, sampling period and distance from the village on the transect on the mean number of mosquitoes captured per trap per night. Source DF LR ChiSquare Prob Species 3 125.73964 < 0.001* Sampling period 3 24.027488 < 0.001* Distance from village (m) 5 18.684977 0.002* Sampling period*Species 9 350.27528 < 0.001* Distance from village (m)*Species 15 144.48201 < 0.001* Sampling period*Distance from village (m) 15 38.844062 < 0.001* Given the strong interactions found between the variable species and sampling period and distance, we re-ran models separately for each species. For Anopheles gambiae s.l., captures were significantly higher in the rainy and dry-to-rainy periods and occurred along the entire transect, but with significantly higher catches at locations furthest from the village (Table 4 a, Fig. 4 ). There was also a significant interaction between the effects of sampling period and year. An. coustani captures were significantly impacted by sampling period, distance and year (Table 4 b ). This species was common in the dry-to-rainy and rainy sampling period catches, but their numbers strongly depended on sampling distance. Very few were captured in the village and within 500m of it, but they were common in traps 1to 2.5km away from it (Fig. 4 ). Ae. aegypti captures were impacted by sampling period and year. Furthermore, it increased in abundance with increasing distances from the village, but this applied only to the dry-to-rainy and rainy sampling periods. In dry sampling periods, it was found in low abundance everywhere, resulting in a significant sampling period * distance interaction term (Fig. 4 , Table 4 c). Finally, Cx. quinquefasciatus was common everywhere on the transect, during the dry-to-rainy, rainy, and rainy-to-dry periods and the effect of sampling period significantly interacted with sampling distance (Table 4 d). This interaction was possibly driven by its almost complete disappearance from the traps most distant from the village (> 1km) in the dry season (Fig. 4 ). Table 4 (a-d). General linear models of the effects of year, sampling period and sampling distance and their interactions on the mean number of individuals captured in: a) Anopheles gambiae s.l., b) An. coustani, c) Ae. aegypti, and d) Cx. quinquefasciatus. a) Anopheles gambiae s.l. Source DF LR ChiSquare Prob Sampling period 3 61.3 < 0.001* Distance from village (m) 5 16.9 0.005* Year 1 1.3 0.2462 Sampling period * Year 3 11.1 0.011* b) Anopheles coustani Source DF LR ChiSquare Prob Sampling period 3 111.4 < 0.001* Year 1 64.7 < 0.001* Distance from village (m) 5 22.9 < 0.001* c) Aedes aegypti Source DF LR ChiSquare Prob Sampling period 3 12.7 0.005* Year 1 7.0 0.008* Distance from village (m) 5 8.0 0.159 Sampling period * Distance from village (m) 15 27.1 0.028* d) Culex quinquefasciatus Source DF L-R ChiSquare Prob Sampling period 3 39.7 < 0.001* Year 1 0.9 0.338 Distance from village (m) 5 7.1 0.211 Sampling period * Distance from village (m) 15 35.2 0.002* Between-village seasonal dynamics of An. coluzzii and gambiae s.s. One hundred eighty-eight females of the An. gambiae complex were characterised to species molecularly, revealing nearly equal proportions of An. coluzzii (47.9%) and An. gambiae s.s. (48.9%) with just 6 An. arabiensis individuals (3.2%). There was no significant difference in the mean number of An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii females captured per trap per night, with both species being affected by sampling period and by the distance from the village in similar ways as highlighted by the lack of significant interactions between the variables, species, sampling period and distance (Table 5 , Fig. 5 ). Table 5 General Linear Model (Poisson distribution) of the effects of species, sampling period and distance from the village on the transect on the mean number of An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii females captured per trap per night. Source DF LR ChiSquare Prob Species 1 85.2 0.882 Sampling period 3 85.2 < 0.001 Distance from village (m) 1 32.3 < 0.001 To highlight possible contraction of An. gambiae and An. coluzzii populations within the village perimeter, we tested if a higher proportion of females were captured within the village itself as opposed to its periphery (500–2500m) in the dry season compared to all other seasons using contingency analysis. In the dry season, 50% of An. gambiae and 25% An. coluzzii females were captured made within the village, compared to 12.8% and 4.9% in other sampling periods combined. This difference was significant for An. gambiae but not so for An. coluzzii (Fisher Exact Test: P = 0.043 and P = 0.087 respectively). Plasmodium falciparum infection prevalence by species The CSP Elisa run on the head and thorax of 569 female anophelines detected P. falciparum sporozoites in An. coluzzii and An. gambiae s.s. (Table 6 ). No sporozoite-positive females were found in the secondary vectors An. coustani and An. pharoensis (Table 6 ). These contrasted patterns of infection were significant (Fisher Exact Test: n = 569, df = 8, P < 0.001). Three of the 4 sporozoite-positive An. coluzzii females were captured in the dry and dry-to-rainy sampling period highlighting the importance of this species for malaria transmission in the dry season (Fig. 6 ). The sporozoite-positive An. gambiae s.s. female was captured in the dry-to-rainy sampling period. Positive females of both species were captured within the village (n = 1), at the 500m (n = 1), 1km (n = 1), and 2km (n = 2) intervals. Table 6 Number of females tested by CSP Elisa and prevalence of P. falciparum sporozoites in primary and secondary vectors. Species/counts Number Tested Positives Prevalence (%) An. coluzzii 90 4 4.1 An. gambiae 92 1 1.1 An. arabiensis 6 0 0 An. coustani 375 0 0 An. pharoensis 6 0 0 Total 580 4 0.69 Discussion This study confirms that the BGSH traps can effectively collect anthropophillic species outdoors away from houses thus making possible studies focusing on vector populations in rural and sylvatic habitats without the need for HLC or alternative trapping methods making use of volunteers. Here, Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus dominated the catches (39% each). However, 19% of catches were anophelines, providing important information on the presence of primary and secondary vectors within and between villages and their seasonal dynamics. Surprisingly, we found a high proportion of all species present outside of the village perimeter and along our entire transect. Cx. quinquefasciatus showed the least variation across season and distance, being present in good numbers at all distances during the dry-to-rainy transition, rainy season, and rainy-to dry transitions. In the dry seaons, its numbers crashed at all distances, with only a few individuals captured within the village and its close periphery (500-1000m) but none captured beyond that. Ae. aegypti also dissappeared from catches in the dry season. Its populations quickly exploded in the dry-to-rainy transition where it was particularly abundant away from the village (> 1km) suggesting that it takes advantage of early rains and readily exploit the groves of trees maintained by traditional agroforestry (shea, néré, mango, and orange trees) that are present in that area which may offer cavities filled with rainwater in which to breed. An. coustani , the anopheline species caught in the highest numbers, was absent in the dry season and rare in the dry-to-rainy transition but became abundant in the rainy season and rainy-to-dry transition. Its spatial distribution was very distinct with most individuals captured outside the village and its periphery (> 500m). This species human blood index and sporozoite rate, suggest that is associated with cattle but can feed on humans and transmit malaria [ 22 , 24 ]. Its high abundance in the surrounding of Sogolombougou may be explained by agro-pastoral activities typical in this region with cattle herds regularly grazing the grassland around the tree groves. An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii were equally abundant in our collections, and both were found across the whole transect at most of our sampling periods. Their abundance was strongly associated with rain fall, with populations expanding dramatically in the dry-to-rainy transition and rainy season, and receding in the rainy-to-dry transition and dry season. At that stage there was some evidence that populations from both species receded less quickly within the village than in the agro-pastoral zone, and this was more evident in An. gambiae than in An. coluzzii . Thus, from June to December the two sibling species did not differ notably in their spatial-temporal dynamics. However, it is important to note that as the dry season progresses in March, April and May, conditions become extremely harsh and mosquitoes typically dissapear to hide and aestivate. It is therefore possible that the two species have different tolerances to the driest conditions, but that our sampling design may not have been adequate to detect it. Additionally, our dry-to-rainy period sampling suggest that populations of both species re-expand from seeding populations along the whole transect, which makes sense from a rainfall perspective, but does not suggest that populations re-expand strictly from within villages outwards. From a population genetics and gene flow perspective, this suggest that areas between villages do not always constitute significant ecological barriers to gene flow, and that, in seasonal habitats, this may be the case only during the very driest part of the year. Importantly, three of the four sporozoite-positive An. coluzzii females were captured in the dry and dry-to-rainy sampling period highlighting the importance of this species for malaria transmission in the dry season. The sporozoite-positive An. gambiae s.s. female was captured in the dry-to-rainy sampling period. Finally, four of the five sporozoite-positive females were captured outside of the village, highlighting the importance of outdoor transmission that takes place in the periphery of villages and affects people taking part in agro-pastoral activities. It is note worthy that collections at all distances on the transect where made outdoors, this means that, inside the perimeter of the village, the attractiveness of BGSHs to host-seeking females may have been dampened by that of occupied houses. Therefore, our estimates of abundance within the village may have been biased downwards because of the availability of human hosts nearby. Conclusions This study highlights the complexity of spatiotemporal mosquito community dynamics in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Western Sub-Saharan Africa. The BGSHs confirmed their usefulness in enabling outdoors collections in peri-urban agropastoral lands. The results uncover poorly understood dynamics of habitat use by Aedes aegypti and by the malaria vectors, An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii , and by the secondary malaria vector An. coustani. Our findings suggest that agropastoral lands between villages do not constitute a significant barrier to gene flow except in the driest part of the dry season. Furthermore, a high proportion of malaria transmission may originate from vector-human interactions taking place during agropastoral activities and underline the need for additional studies of outdoor-biting vector communities and human behaviour. Abbreviations BGSH Biogent Sentinel Traps with heat HLC human landing catches PCR Polymerase Chain Reactions PBS Phosphate-Buffered Saline CSP Circumsporozoite Protein ELISA Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay An Anopheles CDC Centre for Disease Control GPS Global Positioning System PSC Pesticide Spray Catch MRR Mark-release-recapture DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid ASP Aspiration Spray Pesticide ABTS 2,2′-azino-bis(3-éthylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonique) LLINs Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets IRS Indoor residual spraying Declarations Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the communities of the villages of Sogolombougou for their collaboration and availability, which enabled the collection of adult mosquitoes in their localities and surrounding areas. Our gratitude also goes to the staff of the Malaria Research and Training Center (MRTC) for their technical and organizational support. We pay special tribute to the late Dr. Mamadou B. Coulibaly, whose scientific leadership and commitment were instrumental in facilitating this study. Finally, we extend our heartfelt thanks to all the volunteers who contributed to the collection of samples, without whom this research would not have been possible. Author’s contributions AG, SD, BD, and FT conceived and designed the experimental plan. AG, SD, and BD collected mosquito samples and conducted the experiments. AG, SD, and FT performed the data analyses. AG and FT drafted the manuscript with substantial input from SD, BD, LK, BT, and BY. All authors critically reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version. Funding This study was supported by Target Malaria award number INV006610 /OPP1210755. Target Malaria receives core funding from the Gates Foundation (was Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation). Availability of data and materials The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Malian National Ethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences - CNESS, permit number 2021/57/CE/USTTB-8 March 2021 Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interest The authors of this manuscript declare no competing interest. References Jones JW, Turell MJ, Sardelis MR. Seasonal distribution, biology and human attraction patterns of culicine mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in a forest near Puerto Almendras, Iquitos, Peru. J Med Entomol. 2004;41(3):349–60. Rydzanicz K, Lonc E. Species composition and seasonal dynamics of mosquito larvae in the Wroclaw, Poland area. J Vector Ecol. 2003;28(2):255–66. Gillies MT, De Meillon B. The Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Medical Research; 1987. Saxton-Shaw KD, Ledermann JP, Borland EM, Stovall JL, Mossel EC, Powers AM, et al. 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Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:516. Sougoufara S, Ottih EC, Tripet F. The need for new vector control approaches targeting outdoor biting anopheline malaria vector communities. Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:295. Guindo A, Epopa PS, Doumbia S, Millogo A-A, Diallo B, Yao FA, Yagoure B, Tripet F, Diabaté A, Coulibaly MB. Improved BioGents® Sentinel trap with heat (BGSH) for outdoor collections of Anopheline species in Burkina Faso and Mali, West Africa. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14:82 Touré HA, Traoré K, Kyei-Baffour N. Assessment of changing trends of daily precipitation and temperature extremes in Bamako and Ségou in Mali from 1961–2014. Weather Clim Extrem. 2017;18:8–16. Hostein MH. Biologie d’ Anopheles gambiae : recherches en Afrique occidentale française. WHO Monogr Ser. 1952;9. Hung YM. A pictorial key for the identification of the subfamilies of Culicidae, genera of Culicinae, and subgenera of Aedes mosquitoes of the Afrotropical region. Proc Entomol Soc Wash. 2001;103(1):1–53. Farajollahi A, Kesavaraju B, Price DC, Williams GM, Healy SP, Gaugler R, et al. Field efficacy of BG-Sentinel and industry-standard traps for Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) and West Nile virus surveillance. J Med Entomol. 2009;46(4):919–25. Li Y, Su X, Zhou G, Zhang H, Puthiyakunnon S, Shuai J, et al. Comparative evaluation of the efficiency of the BG-Sentinel trap, CDC light trap and mosquito-oviposition trap for the surveillance of vector mosquitoes. Parasites Vectors. 2016;9:446. Reegan AD, Gandhi MR, Balachandar M, John PA, Rajamohan S, Kumar P. Comparative efficacy of Biogents Sentinel and CDC traps for Aedes and Culex mosquito surveillance in India. J Basic Appl Zool. 2024;85:46. Keïta M, Doumbia S, Sissoko I, Coulibaly M, Konaté D, Samaké D, et al. Indoor and outdoor malaria transmission in two ecological settings in rural Mali: implications for vector control. Malar J. 2021; 20:127. Ogola E, Villinger J, Mabuka D, Omondi D, Orindi B, Mutunga J, et al. Composition of Anopheles mosquitoes, their blood-meal hosts, and Plasmodium falciparum infection rates in three islands with disparate bed net coverage in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Malar J. 2017. Wilkins EE, Howell PI, Benedict MQ. IMP PCR primers detect single nucleotide polymorphisms for Anopheles gambiae species identification, Mopti and Savanna rDNA types, and resistance to dieldrin in Anopheles arabiensis. Malar J. 2006;5:125. Antonio-Nkondjio C, Kerah CH, Simard F, Awono-Ambene P, Chouaibou M, Tchuinkam T, et al. Complexity of the malaria vectorial system in Cameroon: contribution of secondary vectors to malaria transmission. J Med Entomol. 2006;43(6):1215–21. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7456295","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":515556887,"identity":"1fbbf4bc-182a-4e2a-9c04-7098020fe5a4","order_by":0,"name":"Amadou Guindo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACCSCWY4OwLXiI1mIM1SJBvJbEBgSbAOCfdvjhjY9ttel97IePfbpRIyHDwN77+AVeG26nGVvObDue28aTljw75xjQYTzHzSzwWnM7wUyat+1YbpsEjzFzDhtQi0QamwE+HfK307+BtKSzSfB/Zs75R4QWg9s5IFtqEoDmMzOD7AJqYX6AT4vh7ZxiyxnnDhgC/WLMnNsnwcPGc4wNr1fkbqdvvPGhrE5evv3wY+acbzb2/OxtzB/w6oGAwwgm0Ao2ImKHoQ6FR5Qto2AUjIJRMHIAAKaIPrahne5MAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amadou","middleName":"","lastName":"Guindo","suffix":""},{"id":515556888,"identity":"19ce0b71-9240-4d96-bb3e-9436d80ec21e","order_by":1,"name":"Sidy Doumbia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sidy","middleName":"","lastName":"Doumbia","suffix":""},{"id":515556889,"identity":"0baca6cc-9ae9-4ea6-b057-28617ecf0471","order_by":2,"name":"Brehima Diallo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Brehima","middleName":"","lastName":"Diallo","suffix":""},{"id":515556890,"identity":"98a478a1-60d8-4ecd-aad3-c62789001191","order_by":3,"name":"Lakamy Sylla","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lakamy","middleName":"","lastName":"Sylla","suffix":""},{"id":515556891,"identity":"f7dd4786-570b-4901-a067-83bcc8ba077e","order_by":4,"name":"Boubacar Tembely","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Boubacar","middleName":"","lastName":"Tembely","suffix":""},{"id":515556892,"identity":"8f6ed00c-b672-4caf-ac7f-e4b6b7d007c2","order_by":5,"name":"Bakara Dicko","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bakara","middleName":"","lastName":"Dicko","suffix":""},{"id":515556893,"identity":"efe9142b-973a-4379-8346-074f97904b68","order_by":6,"name":"Daouda Niaré","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Bamako","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daouda","middleName":"","lastName":"Niaré","suffix":""},{"id":515556894,"identity":"2d843543-e254-4ad7-96b0-c0c9c65ec247","order_by":7,"name":"Alahaye M. 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A metal frame creating a platform and supporting a metal roof ensured that traps were positioned above ground and sheltered against the rain.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/492ecca14aca3073d4325b8a.png"},{"id":91554073,"identity":"e837d6d2-9aa5-405d-ad2e-54c3476a7e51","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 16:46:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":244830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLayout of the 2.5 km long transect extending intoagropastoral lands North-East of the village of Sogolombougou - In 2021 and 2022, 24 BGSH traps were positioned at 500m distance intervals at four time points matching the rainy and dry seasons and the dry-to-rainy and rainy-to-dry transition periods.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/459afb725e31a354fee17c17.jpeg"},{"id":91553275,"identity":"bb89cc4d-00c2-427a-824b-f43579a8b201","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 16:30:53","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber and percentage of mosquito species captured using BSGH traps over the 2.5km between -village transect over 2 years\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/c5b3acf04c392a2c5e42e734.png"},{"id":91554075,"identity":"5a628bfd-c6d4-4e9a-addb-c30cfdca7ebd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 16:46:53","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean number of individuals captured per trap per night at different distances from the village (0-2.5km) for the 4 sampling periods and main species captured.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/ce16bf89bba6e0f4bd3d2882.png"},{"id":91554074,"identity":"91c4df91-42de-4f2b-be46-6b631fa10bb9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 16:46:53","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":212146,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal number of females from species of the \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e complex captured at different distances from the village (0-2.5km) over the 4 sampling periods across 2 years.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/25004df87ab31bf65d659868.png"},{"id":91553832,"identity":"c683c5e0-ecdd-4a8f-a3db-4dd2fdc50e17","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-17 16:38:53","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21947,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThree of the four sporozoite-positive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e An. coluzzii\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003efemales were captured in the dry and dry-to-rainy sampling period emphasizing the importance of this vector for dry season malaria transmission.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/ce6c04a685efac569085e825.png"},{"id":98627103,"identity":"5dae449e-05ab-4632-8138-0673dd874efd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:10:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4193538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7456295/v1/8bd2ce12-074e-4176-a3a6-1cd3a327f9f5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Biogent Sentinel Traps with Heat (BGSH) reveal seasonal dynamics of between-village mosquito communities and implications for disease transmission in Northwestern Mali ","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMosquitoes carry many viruses and other pathogens that affect human and animal health. Despite improvements in treatment and prevention, mosquitoes remain a serious threat to humans and livestock in many rural, suburban and urban areas worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In Sub-Saharan West Africa, the malaria mosquito An. gambiae sensu lato represents a complex of nine morphologically identical species distributed throughout Africa, of which the most common species are \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae, An. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAn. arabiensis\u003c/em\u003e are endophylic and anthropophilic and are the main vectors of capable of transmitting \u003cem\u003ePlasmodium falciparum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. malariae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. ovale\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. vivax\u003c/em\u003e, the causative agents of human malaria. These species can also transmit other pathogens, including the parasite responsible for lymphatic filariasis, and several arboviruses, including the virus responsible for O'nyong-nyong fever [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Two other mosquito species that are anthropophilic and very commonly associated with human settlements are: the yellow fever mosquito \u003cem\u003eAedes aegypti\u003c/em\u003e an important vector of flaviviruses responsible for Yellow Fever, Dengue, and Zika; and the common house mosquito which can transmits the filariasis parasite \u003cem\u003eWuchereria bancrofti\u003c/em\u003e in some parts of Africa as well as West Nile fever virus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurrently, the main vector control tools designed to limit human exposure to mosquito bites indoors and deployed in Sub-Saharan Africa are Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets LLINs and Indoor residual spraying (IRS). Other chemical vector control tools in development are spatial repellents and insecticide treated eaves. Whilst chemical vector control tools increasingly suffer from the evolution of multiple pesticide in mosquito populations, they remain a crucial component of the fight against malaria. Their effectiveness may also be responsible for changes in mosquito community species composition and/or in mosquito behaviour that have led to shifts in the timing of biting activity and location of bites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, malaria vectors have been observed biting earlier in the evening or even during the day, when people are not under the protection of LLINs of other indoor protections. In addition, to the changing behaviour of reputedly endophilic species, the presence of secondary vectors in peri-urban habitats such as cultivated lands and pastures remains a challenge to malaria control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor these reasons, novel control tools that can target anopheline vectors inside and outside homes are needed. Attractive sugar baits are one example of new intervention currently under trial that may be deployed both indoors and outdoors. Perhaps more notably, modern genetic control strategies such as those involving the release of genetically modified mosquitoes capable of inducing mosquito population crashes or blocking transmission of malaria parasites, in principle, can target vectors species wherever they occur in urban and rural settings. The most promising implementation of such genetic engineering advances consists in releasing so-called gene drive mosquitoes in which desirable genetic modifications are paired with a mechanism of extra-mendelian inheritance which facilitates their spread across target malaria vector populations. Laboratory cage experiments have confirmed the efficacy of gene drive strains for population suppression or malaria refractoriness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Importantly, the first trials of gene drive technologies depend on regulatory and public acceptance and important modelling efforts are underway to predict the spread of gene drive mosquitoes across landscapes, as well as physical, environmental and genetic factors that can hinder it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeasonality is one such factor which has a large impact on the simulated spread of gene drive constructs both temporally and spatially [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. This is because in habitats with strong seasonality, malaria vector populations recede and sometimes completely disappear during the dry season as larval habitats become increasingly rare and low humidity combined with high temperatures take their toll on adult stages. During such periods, rare active mosquitoes can still be found in some villages, suggesting that some mosquitoes take advantage of the few human-made bodies of water available in settlements (wells, fountains, washing station, etc...) and the few natural aquatic habitats and persist in the dry season, whilst others undergo aestivation. In Mali, for example, small \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e populations are observed in settlements next to the Niger River even at the height of the dry season [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, the rainy season brings favorable conditions, which translates into fast expansion of mosquito populations. Mosquito densities outside villages are typically assumed to be lower because there are fewer human and cattle hosts available in those areas. However, in the rainy season, agricultural and pastoral activities take place in the lands between villages thereby increasing human and cattle availability between villages. Thus, the seasonal increase in mosquito abundance within villages could possibly spill over onto adjacent rural habitats via mosquito dispersing and taking advantage of those feeding opportunities and the abundance of larval habitats across the landscape. This would result in mosquito populations from villages becoming interconnected into one large panmictic populations, with important consequences for patterns of gene flow.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding seasonal changes in the spatial distribution of anthropophilic mosquito communities that transmit Malaria, Dengue and other vector borne human diseases is crucial for spatial modelling of mosquito-pathogen dynamics and of interventions such as gene drive mosquitoes. Currently, when and to what extent mosquitoes explore habitats away from urban areas and villages is not well known. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] in a meta-analysis of mosquito dispersal studies defined three types of mosquito dispersal: proximate dispersal linked to intentional daily flights to find meals, hosts, sexual partners, oviposition sites or feeding or shelter sites; long-distance wind dispersal, where pregnant females may move away from mating sites; and passive transport in, for example, cars, boats or aircraft. It is noteworthy that the determinants of proximate dispersal, probably the form of dispersal that should be the most tractable, have rarely been studied. This form of mosquito movement is crucial for our understanding of seasonal cycles of mosquito population expansion and contraction observed in many areas of sub-Sahelian Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne source of such data can be Mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies, albeit these are rarely designed optimally to measure dispersal between villages. For example, a series of MRR experiments conducted in Burkina Faso confirmed the large seasonal size fluctuations in \u003cem\u003eAnopheles coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e populations typical of the Sudano-Sahelian climate zone [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. These also showed that the net distance travelled by male mosquitoes between release and recapture within village as ranging from 40 m to 549 m. However, their design was not aimed at detecting dispersal away from the release village [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, proximal dispersal into areas between villages is most likely driven by host-seeking females or gravid females seeking oviposition sites. Interestingly, MRR studies conducted over two villages separated by 2km in Mali reported similar seasonal population fluctuations and that female dispersal occurred only in the wet season, thereby supporting the hypothesis that dispersal between villages may be seasonal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. It is noteworthy that re-capture sampling techniques for MRR studies such as Pesticide Spray Catch (PSC) or aspiration (ASP) maximize recapture rates but are conducted indoors within villages and thus do not provide information about mosquito distribution in habitats between human settlements. To do so requires a more complex and intensive sampling strategy using techniques effective for outdoor sampling such as human landing catches (HLC) or one of the few other methods effective for outdoor sampling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current lack of scalable alternatives to human landing catches for outdoor mosquito sampling greatly limits our ability to monitor outdoor populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. To address this need, we previously optimized of use of Biogents Sentinel (BGS) trap for Anopheline sampling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The best orientation and contrast patterns were tested whilst the addition of a heat patch mimicking the temperature of a vertebrate host greatly improved their attractiveness to Anopheline mosquitoes. The resulting BGSH traps proved a promising tool for monitoring the abundance of female mosquitoes outdoors and can usefully complement common indoor collection methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The ability to assess the presence and abundance of mosquitoes away from the immediate vicinity of villages without the need for volunteers is an important asset for future surveillance activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHere, BGSH traps were used to describe seasonal variation in outdoor mosquito communities along a 2.5km transect extending from the village of Sogolombougou away into rural and pastoral lands in central Mali, West Africa. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that populations of the \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. complex contract during the dry season and extend outside of villages during the rainy season. Additionally, it collected important data on the distribution of secondary malaria vectors, Dengue vectors and other culicines captured in the same traps. The results demonstrate the suitability of BGSH traps for outdoor sampling and surveillance and provide crucial information on spatiotemporal dynamics of mosquito communities in rural sub-Sahelian Africa.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe survey was conducted in the village of Sogolombougou, Koulikoro region. Sogolombougou is located 37 km northwest of Bamako in the Koulikoro region and Diago municipality (8.16 W 12.88 N) along the RN6 road. The village was selected for its relative isolation (~\u0026thinsp;2\u0026ndash;3 km) from any other village and its accessibility in any season. Sogolombougou village is comprised of about 65 compounds with about 3000 inhabitants (census 2009). Each compound consists in a family unit with two to fifteen houses. The main village is located on the East side of the road, with another smaller urban area named Kababougou located approximately 1 km North-West of the main village on the Western side of the RN6 road.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate in this region is of the Sudanian ecological zone, characterized by two seasons, a rainy season extending from June to October with about 1200 mm of rainfall and a dry season from November May which is comparatively cooler from November to February (average temp 20 \u0026deg; C) and hot between March to May (average temp 25\u0026ndash;30 \u0026deg; C) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMalaria is endemic in this region. The national vector control program conducts bed net distributions resulting in approximately 89.43% bed net coverage. Malaria vector communities are dominated by members of the \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l species complex, i.e. \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii, An. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. Arabiensis\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Their highest densities are found in the rainy from August to October and the lowest from January to March.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main activities in the village are arable subsistence farming, stock farming, and agroforestry. The latter activities take place in the areas surrounding of the village which consists in grassy savannah with some tree groves. Tree groves consist in large trees such as shea (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e), N\u0026eacute;r\u0026eacute; (\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e), and mango trees, complemented by orange trees, and some shrubs standing over an herbaceous layer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Biogents Sentinel Traps with heat (BGSH)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBGS traps (Biogents, Regensburg, Germany) are inverted flow mosquito traps that use black and white contrasts, carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and an odour lure as attractants to mosquitoes. Upon approaching the trap, mosquitoes are aspirated into the trap via an electrically operated fan. BGS traps have been used extensively for monitoring and sampling of Aedine populations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. In previous studies, we have demonstrated the importance of an additional heat source to increase anopheles captures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. The so-called BGSH traps captured as much as 8 times more Anophelines as unmodified BGS ones in a similar West African setting [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. A shelter made of a metal frame with a metal roof top was placed above each trap to protect them against the rain (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing ArGis software and satellite imagery, we drew 4 parallel transect lines distant by 200m and extending from the main village of Sogolombougou towards the North-East away from the main road. We then drew crosslines at 6 transect distances (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 m) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). On each of the 4 transect lines and each of the 6 distances, a Biogent Sentinel Traps with heat (BGSH) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] was placed resulting in an array of 4 x 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24 BGSH traps. Traps positioned within the village itself (0m on the transect) were installed\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20m away from any houses to avoid possible interference due to human sleeping in the traps' proximity. The geographical coordinates of each location point were confirmed using a GPS.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach of the twenty-four (24) BGS traps installed in this manner remained in operation at their respective sites for four consecutive nights. Traps were set before sunset (at 6:00 p.m.) and mosquito collections were retrieved early the following morning (at 6:00 a.m.) resulting in a total of 96 trap-nights per sampling period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor two consecutive years (2021 and 2022) field collections of mosquitoes at 4 time points in the year (June-July, August, October, and December) corresponding to the dry-to-rainy season transition, wet season, wet-to-dry season transition, and dry season. These sampling periods were selected to best encapsulate and contrast the changes in mosquito vectors dynamics and malaria transmission typical of villages located in the highly seasonal climate of the Sudano-Sahelian region of Mali, West Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMosquito sampling and identification\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the trapping with BGSHs, the netted catch bags were retrieved from traps and mosquitoes were transferred into a labelled petri dish for identification and recording. Collected mosquitoes from each traps were sexed and identified morphologically in the field using a field stereomicroscope \u003cem\u003e(Perfex Sciences n\u0026reg; Zoom Pro., Perfex Sciences, Toulouse, France)\u003c/em\u003e and identification keys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Anophelines were morphologically identified to gender, sex, and gonotrophic status and individually kept in labelled Eppendorf tubes over silica gel for further analysis. Individuals from other species were counted and preserved in 80% ethanol.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLaboratory processing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe preserved female anopheline mosquitoes were cut between thorax and abdomen. Thereafter the abdomen was used for DNA extraction, and the head and thorax for Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites detection by Elisa. In the case of males, the whole body was used for DNA extraction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePCR identification\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA quick-prep method was used for the extraction of DNA from whole mosquitoes. Lysis buffer was prepared by diluting 1.2 ml of concentrated buffer in 10.8 ml of distilled water. Next 50 \u0026micro;l of lysis buffer was dispensed into each well of a 96-well plate, in which the abdomens of mosquitoes were distributed. The plate was sealed with adhesive film to prevent evaporation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe whole plate was incubated at 95\u0026deg;C for 15 minutes in a thermocycler or on a heating block to allow cell lysis and release of DNA into the solution. Next, \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. specimens were identified to species using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) according to the method of Wilkins [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]and using 1 \u0026micro;l of the incubated lysis buffer to prime the reaction. PCR products were run on an agarose gel and visualized using a UV transilluminator.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSporozoite ELISA\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe head-thorax portion of female Anophelines was processed for CSP-ELISA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. They were thoroughly homogenized in grinding buffer using mortar and pestle. U-bottomed ELISA plates were coated with pre-prepared capture monoclonal antibodies of Pf, Pv-210 and Pv-247, and incubated for 30 min. The content was then emptied and blocking buffer added and incubated for 1 h. After removing the buffer, the test samples and controls were loaded into their respective wells and incubated for 2 h. The wells were then emptied and washed using PBS-Tween-20. Pre-prepared peroxidise-labelled conjugate solution was added to each well and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. After aspirating the contents and washing three times, ABTS substrate was added to each well and incubated for 30 min. Finally, the wells were read using an ELISA plate reader adjusted at 405 nm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCommunity engagement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMosquito collections are made around the village. In addition to the approval of the scientific and ethical authorities in Mali (authorization: n\u0026deg;2021/57/CE/USTTB-8 March 2021), the administrative and community authorities as well as the communities and all stakeholders in the collection areas were informed and consulted to obtain a social permit. This community involvement was done through meetings, events, focus groups and interviews. This process should begin before the collection activities are implemented.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMonthly entomological data were recorded in JMP 14. All statistical analyses were performed using JMP 14 software \u003cem\u003e(SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMosquito species composition and abundance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 3389 mosquitoes were captured over the 2-year study and the 2.5km transect. \u003cem\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus (39.2%)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti (39.0%)\u003c/em\u003e were the two most abundant species captured, with \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani (11.1%)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae (6.9%) the 3rd\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003e4th\u003c/em\u003e most abundant species, followed by \u003cem\u003eMansonia sp. (3.6%), An. phaorensis (0.2%), and 2 Toxorhynchites sp. individuals (0.06%) (\u003c/em\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e In total, 615 Anophelines were captured representing 18.5% of all catches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBGSH catch rates by species and sex\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemales constituted 98.7% of the catches (3230/3265) in all species for which the sex was determined (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This proportion varied significantly between species \u003cem\u003e(Fisher Exact Test: P\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e had the lowest sex-ratios, with no males trapped in either of these species. In contrast, over 1% of males were captured in \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber and percentage of females and males of the main species captured in BGSH traps.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCount (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231 (98.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 (1.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375 (100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0 (0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1310 (99.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (1.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1323\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1308 (98.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19 (1.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3230 (98.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35 (1.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3265\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSeasonal dynamics of mosquito community\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA larger number of mosquitoes (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2107) were captured in year 2 than in year 1 (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1282)(Chi-square Likelihood Ratio (LR): \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;202.9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The sampling period greatly affected the number of mosquitoes trapped (Chi-square LR:\u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;202.9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001); more mosquitoes were collected in the dry-to-rainy transition (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1518) and rainy season (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1010) than in the wet-to-dry transition (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;776), and dry season (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85)(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal number of mosquitoes collected by species, sex and sampling period over the 2 year study\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy year 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudy year 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry-to-Rainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy-to-Dry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry-to-Rainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy-to-Dry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e583\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1310\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e374\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e594\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1323\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e243\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1308\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e243\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e292\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e262\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMansonia\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eToxorhynchites\u003c/em\u003e sp.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e630\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e637\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e525\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3389\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003cem\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e females and males were not distinguished in the 3 first collections\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBetween-village seasonal mosquito population dynamics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of year, sampling period and species on the number of individuals captured per trap per night were analyzed via General Linear Modelling (Poisson Distribution) using the data from the 4 most abundant species, \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti, An. coustani, An. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.. The model confirmed the strong significant effect of species, sampling period and their interaction on the number of individuals captured (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, the distance from Sogolombougou village on the transect also impacted the number of mosquitoes captured and this effect was dependent on the species considered and sampling period as highlighted by strong significant interactions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) (Figure. 4). There was no effect of study year in the main model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral Linear Model (Poisson distribution) of the effects of species, sampling period and distance from the village on the transect on the mean number of mosquitoes captured per trap per night.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLR ChiSquare\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125.73964\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.027488\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.684977\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period*Species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e350.27528\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)*Species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144.48201\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period*Distance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.844062\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the strong interactions found between the variable species and sampling period and distance, we re-ran models separately for each species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l., captures were significantly higher in the rainy and dry-to-rainy periods and occurred along the entire transect, but with significantly higher catches at locations furthest from the village (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). There was also a significant interaction between the effects of sampling period and year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e captures were significantly impacted by sampling period, distance and year (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e This species was common in the dry-to-rainy and rainy sampling period catches, but their numbers strongly depended on sampling distance. Very few were captured in the village and within 500m of it, but they were common in traps 1to 2.5km away from it (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e captures were impacted by sampling period and year. Furthermore, it increased in abundance with increasing distances from the village, but this applied only to the dry-to-rainy and rainy sampling periods. In dry sampling periods, it was found in low abundance everywhere, resulting in a significant sampling period * distance interaction term (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e was common everywhere on the transect, during the dry-to-rainy, rainy, and rainy-to-dry periods and the effect of sampling period significantly interacted with sampling distance (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). This interaction was possibly driven by its almost complete disappearance from the traps most distant from the village (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1km) in the dry season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(a-d). General linear models of the effects of year, sampling period and sampling distance and their interactions on the mean number of individuals captured in: a) \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae s.l., b) An. coustani, c) Ae. aegypti, and d) Cx. quinquefasciatus.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea) \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLR ChiSquare\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2462\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period * Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.011*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eb)\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnopheles coustani\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLR ChiSquare\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ec)\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAedes aegypti\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLR ChiSquare\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.008*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period * Distance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ed)\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eL-R ChiSquare\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.338\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.211\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period * Distance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBetween-village seasonal dynamics of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eAn. coluzzii and gambiae\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003es.s.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne hundred eighty-eight females of the \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e complex were characterised to species molecularly, revealing nearly equal proportions of \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e (47.9%) and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. (48.9%) with just 6 \u003cem\u003eAn. arabiensis\u003c/em\u003e individuals (3.2%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was no significant difference in the mean number of \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e females captured per trap per night, with both species being affected by sampling period and by the distance from the village in similar ways as highlighted by the lack of significant interactions between the variables, species, sampling period and distance (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral Linear Model (Poisson distribution) of the effects of species, sampling period and distance from the village on the transect on the mean number of \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae s.s.\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e females captured per trap per night.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLR ChiSquare\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSampling period\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistance from village (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo highlight possible contraction of \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e populations within the village perimeter, we tested if a higher proportion of females were captured within the village itself as opposed to its periphery (500\u0026ndash;2500m) in the dry season compared to all other seasons using contingency analysis. In the dry season, \u003cem\u003e50% of An. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e and 25% \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e females were captured made within the village, compared to 12.8% and 4.9% in other sampling periods combined. This difference was significant for \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e but not so for \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e (Fisher Exact Test: \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.087 respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlasmodium falciparum\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003einfection prevalence by species\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe CSP Elisa run on the head and thorax of 569 female anophelines detected \u003cem\u003eP. falciparum\u003c/em\u003e sporozoites in \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e). No sporozoite-positive females\u003c/em\u003e were found in the secondary vectors \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). These contrasted patterns of infection were significant (Fisher Exact Test: n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;569, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Three of the 4 sporozoite-positive \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e females were captured in the dry and dry-to-rainy sampling period highlighting the importance of this species for malaria transmission in the dry season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eThe sporozoite-positive An. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. female was captured in the dry-to-rainy sampling period. Positive females of both species were captured within the village (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), at the 500m (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), 1km (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), and 2km (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of females tested by CSP Elisa and prevalence of \u003cem\u003eP. falciparum\u003c/em\u003e sporozoites in primary and secondary vectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies/counts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber Tested\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. arabiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. pharoensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e580\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study confirms that the BGSH traps can effectively collect anthropophillic species outdoors away from houses thus making possible studies focusing on vector populations in rural and sylvatic habitats without the need for HLC or alternative trapping methods making use of volunteers. Here, \u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e dominated the catches (39% each). However, 19% of catches were anophelines, providing important information on the presence of primary and secondary vectors within and between villages and their seasonal dynamics. Surprisingly, we found a high proportion of all species present outside of the village perimeter and along our entire transect. \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e showed the least variation across season and distance, being present in good numbers at all distances during the dry-to-rainy transition, rainy season, and rainy-to dry transitions. In the dry seaons, its numbers crashed at all distances, with only a few individuals captured within the village and its close periphery (500-1000m) but none captured beyond that.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e also dissappeared from catches in the dry season. Its populations quickly exploded in the dry-to-rainy transition where it was particularly abundant away from the village (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1km) suggesting that it takes advantage of early rains and readily exploit the groves of trees maintained by traditional agroforestry (shea, n\u0026eacute;r\u0026eacute;, mango, and orange trees) that are present in that area which may offer cavities filled with rainwater in which to breed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e, the anopheline species caught in the highest numbers, was absent in the dry season and rare in the dry-to-rainy transition but became abundant in the rainy season and rainy-to-dry transition. Its spatial distribution was very distinct with most individuals captured outside the village and its periphery (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;500m). This species human blood index and sporozoite rate, suggest that is associated with cattle but can feed on humans and transmit malaria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Its high abundance in the surrounding of Sogolombougou may be explained by agro-pastoral activities typical in this region with cattle herds regularly grazing the grassland around the tree groves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e were equally abundant in our collections, and both were found across the whole transect at most of our sampling periods. Their abundance was strongly associated with rain fall, with populations expanding dramatically in the dry-to-rainy transition and rainy season, and receding in the rainy-to-dry transition and dry season. At that stage there was some evidence that populations from both species receded less quickly within the village than in the agro-pastoral zone, and this was more evident in \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e than in \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e. Thus, from June to December the two sibling species did not differ notably in their spatial-temporal dynamics. However, it is important to note that as the dry season progresses in March, April and May, conditions become extremely harsh and mosquitoes typically dissapear to hide and aestivate. It is therefore possible that the two species have different tolerances to the driest conditions, but that our sampling design may not have been adequate to detect it. Additionally, our dry-to-rainy period sampling suggest that populations of both species re-expand from seeding populations along the whole transect, which makes sense from a rainfall perspective, but does not suggest that populations re-expand strictly from within villages outwards. From a population genetics and gene flow perspective, this suggest that areas between villages do not always constitute significant ecological barriers to gene flow, and that, in seasonal habitats, this may be the case only during the very driest part of the year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImportantly, three of the four sporozoite-positive \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e females were captured in the dry and dry-to-rainy sampling period highlighting the importance of this species for malaria transmission in the dry season. \u003cem\u003eThe sporozoite-positive An. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. female was captured in the dry-to-rainy sampling period. Finally, four of the five sporozoite-positive females were captured outside of the village, highlighting the importance of outdoor transmission that takes place in the periphery of villages and affects people taking part in agro-pastoral activities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is note worthy that collections at all distances on the transect where made outdoors, this means that, inside the perimeter of the village, the attractiveness of BGSHs to host-seeking females may have been dampened by that of occupied houses. Therefore, our estimates of abundance within the village may have been biased downwards because of the availability of human hosts nearby.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the complexity of spatiotemporal mosquito community dynamics in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Western Sub-Saharan Africa. The BGSHs confirmed their usefulness in enabling outdoors collections in peri-urban agropastoral lands. The results uncover poorly understood dynamics of habitat use by Aedes aegypti and by the malaria vectors, \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e, and by the secondary malaria vector \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani.\u003c/em\u003e Our findings suggest that agropastoral lands between villages do not constitute a significant barrier to gene flow except in the driest part of the dry season. Furthermore, a high proportion of malaria transmission may originate from vector-human interactions taking place during agropastoral activities and underline the need for additional studies of outdoor-biting vector communities and human behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGSH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiogent Sentinel Traps with heat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eHLC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ehuman landing catches\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003ePCR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolymerase Chain Reactions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003ePBS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhosphate-Buffered Saline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eCSP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCircumsporozoite Protein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eELISA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eAn\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnopheles\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentre for Disease Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eGPS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal Positioning System\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003ePSC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePesticide Spray Catch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eMRR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMark-release-recapture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eDNA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeoxyribonucleic Acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eASP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAspiration Spray Pesticide\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eABTS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,2\u0026prime;-azino-bis(3-\u0026eacute;thylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonique)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eLLINs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLong-lasting insecticide-treated nets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eIRS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor residual spraying\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the communities of the villages of Sogolombougou for their collaboration and availability, which enabled the collection of adult mosquitoes in their localities and surrounding areas. Our gratitude also goes to the staff of the \u003cem\u003eMalaria Research and Training Center (MRTC)\u003c/em\u003e for their technical and organizational support. We pay special tribute to the late Dr. Mamadou B. Coulibaly, whose scientific leadership and commitment were instrumental in facilitating this study. Finally, we extend our heartfelt thanks to all the volunteers who contributed to the collection of samples, without whom this research would not have been possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAG, SD, BD, and FT conceived and designed the experimental plan. AG, SD, and BD collected mosquito samples and conducted the experiments. AG, SD, and FT performed the data analyses. AG and FT drafted the manuscript with substantial\u0026nbsp;input from SD, BD, LK, BT, and BY. All authors critically reviewed the manuscript and approved the final version.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by Target Malaria award number INV006610 /OPP1210755. Target Malaria receives core funding from the Gates Foundation (was Bill \u0026amp; Melinda Gates Foundation).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was approved by the Malian National Ethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences - CNESS, permit number 2021/57/CE/USTTB-8 March 2021\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this manuscript declare no competing interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJones JW, Turell MJ, Sardelis MR. Seasonal distribution, biology and human attraction patterns of culicine mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in a forest near Puerto Almendras, Iquitos, Peru. J Med Entomol. 2004;41(3):349\u0026ndash;60.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRydzanicz K, Lonc E. Species composition and seasonal dynamics of mosquito larvae in the Wroclaw, Poland area. J Vector Ecol. 2003;28(2):255\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGillies MT, De Meillon B. The Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Medical Research; 1987.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaxton-Shaw KD, Ledermann JP, Borland EM, Stovall JL, Mossel EC, Powers AM, et al. O'nyong nyong virus molecular determinants of unique vector specificity reside in non-structural protein 3. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(1): e1931.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSougoufara S, Ottih EC, Tripet F. The need for new vector control approaches targeting outdoor biting anopheline malaria vector communities. Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:295.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKyrou K, Hammond AM, Galizi R, Kranjc N, Burt A, Beaghton AK, et al. A CRISPR\u0026ndash;Cas9 gene drive targeting doublesex causes complete population suppression in caged Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Nat Biotechnol. 2018;36:1062\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHoermann A, Habtewold T, Selvaraj P, Mlambo G, Hauke TJ, Shapira T, et al. Gene drive mosquitoes can aid malaria elimination by retarding Plasmodium sporogonic development. Sci Adv. 2022;8(38):eabo1733. doi:\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1126/sciadv.abo1733\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1126/sciadv.abo1733\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNorth DC, Wallis JJ, Webb SB, Weingast BR. In the shadow of violence: politics, economics, and the problems of development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2013.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaber I, Keita M, Sogoba N, Konate M, Diallo MB, Doumbia S, et al. Population size and migration of Anopheles gambiae in the Bancoumana region of Mali and their significance for efficient vector control. PLoS One. 2010;5(4): e10270.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVerdonschot PFM, Besse-Lototskaya AA. Flight distance of mosquitoes (Culicidae): a metadata analysis to support the management of barrier zones around rewetted and newly constructed wetlands. Limnologica. 2014;45:69\u0026ndash;79.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEpopa PS, Millogo AA, Collins CM, North A, Tripet F, Benedict MQ, et al. The use of sequential mark-release-recapture experiments to estimate population size, survival and dispersal of male mosquitoes of the \u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e complex in Bana, a West African humid savannah village. Parasites Vectors. 2017;10:376.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEpopa PS, Millogo AA, Namountougou M, Bilgo E, Dabir\u0026eacute; RK, Tripet F, et al. Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) is found where few are looking: assessing mosquito diversity and density outside inhabited areas using diverse sampling methods. Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:516.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSougoufara S, Ottih EC, Tripet F. The need for new vector control approaches targeting outdoor biting anopheline malaria vector communities. Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:295.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuindo A, Epopa PS, Doumbia S, Millogo A-A, Diallo B, Yao FA, Yagoure B, Tripet F, Diabat\u0026eacute; A, Coulibaly MB. Improved BioGents\u0026reg; Sentinel trap with heat (BGSH) for outdoor collections of \u003cem\u003eAnopheline\u003c/em\u003e species in Burkina Faso and Mali, West Africa. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14:82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTour\u0026eacute; HA, Traor\u0026eacute; K, Kyei-Baffour N. Assessment of changing trends of daily precipitation and temperature extremes in Bamako and S\u0026eacute;gou in Mali from 1961\u0026ndash;2014. Weather Clim Extrem. 2017;18:8\u0026ndash;16.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHostein MH. Biologie d\u0026rsquo;\u003cem\u003eAnopheles gambiae\u003c/em\u003e: recherches en Afrique occidentale fran\u0026ccedil;aise. WHO Monogr Ser. 1952;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHung YM. A pictorial key for the identification of the subfamilies of Culicidae, genera of Culicinae, and subgenera of \u003cem\u003eAedes\u003c/em\u003e mosquitoes of the Afrotropical region. Proc Entomol Soc Wash. 2001;103(1):1\u0026ndash;53.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarajollahi A, Kesavaraju B, Price DC, Williams GM, Healy SP, Gaugler R, et al. Field efficacy of BG-Sentinel and industry-standard traps for Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) and West Nile virus surveillance. J Med Entomol. 2009;46(4):919\u0026ndash;25.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Y, Su X, Zhou G, Zhang H, Puthiyakunnon S, Shuai J, et al. Comparative evaluation of the efficiency of the BG-Sentinel trap, CDC light trap and mosquito-oviposition trap for the surveillance of vector mosquitoes. Parasites Vectors. 2016;9:446.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReegan AD, Gandhi MR, Balachandar M, John PA, Rajamohan S, Kumar P. Comparative efficacy of Biogents Sentinel and CDC traps for Aedes and Culex mosquito surveillance in India. J Basic Appl Zool. 2024;85:46.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKe\u0026iuml;ta M, Doumbia S, Sissoko I, Coulibaly M, Konat\u0026eacute; D, Samak\u0026eacute; D, et al. Indoor and outdoor malaria transmission in two ecological settings in rural Mali: implications for vector control. Malar J. 2021; 20:127.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOgola E, Villinger J, Mabuka D, Omondi D, Orindi B, Mutunga J, et al. Composition of Anopheles mosquitoes, their blood-meal hosts, and Plasmodium falciparum infection rates in three islands with disparate bed net coverage in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Malar J. 2017.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilkins EE, Howell PI, Benedict MQ. IMP PCR primers detect single nucleotide polymorphisms for Anopheles gambiae species identification, Mopti and Savanna rDNA types, and resistance to dieldrin in Anopheles arabiensis. Malar J. 2006;5:125.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAntonio-Nkondjio C, Kerah CH, Simard F, Awono-Ambene P, Chouaibou M, Tchuinkam T, et al. Complexity of the malaria vectorial system in Cameroon: contribution of secondary vectors to malaria transmission. J Med Entomol. 2006;43(6):1215\u0026ndash;21.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mosquito ecology, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles coluzzii, BGSH traps, Mali, seasonality, malaria transmission","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7456295/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7456295/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMosquito populations in peri-urban, agro-pastoral West African environments from the Soudano-Sahelian climate zone are thought to expand and contract spatially seasonally as rainfall affects the availability of hosts and larval habitats between villages. Currently, the extent of this phenomenon and how it affects different vector species is poorly known, due to the scarcity of effective outdoor sampling tools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, Biogent Sentinel Trap with Heat \u003cem\u003e(BGSH)\u003c/em\u003e were deployed outdoors along a 2.5km transect extending from the village of Sogolombougou in Mali into rural and sylvatic habitats. Four traps were placed at 500m intervals and run overnight for 4 consecutive nights during each of four seasonal phases dry, dry-to-rainy, rainy and rainy-to-dry, across two years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of 3389 mosquitoes were captured. \u003cem\u003eCulex quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e (39.2%) and \u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e (39.0%) were the most abundant species captured, followed by \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e (11.1%), \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l. (6.9%), \u003cem\u003eMansonia\u003c/em\u003e sp. (3.6%), \u003cem\u003eAn. phaorensis\u003c/em\u003e (0.2%), and \u003cem\u003eToxorhynchites\u003c/em\u003e sp. (0.06%). Within \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.l., \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e were found in similar proportions, with only a few \u003cem\u003eAn. arabiensis\u003c/em\u003e. Only \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. carried sporozoites. As predicted, mosquito populations greatly expanded during the dry-to-rainy and rainy season periods, but species differed in the timing and distance from the village at which they did. Notably, a higher proportion of \u003cem\u003eAn. coluzzii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003egambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. were found within the village in the dry season, but they were still captured at all distances on the transect. In the dry-to-rainy and rainy periods, \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003eAe. aegypti\u003c/em\u003e were particularly abundant\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 km away from the village, whilst \u003cem\u003eAn. coustani\u003c/em\u003e was common everywhere except in the village. \u003cem\u003eCx. quinquefasciatus\u003c/em\u003e was common at all distances throughout the year, regressing mostly in the dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings suggest that in Soudano-Sahelian seasonal African habitats, \u003cem\u003eAn. gambiae\u003c/em\u003e s.s. and \u003cem\u003ecoluzzii\u003c/em\u003e populations may not contract within settlements in the dry season as much as previously thought. The presence of host-seeking females, some sporozoite positive, outside of villages even in the dry season suggest that aestivation sites may be dispersed and this creates opportunities for mosquito movement and malaria transmission in agro-pastoral habitats.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Biogent Sentinel Traps with Heat (BGSH) reveal seasonal dynamics of between-village mosquito communities and implications for disease transmission in Northwestern Mali ","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-17 16:30:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7456295/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"be224ad9-719f-4336-818f-6e30a1c9ce7b","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-18T21:08:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-17 16:30:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7456295","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7456295","identity":"rs-7456295","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}