Effects of an Eight-Week Reformer Pilates Intervention on Fat Percentage, Visceral Fat, and Lean Mass in Sedentary Women

Effects of an Eight-Week Reformer Pilates Intervention on Fat Percentage, Visceral Fat, and Lean Mass in Sedentary Women | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effects of an Eight-Week Reformer Pilates Intervention on Fat Percentage, Visceral Fat, and Lean Mass in Sedentary Women Kıvanç Buru, Hatice Gezer, Engin Gezer This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8456846/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Reformer Pilates is widely used to improve functional capacity and body composition, yet its physiological mechanisms in sedentary women remain underexplored. The spring-based resistance of the Reformer apparatus increases neuromuscular demand, enhances core activation, and elevates metabolic workload, suggesting that even short-term training may induce meaningful physiological adaptations. Methods A quasi-experimental design utilizing a single-group pretest-posttest methodology was implemented. Twenty-five inactive women aged 20 to 40 years engaged in supervised Reformer Pilates classes three times weekly for a duration of eight weeks. Body weight, body mass index (BMI), fat percentage, visceral fat score, muscle mass, and anthropometric circumferences were evaluated at baseline and post-intervention utilizing bioelectrical impedance analysis (Tanita BC-418) and standardized tape measurements. Data were examined utilizing paired-samples t-tests, with significance established at p < .05, and effect sizes computed using Cohen’s d. Results The eight-week Reformer Pilates program resulted in significant reductions in body weight, BMI, fat percentage, visceral fat, waist circumference, and arm circumference, alongside a significant increase in muscle mass (p < .05). Effect size analysis indicated small-to-moderate magnitudes of change across most parameters, supporting the practical and physiological relevance of the intervention. Conclusions A duration of eight weeks in a Reformer Pilates program resulted in significant enhancements in body composition in inactive women, decreasing fat percentage and visceral adiposity while augmenting lean mass. These findings endorse Reformer Pilates as a low-risk, accessible, and clinically pertinent exercise modality for enhancing metabolic health in sedentary female populations. Extended and regulated investigations are advised to better investigate its preventative and therapeutic efficacy. Reformer Pilates Body Composition Sedentary Women Fat Percentage Muscle Mass Exercise Intervention Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Sedentary women face increased risks of obesity, loss of muscle mass, and excess adiposity, all of which negatively impact metabolic health and overall quality of life. Consequently, there is a growing need for exercise modalities that are safe, low-impact, and capable of generating sufficient metabolic and neuromuscular demand. Reformer Pilates has gained attention in this context because its spring-based resistance mechanism produces higher neuromuscular activation compared with traditional mat Pilates. The adjustable springs require greater stabilization of the core and lower-extremity musculature, thereby increasing energy expenditure and promoting metabolic adaptations such as elevated fat oxidation [ 1 , 2 ]. Although the general health effects of Pilates have been widely examined, the specific influence of Reformer-based training on body composition in sedentary young women remains underexplored. Existing studies have predominantly focused on older adults, postmenopausal women, or individuals with obesity, leaving a significant gap regarding inactive young female populations [ 3 , 4 ]. Moreover, while previous research has suggested that Reformer Pilates may offer advantages over mat-based programs—due to higher resistance, increased mechanical loading, and greater muscle recruitment—the extent to which these physiological characteristics translate into measurable improvements in body composition has not been clearly established. The potential mechanisms underlying body composition improvements in Reformer Pilates are of particular interest. Spring-driven eccentric–concentric loading may increase metabolic stress, contributing to reductions in fat mass. Additionally, the controlled movement patterns and continuous stabilization demands recruit a broad range of muscle fibers, which can enhance lean tissue development and elevate resting metabolic rate [ 5 , 6 ]. However, evidence describing these mechanisms specifically in sedentary adult women is scarce. Given these gaps, determining whether a relatively short Reformer Pilates intervention can improve clinically relevant metrics—such as body weight, fat percentage, muscle mass, and visceral fat—holds important implications for both applied sport sciences and preventive health practice. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of an eight-week Reformer Pilates program on body composition in sedentary women and to contribute new evidence to an area of literature that remains limited yet increasingly relevant. Material and Methods Research design This quasi-experimental, single-group pre–post study was designed to evaluate the effects of an eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention on body composition in sedentary women. A within-subjects design was selected due to the exploratory aim of the study and logistical constraints associated with supervised Reformer-based exercise programs. Although the absence of a control group limits causal inference, pre–post designs are widely used in early-phase exercise science research to characterize individual responsiveness to training stimuli. Participants were sedentary women aged 20–45 years who had not engaged in regular structured exercise for at least six months. Inclusion criteria required being female, physically inactive, free from metabolic, cardiovascular, or musculoskeletal disorders, and medically cleared for moderate-intensity exercise. Exclusion criteria included pregnancy, recent surgical procedures, cardiovascular conditions, or any contraindications to participation in physical activity. Participants An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1 for a paired-samples t-test (test family: t tests; statistical test: difference between two dependent means). Assuming a moderate effect size (dz = 0.60), a two-tailed α level of 0.05, and desired power of 0.80, the minimum required sample size was estimated as 22 participants. The estimation was confirmed using the standard sample size formula: This computed value closely matched the G*Power output. $$\:\varvec{n}\:=\:{\left(\frac{\left({\varvec{Z}}_{1-\varvec{\alpha\:}/2}+\:{\varvec{Z}}_{1-\varvec{\beta\:}}\right)}{{\varvec{d}}_{\varvec{z}}}\right)}^{2}$$ To account for potential attrition, at least 25 participants were recruited. All participants completed the intervention, yielding an actual achieved power of 0.86. Participant recruitment was voluntary, and eligibility screening was performed by the research team. The recruitment and sample flow are summarized in Fig. 1 . Intervention procedure Participants attended Reformer Pilates sessions three times per week for eight consecutive weeks. All sessions were supervised by certified Pilates instructors in a controlled fitness environment using standardized Reformer apparatuses. Each session lasted approximately 50–60 minutes and included a structured warm-up phase, a main exercise phase emphasizing core stabilization, eccentric–concentric loading, and controlled movement patterns, and a cool-down phase. Exercise intensity was maintained at a moderate level, corresponding to 12–14 on the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, in accordance with American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommendations. Resistance levels on the Reformer springs were adjusted progressively based on each participant’s capacity to ensure safe and individualized training loads. The detailed weekly progression of the Reformer Pilates program is summarized in Table 1 . Table 1 Training protocol applied during the eight-week reformer pilates intervention Week Level Warm-Up (5 min) Main Session (40 min) Cool-Down (5 min) 1–2 Beginner Breathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles Single leg stretch; Double leg stretch; Rolling like a ball; Swimming (modified); Obliques; Spine twist; Spine stretch forward Head nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch 3–4 Basic Breathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles Roll up; Rolling like a ball; Side bend; Spine stretch forward; Side leg series; Criss-cross; Mermaid (modified) Head nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch 5–6 Intermediate Breathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles The hundred; Single leg circles; Leg pull back; Leg pull front; Roll over; Side bend; Spine stretch forward; Side leg series Head nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch 7–8 Advanced Breathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles The hundred; Side kick (front/back); Side kick (small circles); Rowing; Swan; Teaser; Side bend Head nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch Note : Each session consisted of 5 minutes of warm−up, 40 minutes of main Pilates exercises, and 5 minutes of cool−down . Data collection instruments and measurements All measurements were taken at baseline (pre-test) and after the eight-week intervention (post-test). Assessments were performed in the morning under fasting and rested conditions, with standardized protocols applied throughout to minimize diurnal and hydration-related variability. Body composition measurements Body weight, BMI, fat percentage, muscle mass, and visceral fat score were measured using a multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analyzer (Tanita BC-418). The visceral fat score is an impedance-derived index reported on a 1–20 scale, where higher values reflect greater estimated intra-abdominal fat accumulation. Although it is not a direct volumetric measure such as CT or MRI, this score is widely used in exercise science research as a practical indicator of visceral adiposity. The device has demonstrated strong validity and high test–retest reliability (ICC > .90) under controlled testing conditions [ 7 ]. All measurements were performed by the same trained researcher to minimize interrater variability. Although BIA provides reliable estimates when standardized procedures are followed, it is sensitive to hydration status. Therefore, fasting-state morning measurements were used to enhance consistency. Anthropometric circumference measurements Waist, hip, arm, thigh, shoulder, and chest circumferences were measured using a non-elastic anthropometric measuring tape (precision: 0.1 cm). Anatomical measurement landmarks were identified using standardized procedures: Shoulder circumference: measured at the acromial level Chest circumference: measured at the nipple line during normal respiration Each measurement was taken at least twice, and the mean value was used to reduce random error. Dietary control Participants were instructed to maintain their habitual dietary intake throughout the study. No dietary monitoring or control protocols were implemented. Because nutritional intake may influence changes in body composition, this factor is acknowledged as a methodological limitation. Bias control Blinding of the assessor was not feasible because the pre- and post-test measurements were performed by the same researcher. Although this may introduce measurement bias, standardized measurement procedures and consistent calibration were used to minimize variability. Personal information form A researcher-developed questionnaire was used to collect demographic information (age, education) and lifestyle characteristics such as physical activity habits, dietary practices, and any major dietary changes in the previous six months. Data analysis Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0. Normality was confirmed through skewness and kurtosis values within acceptable ranges. Paired samples t-tests were conducted to evaluate pre–post differences in all variables. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. Effect size analysis Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to quantify the magnitude of changes using the formula: $$\:\varvec{d}=\frac{\varvec{M}\varvec{p}\varvec{r}\varvec{e}\varvec{}-\varvec{M}\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{s}\varvec{t}}{\varvec{S}\varvec{D}\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{o}\varvec{l}\varvec{e}\varvec{d}\varvec{}}\:$$ with pooled standard deviation computed as: $$\:\varvec{S}\varvec{D}\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{o}\varvec{l}\varvec{e}\varvec{d}=\sqrt{\frac{\:\varvec{S}{\varvec{D}}_{\left\{\varvec{p}\varvec{r}\varvec{e}\right\}}^{2}+\:\varvec{S}{\varvec{D}}_{\left\{\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{s}\varvec{t}\right\}}^{2}\varvec{}\varvec{}\varvec{}}{2}}$$ Positive values indicate decreases from pre- to post-test, whereas negative values indicate increases. Effect sizes were interpreted as small (0.2), medium (0.5), or large (0.8). Observed effect sizes ranged from small to moderate, with notable changes in fat percentage, visceral fat, and muscle mass. Data visualization All scientific figures were generated using Python to ensure reproducibility and precise graphical representation. Identical scaling parameters were applied to pre–post comparisons to enhance interpretability and facilitate visualization of individual change trajectories. Results An overview of the descriptive and inferential findings for all body composition variables is presented below. Pre–post differences were evaluated using paired samples t-tests, complemented by effect size calculations and visualized through comparative mean plots and individual change trajectories. Collectively, these analyses provide a comprehensive assessment of the physiological adaptations observed following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention. Significant changes in body composition following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention are summarized in Table 2 . Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Overall, participants demonstrated significant improvements in body weight, arm and waist circumference, BMI, muscle mass, fat percentage, and visceral fat. No significant differences were found for shoulder, chest, hip, or thigh circumference measurements. Table 2 Pre and post-test comparisons of body composition parameters following the reformer pilates intervention Parameter Pre-test Mean ± SD Post-test Mean ± SD t p-value Weight (kg) 70.44 ± 7.82 69.14 ± 7.38 5.803 < .001** Arm circumference (cm) 24.56 ± 2.60 23.96 ± 1.84 2.777 .010* Shoulder (cm) 102.04 ± 4.35 102.16 ± 2.94 –0.277 .784 Chest (cm) 100.00 ± 5.56 99.64 ± 4.62 1.160 .257 Waist circumference (cm) 85.04 ± 6.05 83.00 ± 6.39 4.877 < .001** Hip circumference (cm) 103.20 ± 5.49 103.76 ± 3.92 –1.000 .327 Thigh circumference (cm) 54.64 ± 2.56 54.08 ± 1.53 1.713 .100 Body Mass Index (kg/m²) 25.68 ± 1.77 25.03 ± 1.76 3.159 .004* Muscle mass (kg) 26.48 ± 2.41 27.38 ± 1.66 –2.164 .041* Fat percentage (%) 32.20 ± 3.76 30.56 ± 3.53 10.933 < .001** Visceral fat (score) 7.04 ± 1.83 6.36 ± 1.31 4.925 < .001** * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. In terms of body weight, the participants’ mean pre-test value was 70.44 ± 7.82 kg, which significantly decreased to 69.14 ± 7.38 kg after the intervention (t = 5.803, p < .001). Similarly, body mass index (BMI) decreased from 25.68 ± 1.77 to 25.03 ± 1.76 (t = 3.159, p = .004), indicating a statistically significant improvement. Waist circumference also declined significantly, from 85.04 ± 6.05 cm to 83.00 ± 6.39 cm (t = 4.877, p < .001), and a significant decrease was observed in arm circumference (t = 2.777, p = .010). Changes in hip circumference, thigh circumference, shoulder width, and chest measurements were not statistically significant (p > .05). In contrast, biological body composition parameters showed notable improvement: fat percentage decreased significantly from 32.20 ± 3.76% to 30.56 ± 3.53% (t = 10.933, p < .001), and visceral fat scores also declined significantly (t = 4.925, p < .001). Moreover, muscle mass increased significantly from 26.48 ± 2.42 kg to 27.38 ± 1.67 kg (t = − 2.164, p = .041), demonstrating a meaningful enhancement in lean tissue following the intervention. Effect Size (Cohen’s d): Complementary to the statistical significance, effect size analysis indicated small to moderate practical effects across most parameters. Moderate effect sizes were observed particularly for fat percentage (d = 0.45), visceral fat (d = 0.43), and muscle mass (d = − 0.44), underscoring the clinical and physiological relevance of these changes. Detailed effect size values are presented in Table 3 . Table 3 Effect size results (Cohen’s d ) Parameter Cohen’s d Effect Size Interpretation Direction of Change Weight 0.171 Small Decrease Arm circumference 0.267 Small Decrease Waist circumference 0.328 Small Decrease BMI 0.369 Small Decrease Muscle mass -0.435 Small–Medium Increase Fat percentage 0.450 Small–Medium Decrease Visceral fat 0.427 Small–Medium Decrease Interpretation of Cohen’s d small (≈ 0.2), medium (≈ 0.5), large (≥ 0.8). Negative values indicate an increase in post-test scores . Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated to assess the magnitude of pre–post differences. According to Cohen’s conventional criteria, values around 0.2 represent small effects, around 0.5 medium effects, and 0.8 or above large effects. In this study, effect size direction was determined using the formula: $$\:\varvec{d}=\frac{\varvec{M}\varvec{p}\varvec{r}\varvec{e}\varvec{}-\varvec{M}\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{s}\varvec{t}}{\varvec{S}\varvec{D}\varvec{p}\varvec{o}\varvec{o}\varvec{l}\varvec{e}\varvec{d}\varvec{}}$$ Therefore, positive values indicate a decrease from pre- to post-test measurements, whereas negative values reflect an increase. This figure illustrates pre-test and post-test mean values of key body composition parameters following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, fat percentage, visceral fat, BMI, waist circumference, and arm circumference, while muscle mass increased significantly. No significant differences were found in shoulder, chest, hip, or thigh circumference. This figure displays the three-dimensional relationship between fat percentage, muscle mass, and BMI before and after the eight-week Reformer Pilates program. Red points represent pre-test values, and blue points represent post-test values. Most participants show decreased fat percentage and BMI accompanied by increased muscle mass, although individual variability is evident. This figure presents individual trajectories in fat percentage and muscle mass from pre-test to post-test. Each arrow shows the direction and magnitude of change for a single participant. Red points indicate pre-test measurements, and blue points indicate post-test measurements. Most participants demonstrate decreased fat percentage alongside increased muscle mass, with some variability across individuals. Discussion The findings of this study indicate that 8 weeks of regular Reformer Pilates training resulted in significant improvements in body composition among sedentary women. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, BMI, fat percentage, and visceral fat, along with a meaningful increase in muscle mass. These findings are largely consistent with previous studies reporting that Pilates-based interventions can induce favorable changes in key physiological parameters, particularly in individuals who are physically inactive [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. Such improvements are critical because even moderate reductions in visceral adiposity and fat percentage are strongly associated with a decreased risk of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, especially in sedentary populations [ 5 ]. Although BMI significantly decreased following the intervention, the absolute magnitude of change (− 0.65 kg/m²) was relatively small. From a clinical perspective, BMI reductions of greater magnitude (≥ 1.0–1.5 kg/m²) are typically required to indicate meaningful improvements in health risk profiles. Therefore, while the statistical change reflects improved body composition, its clinical relevance may be limited. This pattern is consistent with previous findings showing that Pilates-based training tends to improve muscular balance and reduce fat mass without producing large shifts in BMI. When evaluated in terms of body weight and fat percentage, the present results parallel those of Wang et al., who showed significant decreases in body weight, BMI, and fat percentage in overweight and obese individuals following Pilates interventions [ 8 ]. Similarly, Aibar-Almazán et al. demonstrated in a randomized controlled trial that Reformer Pilates improved muscle strength, gait speed, and body composition in older women [ 3 ]. In the current study, significant increases in lean mass and reductions in fat percentage were also found. This alignment with previous findings reinforces the reliability of Reformer Pilates as an effective and low-impact exercise option to enhance metabolic health in different populations. Furthermore, recent literature suggests that core-focused exercise modalities like Pilates exert additional benefits beyond fat reduction, including improvements in postural stability, spinal alignment, and neuromuscular control [ 10 – 12 ]. These adaptations may contribute to more efficient energy use during daily movements, supporting long-term body composition changes without the need for high-intensity exercise. This aspect is especially valuable for sedentary individuals, who often experience low baseline physical capacity. The increase in muscle mass observed in the present study is metabolically meaningful. Regular Pilates training, especially Reformer-based programs, has been shown to increase lean mass and elevate basal metabolic rate, thereby enhancing fat oxidation [ 9 , 13 ]. By promoting improved motor unit recruitment and better breathing mechanics, Pilates contributes to more efficient oxygen utilization and energy metabolism during and after training [ 1 , 5 ]. This physiological mechanism helps explain the simultaneous increase in muscle mass and decrease in fat percentage observed in the participants. Another noteworthy result of this study is the significant reduction in waist and arm circumference, contrasted with the non-significant changes in hip, shoulder, chest, and thigh measurements. This outcome is in line with previous findings emphasizing that Pilates primarily stimulates trunk and core musculature, resulting in more pronounced adaptations in central rather than peripheral anthropometric measures [ 13 , 14 ]. This phenomenon is supported by biomechanical studies showing that Reformer Pilates places higher activation demands on the abdominal stabilizers, deep trunk muscles, and pelvic floor compared to larger limb musculature [ 10 , 12 ]. Therefore, improvements in waist circumference may reflect targeted core engagement rather than generalized peripheral hypertrophy. This core-dominant activation pattern has been associated with better postural alignment, improved balance, and reduced fall risk in sedentary and older adults. Previous studies have documented that Pilates interventions enhance dynamic stability and proprioceptive awareness, which are crucial for functional independence and injury prevention [ 15 , 16 ]. Given that visceral fat accumulation and trunk weakness are major contributors to musculoskeletal complaints and metabolic disorders, waist reduction through Pilates carries both functional and preventive significance. In addition to body composition, it is important to acknowledge the broader neuromechanical and metabolic adaptations induced by Pilates training. Several studies have shown improvements in gait efficiency, trunk control, and respiratory mechanics following consistent Pilates interventions [ 10 , 12 ]. These adaptations can lead to sustained metabolic improvements, even after the end of structured exercise programs. Reformer Pilates, in particular, enhances controlled movement patterns and stabilizing co-contractions, fostering a more energy-efficient posture and movement strategy. No significant changes were observed in hip, thigh, shoulder, or chest circumference in this study. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating that short-term Pilates interventions primarily affect trunk regions [ 13 , 14 ]. Peripheral anthropometric changes generally require either longer-duration interventions or additional resistance-based training. In this context, future research may benefit from examining the combined effects of Reformer Pilates and complementary resistance exercise on peripheral muscle groups. Another key implication of these findings is related to fall risk and functional health outcomes. A growing body of evidence suggests that Pilates improves dynamic balance, postural control, and proprioception [ 10 , 15 , 16 ]. These factors are strongly associated with reduced fall incidence and enhanced quality of life, particularly in populations with low baseline activity levels. While this study primarily focused on body composition, it is likely that similar neuromuscular benefits occurred, indirectly supporting functional capacity improvements. Moreover, waist circumference reduction has been highlighted in recent studies as a strong predictor of improved cardiometabolic risk profile, independent of overall body weight change [ 6 ]. This reinforces the clinical importance of trunk-focused exercise interventions like Pilates, which directly target abdominal fat and postural musculature. Given that central adiposity is a major determinant of chronic disease risk, incorporating Reformer Pilates into preventive exercise strategies could provide meaningful public health benefits. From a methodological standpoint, the present study demonstrates that measurable changes in body composition can occur in just eight weeks of Reformer Pilates training. Similar short-term interventions have reported significant improvements in trunk stability and waist circumference without the need for high-intensity or high-volume exercise protocols [ 10 , 12 ]. This efficiency is particularly relevant for promoting adherence among sedentary individuals, who may find high-intensity programs intimidating or unsustainable. Nonetheless, this study has limitations. The sample consisted only of women, and factors such as dietary intake, hormonal fluctuations, and physical activity outside of the intervention were not controlled. Future research should address these limitations by including larger, more diverse samples and integrating multimodal measurements such as cardiometabolic biomarkers, psychological well-being indicators, and long-term follow-up assessments [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. Additionally, exploring the combination of Reformer Pilates with resistance or aerobic exercise could provide a more comprehensive understanding of its synergistic effects on body composition and health outcomes. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that Reformer Pilates can produce meaningful improvements in body composition among sedentary women, particularly by reducing fat percentage and waist circumference and increasing muscle mass. Beyond these physical changes, the findings support Pilates as a time-efficient, adaptable, and functionally beneficial exercise modality. Integrating such programs into public health strategies or individualized exercise prescriptions could play a key role in addressing physical inactivity and its associated metabolic risks. Conclusion The present study demonstrated that an eight-week Reformer Pilates program performed three times per week produced meaningful improvements in key body composition parameters among sedentary women. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, body mass index (BMI), fat percentage, visceral fat, and waist and arm circumferences, while muscle mass increased significantly. These findings suggest that Reformer Pilates effectively targets metabolically important anthropometric variables, particularly those associated with cardiometabolic health. The improvements in fat percentage and muscle mass observed here are consistent with previous studies showing that Pilates-based interventions enhance body composition in various populations [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. The reductions in fat percentage demonstrated in this study align with the results of Greco et al., who reported that an online home-based Pilates program combined with dietary control produced significant decreases in fat mass and increases in lean mass among women with obesity [ 5 ]. Similarly, Park et al. found that both online and face-to-face Pilates interventions led to improvements in body composition and metabolic markers in middle-aged women with obesity, with face-to-face training producing slightly superior outcomes [ 6 ]. These findings reinforce the potential of structured Pilates interventions, including Reformer-based programs, to elicit favorable morphological adaptations even in previously inactive populations. Additional evidence highlights the broader physiological benefits of Pilates that extend beyond body composition improvements. Batista et al. demonstrated that mat-based Pilates reduced adiposity and improved cardiometabolic risk indicators—including blood pressure and glycemic control—in postmenopausal women, emphasizing the clinical value of modest but consistent reductions in fat mass [ 17 ]. In the present study, the decrease in visceral fat is particularly noteworthy, given its strong association with systemic inflammation and metabolic disease risk. Furthermore, the increase in muscle mass parallels the findings of Karpouzi et al., who reported that Pilates alone, without additional protein supplementation, improved body composition, core endurance, and flexibility in trained women [ 18 ]. This underscores the capacity of Pilates to induce neuromuscular and metabolic adaptations independent of external supplementation. From an applied perspective, Reformer Pilates appears to be a safe and accessible modality suitable for sedentary adults. Its low-impact nature and adaptability allow for individualized progression, making it well-suited for populations with limited exercise experience. Previous evidence indicates that controlled resistance and core stabilization exercises contribute to enhanced trunk strength and functional mobility [ 13 , 19 ]. Moreover, the accessibility of Pilates-based programs may further enhance adherence. Greco et al., noted that home-based Pilates formats improved participation consistency among individuals facing mobility or time constraints [ 5 ]. Although the current intervention was delivered in a supervised setting, the strong adherence rates observed in this study support the notion that both in-person and alternative delivery models can facilitate sustained engagement in structured exercise. Extending the duration of Reformer Pilates interventions may further amplify the observed benefits. Studies implementing 12- to 16-week programs have demonstrated more pronounced body composition improvements compared to shorter interventions [ 6 , 20 ]. Likewise, enhancing educational efforts among Pilates instructors, physiotherapists, and exercise professionals could help promote participation, especially among women seeking to improve body composition, functional mobility, and psychological well-being. Prior research has shown strong associations between improved body composition, motivation, self-efficacy, and long-term engagement in physical activity [ 21 ]. Future research should incorporate larger and more diverse populations, including men, different age groups, and clinical populations. Long-term follow-up assessments would also help clarify the sustainability of body composition changes [ 22 ]. Additionally, integrating physiological, psychological, and functional outcome measures may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the holistic effects of Reformer Pilates [ 2 ]. Such research will contribute to establishing Reformer Pilates as a cornerstone exercise modality in preventive and rehabilitative health programs. In conclusion, the findings of this study support the effectiveness of Reformer Pilates as a low-risk, accessible exercise intervention for improving body composition in sedentary women. Regular participation may counteract the detrimental effects of inactivity, promote metabolic health, and enhance overall physical function. Given its adaptability, Reformer Pilates holds significant potential for broad implementation in public health initiatives aimed at preventing metabolic and musculoskeletal disorders in inactive populations. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors thank the participants and the staff of the private fitness center in Kars for their cooperation during the study. Author contributions Conceptualization, K.B., H.G., E.G.; methodology, H.G., E.G.; investigation, K.B., H.G.; data curation, K.B., H.G.; formal analysis, K.B., H.G.; writing – Original Draft, H.G., E.G.; writing – review & editing, E.G., H.G., K.B.; supervision, E.G.; project administration, E.G., H.G., K.B. Funding This research received no external funding. Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Institutional review board The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Kafkas University Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee (Approval No: 81829502.903/37; Date: 13.04.2025). Ethical approval All procedures performed in the involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Trust and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. References Kim HJ, Sung JH, Ryu JK, Jung HC, Wang J. Effect of Reformer Spring Resistance Modifications on Core Muscle Activity During Basic Core Muscle Exercises. 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Waist‐to‐height ratio is a better screening tool than waist circumference and BMI for adult cardiometabolic risk factors: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obesity Reviews. 2012 Mar;13(3):275–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00952.x Bernardo, L. M. (2007). The effectiveness of Pilates training in healthy adults: An appraisal of the research literature. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 11(2), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2006.08.006 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 08 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 28 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8456846","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":572708608,"identity":"34694c20-159c-4700-bca6-fe3f5adcba83","order_by":0,"name":"Kıvanç Buru","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kafkas University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kıvanç","middleName":"","lastName":"Buru","suffix":""},{"id":572708609,"identity":"c886b8e9-2207-48f0-b8ed-8ab822396c6e","order_by":1,"name":"Hatice Gezer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kafkas 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07:58:51","extension":"html","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":114515,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/43193f7fa3c28f02c59a1f73.html"},{"id":100157457,"identity":"98d7379c-c5bd-4fa4-9077-71adfb6688e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:26:27","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":104897,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlow diagram of participant recruitment, eligibility assessment, and final sample selection for the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/3a137b2d849812841ffa731a.png"},{"id":100157459,"identity":"c92f9072-b55c-4c65-adfd-0e41adb0390a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:26:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":192940,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean values of body composition parameters (pre-test vs. post-test), including changes in body weight, BMI, fat percentage, muscle mass, and visceral fat.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/adaa3b05be74db4a723af522.png"},{"id":100368489,"identity":"f21c7a3c-a7af-4f62-8fbb-60e403c03dd0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:58:00","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180944,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScatterplot showing the relationship between fat percentage, muscle mass, and BMI before and after the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/c7c97e8a6c0e0298db728e55.png"},{"id":100157466,"identity":"932dd1a7-9f95-4d04-a69f-3e7ac58c19d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:26:27","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139614,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndividual change vectors demonstrating participant-level directional shifts in fat percentage and muscle mass from pre-test to post-test.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/ac123e3a180aaf748cb8372a.png"},{"id":100382370,"identity":"013f479e-86d7-495c-89aa-4a1449e952f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 10:42:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1525253,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8456846/v1/f7d32289-55a2-4171-aa13-c85d954e2b5d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of an Eight-Week Reformer Pilates Intervention on Fat Percentage, Visceral Fat, and Lean Mass in Sedentary Women","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSedentary women face increased risks of obesity, loss of muscle mass, and excess adiposity, all of which negatively impact metabolic health and overall quality of life. Consequently, there is a growing need for exercise modalities that are safe, low-impact, and capable of generating sufficient metabolic and neuromuscular demand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReformer Pilates has gained attention in this context because its spring-based resistance mechanism produces higher neuromuscular activation compared with traditional mat Pilates. The adjustable springs require greater stabilization of the core and lower-extremity musculature, thereby increasing energy expenditure and promoting metabolic adaptations such as elevated fat oxidation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the general health effects of Pilates have been widely examined, the specific influence of Reformer-based training on body composition in sedentary young women remains underexplored. Existing studies have predominantly focused on older adults, postmenopausal women, or individuals with obesity, leaving a significant gap regarding inactive young female populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, while previous research has suggested that Reformer Pilates may offer advantages over mat-based programs\u0026mdash;due to higher resistance, increased mechanical loading, and greater muscle recruitment\u0026mdash;the extent to which these physiological characteristics translate into measurable improvements in body composition has not been clearly established. The potential mechanisms underlying body composition improvements in Reformer Pilates are of particular interest. Spring-driven eccentric\u0026ndash;concentric loading may increase metabolic stress, contributing to reductions in fat mass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the controlled movement patterns and continuous stabilization demands recruit a broad range of muscle fibers, which can enhance lean tissue development and elevate resting metabolic rate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. However, evidence describing these mechanisms specifically in sedentary adult women is scarce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these gaps, determining whether a relatively short Reformer Pilates intervention can improve clinically relevant metrics\u0026mdash;such as body weight, fat percentage, muscle mass, and visceral fat\u0026mdash;holds important implications for both applied sport sciences and preventive health practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of an eight-week Reformer Pilates program on body composition in sedentary women and to contribute new evidence to an area of literature that remains limited yet increasingly relevant.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis quasi-experimental, single-group pre\u0026ndash;post study was designed to evaluate the effects of an eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention on body composition in sedentary women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA within-subjects design was selected due to the exploratory aim of the study and logistical constraints associated with supervised Reformer-based exercise programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the absence of a control group limits causal inference, pre\u0026ndash;post designs are widely used in early-phase exercise science research to characterize individual responsiveness to training stimuli. Participants were sedentary women aged 20\u0026ndash;45 years who had not engaged in regular structured exercise for at least six months.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria required being female, physically inactive, free from metabolic, cardiovascular, or musculoskeletal disorders, and medically cleared for moderate-intensity exercise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExclusion criteria included pregnancy, recent surgical procedures, cardiovascular conditions, or any contraindications to participation in physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1 for a paired-samples t-test (test family: t tests; statistical test: difference between two dependent means). Assuming a moderate effect size (dz\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.60), a two-tailed α level of 0.05, and desired power of 0.80, the minimum required sample size was estimated as 22 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe estimation was confirmed using the standard sample size formula: This computed value closely matched the G*Power output.\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\varvec{n}\\:=\\:{\\left(\\frac{\\left({\\varvec{Z}}_{1-\\varvec{\\alpha\\:}/2}+\\:{\\varvec{Z}}_{1-\\varvec{\\beta\\:}}\\right)}{{\\varvec{d}}_{\\varvec{z}}}\\right)}^{2}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo account for potential attrition, at least 25 participants were recruited. All participants completed the intervention, yielding an actual achieved power of 0.86. Participant recruitment was voluntary, and eligibility screening was performed by the research team. The recruitment and sample flow are summarized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIntervention procedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants attended Reformer Pilates sessions three times per week for eight consecutive weeks. All sessions were supervised by certified Pilates instructors in a controlled fitness environment using standardized Reformer apparatuses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach session lasted approximately 50\u0026ndash;60 minutes and included a structured warm-up phase, a main exercise phase emphasizing core stabilization, eccentric\u0026ndash;concentric loading, and controlled movement patterns, and a cool-down phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExercise intensity was maintained at a moderate level, corresponding to 12\u0026ndash;14 on the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, in accordance with American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommendations. Resistance levels on the Reformer springs were adjusted progressively based on each participant\u0026rsquo;s capacity to ensure safe and individualized training loads. The detailed weekly progression of the Reformer Pilates program is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraining protocol applied during the eight-week reformer pilates intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeek\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWarm-Up (5 min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain Session (40 min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCool-Down (5 min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeginner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle leg stretch; Double leg stretch; Rolling like a ball; Swimming (modified); Obliques; Spine twist; Spine stretch forward\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoll up; Rolling like a ball; Side bend; Spine stretch forward; Side leg series; Criss-cross; Mermaid (modified)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermediate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hundred; Single leg circles; Leg pull back; Leg pull front; Roll over; Side bend; Spine stretch forward; Side leg series\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvanced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreathing; Hip release; Roll-up prep; Arm circles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hundred; Side kick (front/back); Side kick (small circles); Rowing; Swan; Teaser; Side bend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHead nods; Hip rolls; Breaststroke prep; Cat stretch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote\u003c/b\u003e: Each session consisted of 5 minutes of warm\u0026minus;up, 40 minutes of main Pilates exercises, and 5 minutes of cool\u0026minus;down\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection instruments and measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll measurements were taken at baseline (pre-test) and after the eight-week intervention (post-test). Assessments were performed in the morning under fasting and rested conditions, with standardized protocols applied throughout to minimize diurnal and hydration-related variability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBody composition measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBody weight, BMI, fat percentage, muscle mass, and visceral fat score were measured using a multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analyzer (Tanita BC-418).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe visceral fat score is an impedance-derived index reported on a 1\u0026ndash;20 scale, where higher values reflect greater estimated intra-abdominal fat accumulation. Although it is not a direct volumetric measure such as CT or MRI, this score is widely used in exercise science research as a practical indicator of visceral adiposity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe device has demonstrated strong validity and high test\u0026ndash;retest reliability (ICC\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.90) under controlled testing conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll measurements were performed by the same trained researcher to minimize interrater variability. Although BIA provides reliable estimates when standardized procedures are followed, it is sensitive to hydration status. Therefore, fasting-state morning measurements were used to enhance consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnthropometric circumference measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaist, hip, arm, thigh, shoulder, and chest circumferences were measured using a non-elastic anthropometric measuring tape (precision: 0.1 cm). Anatomical measurement landmarks were identified using standardized procedures:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eShoulder circumference: measured at the acromial level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eChest circumference: measured at the nipple line during normal respiration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach measurement was taken at least twice, and the mean value was used to reduce random error.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDietary control\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were instructed to maintain their habitual dietary intake throughout the study. No dietary monitoring or control protocols were implemented. Because nutritional intake may influence changes in body composition, this factor is acknowledged as a methodological limitation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBias control\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlinding of the assessor was not feasible because the pre- and post-test measurements were performed by the same researcher.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this may introduce measurement bias, standardized measurement procedures and consistent calibration were used to minimize variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePersonal information form\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA researcher-developed questionnaire was used to collect demographic information (age, education) and lifestyle characteristics such as physical activity habits, dietary practices, and any major dietary changes in the previous six months.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22.0. Normality was confirmed through skewness and kurtosis values within acceptable ranges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaired samples t-tests were conducted to evaluate pre\u0026ndash;post differences in all variables. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffect size analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s d effect sizes were calculated to quantify the magnitude of changes using the formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\varvec{d}=\\frac{\\varvec{M}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{r}\\varvec{e}\\varvec{}-\\varvec{M}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{s}\\varvec{t}}{\\varvec{S}\\varvec{D}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{l}\\varvec{e}\\varvec{d}\\varvec{}}\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewith pooled standard deviation computed as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\varvec{S}\\varvec{D}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{l}\\varvec{e}\\varvec{d}=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\:\\varvec{S}{\\varvec{D}}_{\\left\\{\\varvec{p}\\varvec{r}\\varvec{e}\\right\\}}^{2}+\\:\\varvec{S}{\\varvec{D}}_{\\left\\{\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{s}\\varvec{t}\\right\\}}^{2}\\varvec{}\\varvec{}\\varvec{}}{2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive values indicate decreases from pre- to post-test, whereas negative values indicate increases. Effect sizes were interpreted as small (0.2), medium (0.5), or large (0.8). Observed effect sizes ranged from small to moderate, with notable changes in fat percentage, visceral fat, and muscle mass.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData visualization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll scientific figures were generated using Python to ensure reproducibility and precise graphical representation. Identical scaling parameters were applied to pre\u0026ndash;post comparisons to enhance interpretability and facilitate visualization of individual change trajectories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAn overview of the descriptive and inferential findings for all body composition variables is presented below. Pre\u0026ndash;post differences were evaluated using paired samples t-tests, complemented by effect size calculations and visualized through comparative mean plots and individual change trajectories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollectively, these analyses provide a comprehensive assessment of the physiological adaptations observed following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant changes in body composition following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Data are presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Overall, participants demonstrated significant improvements in body weight, arm and waist circumference, BMI, muscle mass, fat percentage, and visceral fat. No significant differences were found for shoulder, chest, hip, or thigh circumference measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre and post-test comparisons of body composition parameters following the reformer pilates intervention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWeight (kg)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArm circumference (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.777\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.010*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eShoulder (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.784\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChest (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.257\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWaist circumference (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.877\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHip circumference (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;1.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThigh circumference (cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBody Mass Index (kg/m\u0026sup2;)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMuscle mass (kg)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;2.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.041*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFat percentage (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVisceral fat (score)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.925\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003e \u003cb\u003e* p \u0026lt; 0.05, ** p \u0026lt; 0.01.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of body weight, the participants\u0026rsquo; mean pre-test value was 70.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.82 kg, which significantly decreased to 69.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.38 kg after the intervention (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.803, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Similarly, body mass index (BMI) decreased from 25.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.77 to 25.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.76 (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.159, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), indicating a statistically significant improvement. Waist circumference also declined significantly, from 85.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.05 cm to 83.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.39 cm (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.877, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and a significant decrease was observed in arm circumference (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.777, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.010). Changes in hip circumference, thigh circumference, shoulder width, and chest measurements were not statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). In contrast, biological body composition parameters showed notable improvement: fat percentage decreased significantly from 32.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.76% to 30.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.53% (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.933, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and visceral fat scores also declined significantly (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.925, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Moreover, muscle mass increased significantly from 26.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.42 kg to 27.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67 kg (t = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.164, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.041), demonstrating a meaningful enhancement in lean tissue following the intervention. Effect Size (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d): Complementary to the statistical significance, effect size analysis indicated small to moderate practical effects across most parameters. Moderate effect sizes were observed particularly for fat percentage (d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45), visceral fat (d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.43), and muscle mass (d = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.44), underscoring the clinical and physiological relevance of these changes. Detailed effect size values are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEffect size results (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Size Interpretation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirection of Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.171\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArm circumference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWaist circumference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuscle mass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u0026ndash;Medium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat percentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u0026ndash;Medium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisceral fat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u0026ndash;Medium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecrease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e\u003csup\u003eInterpretation of Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003esmall (\u0026asymp; 0.2), medium (\u0026asymp; 0.5), large (\u0026ge; 0.8). Negative values indicate an increase in post-test scores\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s d effect sizes were calculated to assess the magnitude of pre\u0026ndash;post differences. According to Cohen\u0026rsquo;s conventional criteria, values around 0.2 represent small effects, around 0.5 medium effects, and 0.8 or above large effects. In this study, effect size direction was determined using the formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\varvec{d}=\\frac{\\varvec{M}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{r}\\varvec{e}\\varvec{}-\\varvec{M}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{s}\\varvec{t}}{\\varvec{S}\\varvec{D}\\varvec{p}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{o}\\varvec{l}\\varvec{e}\\varvec{d}\\varvec{}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, positive values indicate a decrease from pre- to post-test measurements, whereas negative values reflect an increase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis figure illustrates pre-test and post-test mean values of key body composition parameters following the eight-week Reformer Pilates intervention. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, fat percentage, visceral fat, BMI, waist circumference, and arm circumference, while muscle mass increased significantly. No significant differences were found in shoulder, chest, hip, or thigh circumference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis figure displays the three-dimensional relationship between fat percentage, muscle mass, and BMI before and after the eight-week Reformer Pilates program. Red points represent pre-test values, and blue points represent post-test values. Most participants show decreased fat percentage and BMI accompanied by increased muscle mass, although individual variability is evident.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis figure presents individual trajectories in fat percentage and muscle mass from pre-test to post-test. Each arrow shows the direction and magnitude of change for a single participant. Red points indicate pre-test measurements, and blue points indicate post-test measurements. Most participants demonstrate decreased fat percentage alongside increased muscle mass, with some variability across individuals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study indicate that 8 weeks of regular Reformer Pilates training resulted in significant improvements in body composition among sedentary women. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, BMI, fat percentage, and visceral fat, along with a meaningful increase in muscle mass. These findings are largely consistent with previous studies reporting that Pilates-based interventions can induce favorable changes in key physiological parameters, particularly in individuals who are physically inactive [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Such improvements are critical because even moderate reductions in visceral adiposity and fat percentage are strongly associated with a decreased risk of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, especially in sedentary populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough BMI significantly decreased following the intervention, the absolute magnitude of change (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.65 kg/m\u0026sup2;) was relatively small. From a clinical perspective, BMI reductions of greater magnitude (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u0026ndash;1.5 kg/m\u0026sup2;) are typically required to indicate meaningful improvements in health risk profiles. Therefore, while the statistical change reflects improved body composition, its clinical relevance may be limited. This pattern is consistent with previous findings showing that Pilates-based training tends to improve muscular balance and reduce fat mass without producing large shifts in BMI.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen evaluated in terms of body weight and fat percentage, the present results parallel those of Wang et al., who showed significant decreases in body weight, BMI, and fat percentage in overweight and obese individuals following Pilates interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Aibar-Almaz\u0026aacute;n et al. demonstrated in a randomized controlled trial that Reformer Pilates improved muscle strength, gait speed, and body composition in older women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. In the current study, significant increases in lean mass and reductions in fat percentage were also found. This alignment with previous findings reinforces the reliability of Reformer Pilates as an effective and low-impact exercise option to enhance metabolic health in different populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, recent literature suggests that core-focused exercise modalities like Pilates exert additional benefits beyond fat reduction, including improvements in postural stability, spinal alignment, and neuromuscular control [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. These adaptations may contribute to more efficient energy use during daily movements, supporting long-term body composition changes without the need for high-intensity exercise. This aspect is especially valuable for sedentary individuals, who often experience low baseline physical capacity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe increase in muscle mass observed in the present study is metabolically meaningful. Regular Pilates training, especially Reformer-based programs, has been shown to increase lean mass and elevate basal metabolic rate, thereby enhancing fat oxidation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. By promoting improved motor unit recruitment and better breathing mechanics, Pilates contributes to more efficient oxygen utilization and energy metabolism during and after training [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. This physiological mechanism helps explain the simultaneous increase in muscle mass and decrease in fat percentage observed in the participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother noteworthy result of this study is the significant reduction in waist and arm circumference, contrasted with the non-significant changes in hip, shoulder, chest, and thigh measurements. This outcome is in line with previous findings emphasizing that Pilates primarily stimulates trunk and core musculature, resulting in more pronounced adaptations in central rather than peripheral anthropometric measures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. This phenomenon is supported by biomechanical studies showing that Reformer Pilates places higher activation demands on the abdominal stabilizers, deep trunk muscles, and pelvic floor compared to larger limb musculature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, improvements in waist circumference may reflect targeted core engagement rather than generalized peripheral hypertrophy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis core-dominant activation pattern has been associated with better postural alignment, improved balance, and reduced fall risk in sedentary and older adults. Previous studies have documented that Pilates interventions enhance dynamic stability and proprioceptive awareness, which are crucial for functional independence and injury prevention [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Given that visceral fat accumulation and trunk weakness are major contributors to musculoskeletal complaints and metabolic disorders, waist reduction through Pilates carries both functional and preventive significance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to body composition, it is important to acknowledge the broader neuromechanical and metabolic adaptations induced by Pilates training. Several studies have shown improvements in gait efficiency, trunk control, and respiratory mechanics following consistent Pilates interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. These adaptations can lead to sustained metabolic improvements, even after the end of structured exercise programs. Reformer Pilates, in particular, enhances controlled movement patterns and stabilizing co-contractions, fostering a more energy-efficient posture and movement strategy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo significant changes were observed in hip, thigh, shoulder, or chest circumference in this study. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating that short-term Pilates interventions primarily affect trunk regions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Peripheral anthropometric changes generally require either longer-duration interventions or additional resistance-based training. In this context, future research may benefit from examining the combined effects of Reformer Pilates and complementary resistance exercise on peripheral muscle groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother key implication of these findings is related to fall risk and functional health outcomes. A growing body of evidence suggests that Pilates improves dynamic balance, postural control, and proprioception [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. These factors are strongly associated with reduced fall incidence and enhanced quality of life, particularly in populations with low baseline activity levels. While this study primarily focused on body composition, it is likely that similar neuromuscular benefits occurred, indirectly supporting functional capacity improvements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, waist circumference reduction has been highlighted in recent studies as a strong predictor of improved cardiometabolic risk profile, independent of overall body weight change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. This reinforces the clinical importance of trunk-focused exercise interventions like Pilates, which directly target abdominal fat and postural musculature. Given that central adiposity is a major determinant of chronic disease risk, incorporating Reformer Pilates into preventive exercise strategies could provide meaningful public health benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a methodological standpoint, the present study demonstrates that measurable changes in body composition can occur in just eight weeks of Reformer Pilates training. Similar short-term interventions have reported significant improvements in trunk stability and waist circumference without the need for high-intensity or high-volume exercise protocols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This efficiency is particularly relevant for promoting adherence among sedentary individuals, who may find high-intensity programs intimidating or unsustainable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, this study has limitations. The sample consisted only of women, and factors such as dietary intake, hormonal fluctuations, and physical activity outside of the intervention were not controlled. Future research should address these limitations by including larger, more diverse samples and integrating multimodal measurements such as cardiometabolic biomarkers, psychological well-being indicators, and long-term follow-up assessments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, exploring the combination of Reformer Pilates with resistance or aerobic exercise could provide a more comprehensive understanding of its synergistic effects on body composition and health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this study provides evidence that Reformer Pilates can produce meaningful improvements in body composition among sedentary women, particularly by reducing fat percentage and waist circumference and increasing muscle mass. Beyond these physical changes, the findings support Pilates as a time-efficient, adaptable, and functionally beneficial exercise modality. Integrating such programs into public health strategies or individualized exercise prescriptions could play a key role in addressing physical inactivity and its associated metabolic risks.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study demonstrated that an eight-week Reformer Pilates program performed three times per week produced meaningful improvements in key body composition parameters among sedentary women. Significant reductions were observed in body weight, body mass index (BMI), fat percentage, visceral fat, and waist and arm circumferences, while muscle mass increased significantly. These findings suggest that Reformer Pilates effectively targets metabolically important anthropometric variables, particularly those associated with cardiometabolic health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe improvements in fat percentage and muscle mass observed here are consistent with previous studies showing that Pilates-based interventions enhance body composition in various populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The reductions in fat percentage demonstrated in this study align with the results of Greco et al., who reported that an online home-based Pilates program combined with dietary control produced significant decreases in fat mass and increases in lean mass among women with obesity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Park et al. found that both online and face-to-face Pilates interventions led to improvements in body composition and metabolic markers in middle-aged women with obesity, with face-to-face training producing slightly superior outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings reinforce the potential of structured Pilates interventions, including Reformer-based programs, to elicit favorable morphological adaptations even in previously inactive populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional evidence highlights the broader physiological benefits of Pilates that extend beyond body composition improvements. Batista et al. demonstrated that mat-based Pilates reduced adiposity and improved cardiometabolic risk indicators\u0026mdash;including blood pressure and glycemic control\u0026mdash;in postmenopausal women, emphasizing the clinical value of modest but consistent reductions in fat mass [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present study, the decrease in visceral fat is particularly noteworthy, given its strong association with systemic inflammation and metabolic disease risk. Furthermore, the increase in muscle mass parallels the findings of Karpouzi et al., who reported that Pilates alone, without additional protein supplementation, improved body composition, core endurance, and flexibility in trained women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. This underscores the capacity of Pilates to induce neuromuscular and metabolic adaptations independent of external supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom an applied perspective, Reformer Pilates appears to be a safe and accessible modality suitable for sedentary adults. Its low-impact nature and adaptability allow for individualized progression, making it well-suited for populations with limited exercise experience. Previous evidence indicates that controlled resistance and core stabilization exercises contribute to enhanced trunk strength and functional mobility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, the accessibility of Pilates-based programs may further enhance adherence. Greco et al., noted that home-based Pilates formats improved participation consistency among individuals facing mobility or time constraints [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the current intervention was delivered in a supervised setting, the strong adherence rates observed in this study support the notion that both in-person and alternative delivery models can facilitate sustained engagement in structured exercise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtending the duration of Reformer Pilates interventions may further amplify the observed benefits. Studies implementing 12- to 16-week programs have demonstrated more pronounced body composition improvements compared to shorter interventions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Likewise, enhancing educational efforts among Pilates instructors, physiotherapists, and exercise professionals could help promote participation, especially among women seeking to improve body composition, functional mobility, and psychological well-being. Prior research has shown strong associations between improved body composition, motivation, self-efficacy, and long-term engagement in physical activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Future research should incorporate larger and more diverse populations, including men, different age groups, and clinical populations. Long-term follow-up assessments would also help clarify the sustainability of body composition changes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, integrating physiological, psychological, and functional outcome measures may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the holistic effects of Reformer Pilates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Such research will contribute to establishing Reformer Pilates as a cornerstone exercise modality in preventive and rehabilitative health programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the findings of this study support the effectiveness of Reformer Pilates as a low-risk, accessible exercise intervention for improving body composition in sedentary women. Regular participation may counteract the detrimental effects of inactivity, promote metabolic health, and enhance overall physical function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven its adaptability, Reformer Pilates holds significant potential for broad implementation in public health initiatives aimed at preventing metabolic and musculoskeletal disorders in inactive populations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the participants and the staff of the private fitness center in Kars for their cooperation during the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, K.B., H.G., E.G.; methodology, H.G., E.G.; investigation, K.B., H.G.; data curation, K.B., H.G.; formal analysis, K.B., H.G.; writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft, H.G., E.G.; writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, E.G., H.G., K.B.; supervision, E.G.; project administration, E.G., H.G., K.B. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutional review board\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Kafkas University Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee (Approval No: 81829502.903/37; Date: 13.04.2025).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in the involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Trust and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKim HJ, Sung JH, Ryu JK, Jung HC, Wang J. Effect of Reformer Spring Resistance Modifications on Core Muscle Activity During Basic Core Muscle Exercises. Healthcare. 2024 Dec 5;12(23):2447. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12232447\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Souza Andrade L, Da Silva Almeida I, Mochizuki L, Sousa CV, Falk Neto JH, Kennedy MD, et al. What is the exercise intensity of Pilates? An analysis of the energy expenditure, blood lactate, and intensity of apparatus and mat Pilates sessions. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2021 Apr;26:36\u0026ndash;42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2020.12.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAibar-Almaz\u0026aacute;n A, Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Amat A, Cruz-D\u0026iacute;az D, Jes\u0026uacute;s De La Torre-Cruz M, Jim\u0026eacute;nez-Garc\u0026iacute;a JD, Zagalaz-Anula N, et al. The Influence of Pilates Exercises on Body Composition, Muscle Strength, and Gait Speed in Community-Dwelling Older Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2022 Aug;36(8):2298\u0026ndash;305. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSu CH, Peng HY, Tien CW, Huang WC. Effects of a 12-Week Pilates Program on Functional Physical Fitness and Basal Metabolic Rate in Community-Dwelling Middle-Aged Women: A Quasi-Experimental Study. IJERPH. 2022 Dec 2;19(23):16157. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316157\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGreco F, Tarsitano MG, Cosco LF, Quinzi F, Folino K, Spadafora M, et al. The Effects of Online Home-Based Pilates Combined with Diet on Body Composition in Women Affected by Obesity: A Preliminary Study. Nutrients. 2024 Mar 21;16(6):902. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060902\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePark HY, Jung K, Jung WS, Kim SW, Kim J, Lim K. Effects of Online Pilates and Face-to-Face Pilates Intervention on Body Composition, Muscle Mechanical Properties, Cardiometabolic Parameters, Mental Health, and Physical Fitness in Middle-Aged Women with Obesity. Healthcare. 2023 Oct 19;11(20):2768. https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.1632836.418\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLing CHY, De Craen AJM, Slagboom PE, Gunn DA, Stokkel MPM, Westendorp RGJ, et al. Accuracy of direct segmental multi-frequency bioimpedance analysis in the assessment of total body and segmental body composition in middle-aged adult population. Clinical Nutrition. 2011 Oct;30(5):610\u0026ndash;5. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, Y., Chen, Z., Wu, Z., Ye, X., \u0026amp; Xu, X. (2021). Pilates for overweight or obesity: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 12, 643455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.643455\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCruz-Ferreira A, Fernandes J, Laranjo L, Bernardo LM, Silva A. A Systematic Review of the Effects of Pilates Method of Exercise in Healthy People. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2011 Dec;92(12):2071\u0026ndash;81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2011.06.018\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBarker AL, Talevski J, Bohensky MA, Brand CA, Cameron PA, Morello RT. Feasibility of Pilates exercise to decrease falls risk: a pilot randomized controlled trial in community-dwelling older people. Clin Rehabil. 2016 Oct;30(10):984\u0026ndash;96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215515606197\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e11. Bird ML, Hill KD, Fell JW. A Randomized Controlled Study Investigating Static and Dynamic Balance in Older Adults After Training With Pilates. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2012 Jan;93(1):43\u0026ndash;9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2011.08.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFox EE, Hough AD, Creanor S, Gear M, Freeman JA. Effects of Pilates-Based Core Stability Training in Ambulant People With Multiple Sclerosis: Multicenter, Assessor-Blinded, Randomized Controlled Trial. Physical Therapy. 2016 Aug 1;96(8):1170\u0026ndash;8. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20150166\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVaquero-Crist\u0026oacute;bal R, Alacid F, Esparza-Ros F, L\u0026oacute;pez-Plaza D, Muyor JM, L\u0026oacute;pez-Mi\u0026ntilde;arro PA. The effects of a reformer Pilates program on body composition and morphological characteristics in active women after a detraining period. Women \u0026amp; Health. 2016 Oct 2;56(7):784\u0026ndash;806. https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0157\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSegal NA, Hein J, Basford JR. The effects of pilates training on flexibility and body composition: An observational study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2004 Dec;85(12):1977\u0026ndash;81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.01.036\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBadiei, M., Mohammadi Shahboulaghi, F., Hosseini, M., Noroozi, M., \u0026amp; Nazari, S. (2017). Effect of Pilates exercise on fear of falling in Iranian elderly women. Iranian Rehabilitation Journal, 15(4), 389\u0026ndash;398. https://doi.org/10.18869/nrip.irj.15.4.389\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWall C, Wrisley DM, Statler KD. Vibrotactile tilt feedback improves dynamic gait index: A fall risk indicator in older adults. Gait \u0026amp; Posture. 2009 July;30(1):16\u0026ndash;21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2009.02.019\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBatista JP, Amaral AL, Mariano IM, Gon\u0026ccedil;alves LF, Tavares JB, Souza TCFD, et al. The Influence of Mat Pilates Training on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Postmenopausal Women with Single or Multiple Cardiometabolic Diseases. IJERPH. 2025 Jan 2;22(1):56. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22010056\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKarpouzi C, Kypraiou A, Mougios V, Petridou A. Effects of protein supplementation during pilates training on body composition, core muscle endurance, and joint flexibility in trained women: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2025 Dec 31;22(1):2472891. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2025.2472891\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Almeida PP, De Oliveira RG, De Almeida LIM, De Oliveira LC. Effects of Pilates exercises on health-related quality of life in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Qual Life Res. 2024 Aug;33(8):2067\u0026ndash;79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-024-03651-x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBergamin M, Gobbo S, Bullo V, Zanotto T, Vendramin B, Duregon F, et al. Effects of a Pilates exercise program on muscle strength, postural control and body composition: results from a pilot study in a group of post-menopausal women. AGE. 2015 Dec;37(6):118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-015-9852-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAshwell M, Gunn P, Gibson S. Waist‐to‐height ratio is a better screening tool than waist circumference and BMI for adult cardiometabolic risk factors: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obesity Reviews. 2012 Mar;13(3):275\u0026ndash;86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00952.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBernardo, L. M. (2007). The effectiveness of Pilates training in healthy adults: An appraisal of the research literature. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 11(2), 106\u0026ndash;110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2006.08.006 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sport-sciences-for-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssfh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sport Sciences for Health](http://link.springer.com/journal/11332)","snPcode":"11332","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11332/3","title":"Sport Sciences for Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Reformer Pilates, Body Composition, Sedentary Women, Fat Percentage, Muscle Mass, Exercise Intervention","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8456846/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8456846/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReformer Pilates is widely used to improve functional capacity and body composition, yet its physiological mechanisms in sedentary women remain underexplored. The spring-based resistance of the Reformer apparatus increases neuromuscular demand, enhances core activation, and elevates metabolic workload, suggesting that even short-term training may induce meaningful physiological adaptations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA quasi-experimental design utilizing a single-group pretest-posttest methodology was implemented. Twenty-five inactive women aged 20 to 40 years engaged in supervised Reformer Pilates classes three times weekly for a duration of eight weeks. Body weight, body mass index (BMI), fat percentage, visceral fat score, muscle mass, and anthropometric circumferences were evaluated at baseline and post-intervention utilizing bioelectrical impedance analysis (Tanita BC-418) and standardized tape measurements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were examined utilizing paired-samples t-tests, with significance established at p \u0026lt; .05, and effect sizes computed using Cohen’s d.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe eight-week Reformer Pilates program resulted in significant reductions in body weight, BMI, fat percentage, visceral fat, waist circumference, and arm circumference, alongside a significant increase in muscle mass (p \u0026lt; .05). Effect size analysis indicated small-to-moderate magnitudes of change across most parameters, supporting the practical and physiological relevance of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA duration of eight weeks in a Reformer Pilates program resulted in significant enhancements in body composition in inactive women, decreasing fat percentage and visceral adiposity while augmenting lean mass. These findings endorse Reformer Pilates as a low-risk, accessible, and clinically pertinent exercise modality for enhancing metabolic health in sedentary female populations. Extended and regulated investigations are advised to better investigate its preventative and therapeutic efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of an Eight-Week Reformer Pilates Intervention on Fat Percentage, Visceral Fat, and Lean Mass in Sedentary Women","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-13 14:26:22","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8456846/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"171956004467267246443529902550220779920","date":"2026-02-13T12:27:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-08T23:44:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T02:36:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T02:35:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Sport Sciences for Health","date":"2025-12-26T16:55:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sport-sciences-for-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssfh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sport Sciences for Health](http://link.springer.com/journal/11332)","snPcode":"11332","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11332/3","title":"Sport Sciences for Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"56e35b3e-1893-4d9b-9bd6-74263a371742","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-13T14:26:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-13 14:26:22","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8456846","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8456846","identity":"rs-8456846","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}