Fire and water: water quality impacts of landscape-scale disturbance by wildfire.

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Mark David Shenton, Ross M Thompson, Ben J Kefford This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background : Wildfire plays an important role in determining ecosystem processes, composition, structure and condition, and is forecast to play a greater role under climate change. Wildfire affects the physicochemical and habitat characteristics of waterways, and the response in freshwater systems depends on characteristics of the fire, landscape and climate. Knowledge of fire effects on freshwater physiochemistry and habitat is predominantly based on suboptimal designed and short-medium term studies. Using a rigorous before-after-control-impact (BACI) study design and up to 28-years timeseries data, we examined if physicochemical and habitat variables changed following wildfire, and the duration of changes relative to unburnt sites in sub-alpine (hereafter alpine) and montane and sub-montane (montane hereafter) environments in south-eastern Australia. Results: Of the variables hypothesised to change in response to fire, 8 out of 33 variables at alpine sites, and 7 out of 12 variables at montane sites, changed in line with our predictions. Four variables changed in the opposite direction to predictions. Of 11 variables measured at both sites in alpine and montane environments, 3 variables responded to the fire in only one environment (montane zone) and 1 variable (electrical conductivity) responded in both environments but in different directions. For 90% of response variables examined at both alpine sites (33 variables) and montane sites (12 variables) effects were not detectable beyond 2 years post-fire. The remaining 10% of variables examined were detected up to 8 years post fire at alpine sites, and for 2.5 years at montane sites. The duration of detectable effects was greater at alpine sites than montane sites. Conclusions : We found no single consistent effect of fire on stream physicochemistry. Although some variables were found to respond to wildfire in a consistent way, the magnitude and duration of effects varied by site group (alpine versus montane) and site type (site burnt versus catchment burnt), illustrating the complexity of responses to wildfire. The complexity and inconsistency of responses of water physicochemical and habitat variables to wildfires reinforces the need for a better mechanistic understanding of the effects of fire on streams. wildfire stream habitat water quality riparian alpine montane Figures Figure 1 Background Wildfire is an important disturbance in many of the world’s vegetated terrestrial ecosystems (Minshall 2003 , Bowman et al. 2009 , Pausas and Keeley 2009 , Verkaik et al. 2013 , Bixby et al. 2015 , Van Butsic et al. 2015, Lindenmayer and Taylor 2020 ). Fire plays an important role in determining ecosystem structure, condition, composition, and processes (Bowman et al. 2009 , Pausas and Keeley 2009 , Lindenmayer and Taylor 2020 ). Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires (Leigh et al. 2015 , Silva et al. 2020 ) and lengthening fire seasons (Westerling et al. 2006 , Dahm et al. 2015 ) across many regions and ecosystem types globally (e.g., Cochrane 2003 , Liu et al. 2010 , Seidl et al. 2014 , Fairman et al. 2015 ). Although many species have adapted to fires and systems recover following fires, changes in fire regimes due to management practices and climate change have the potential to have negative impacts (Bergeron et al. 2002 , Dey and Hartman 2005 , Krebs et al. 2010 , Fairman et al. 2015 ), hence it is important to understand the effects of fires. In addition to effects on terrestrial ecosystems, wildfire can also affect the physicochemical and biological characteristics of inland waters (Paul et al. 2022 ). The effects of fire on freshwater systems depends on multiple aspects of the fire, landscape and climate. These aspects include; fire regime (Minshall 2003 , Arkle et al. 2010 , Adams et al. 2020 , Van Oldenborgh et al. 2021 ), land use in fire affected areas (Foley et al. 2005 , Taylor et al. 2014 , Van Butsic et al. 2015), hydrologic conditions before and after fire (e.g., flood and/or drought) (Verkaik et al. 2015 , Leonard et al. 2017 , Van Oldenborgh et al. 2021 ), catchment characteristics such as slope, soil and vegetation (Scott and Van Wyk 1990 , Verkaik et al. 2013 ), and the nature of the receiving waterways (e.g., discharge, geomorphology, lentic versus lotic waterways) (Bixby et al. 2015 ). These characteristics vary widely within and between catchments, and therefore the effects of fires on waterways, freshwater organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems are also highly variable (Bixby et al. 2015 ). The effects of wildfire on freshwater physicochemistry and habitat have been relatively poorly described in the literature (Dahm et al. 2015 ), despite the importance of water quality for human water supplies and freshwater biodiversity (Bixby et al. 2015 , Paul et al. 2022 ). There is the potential for long-term effects of fire due to changes in riparian habitat and catchments (Minshall 2003 ) but effects more than 5 years post fire are rarely considered (Verkaik et al. 2013 ) (but see Albin ( 1979 ), Romme et al. ( 2011 )). Where streams are sampled in years after a fire, sampling typically does not involve long and regular timeseries. Moreover, studies of the effects of time are plagued by sub-optimal design, with the same sites sampled before fires rare (but see (Vieira et al. 2004 )) and typically less than 10 sites (but see Minshall et al. ( 1997 ), Rhoades et al. ( 2019 )), especially for long-term studies (Bixby et al. 2015 ). Consequently, knowledge of effect of fires on freshwater physiochemistry and habitat is predominantly based on suboptimal designed and short-medium term studies. We aim to determine the effects of landscape-scale wildfires on physicochemical and habitat variables of streams up to 18 years postfire. We improved the design typically in previous studies by having samping during at least two seasons per year up to 9 years prior to the fire and then having data available at at least this frequency of sampling for up to 18 years after fire. Moreover we had 17 control sites with no, or extermely low level of buring, within their upstream catchment to detect any temporal responces unconected to the fire. We further investigated effects at sites in both sub-alpine (hereafter alpine) and montain environments to invistagate variablity in the effect of fire. We had a set of expectations of the effects of fire on physicochemical and habitat variables ( Supplementary Table S1 ), and we proposed 12 hypotheses with respect to which aspects of stream physicochemistry and habitat that are likely to be affected by fire at local and landscape scales (Table 1 ). Table 1 Proposed hypotheses of stream physicochemistry and habitat variables likely to be fire affected at local and landscape scales. Hypothesis References H1 : Wildfire results in increased nutrient loads (i.e., TN and/or TP) to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts. Earl and Blinn ( 2003 ), Sheridan et al. ( 2007 ), Bladon et al. ( 2008 ), Lane et al. ( 2008 ), Noske et al. ( 2010 ), Silins et al. ( 2014 ), Sherson et al. ( 2015 ), Rhoades et al. ( 2019 ). H2 : Electrical conductivity (EC) changes (either increases or decreases) in response to wildfire due to both local and catchment impacts. Albin ( 1979 ), Earl and Blinn ( 2003 ), Lyon and O’connor ( 2008 ), Dahm et al. ( 2015 ), Reale et al. ( 2015 ), Sherson et al. ( 2015 ). H3 : Wildfire results in increased turbidity, due to suspended colloidal and particulate matter, in receiving waterways due to both local and catchment impacts. White et al. ( 2006 ), Rhoades et al. ( 2011 ), Dahm et al. ( 2015 ), Reale et al. ( 2015 ). H4 : Wildfire results in changes in pH (either increases or decreases) due to both local and catchment impacts. Increases: Cushing Jr and Olson ( 1963 ) Decreases: Earl and Blinn ( 2003 ), Dahm et al. ( 2015 ), Sherson et al. ( 2015 ). H5 : Wildfire results in increased alkalinity (the concentration of bicarbonate and carbonate that indicate the buffering capacity of water) in receiving waterways due to both local and catchment impacts. Rhoades et al. ( 2011 ), Lydersen et al. ( 2014 ). H6 : Wildfire results in increased delivery of fine sediment (sand, silt and/or clay) to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts. Ice et al. ( 2004 ), Vieira et al. ( 2004 ), Lane et al. ( 2006 ), Petticrew et al. ( 2006 ), Moody and Martin ( 2009 ), Oliver et al. ( 2012 ), Bladon et al. ( 2014 ), Cooper et al. ( 2015 ), Leonard et al. ( 2017 ). H7 : Wildfire reduces bank stability as observed by increases in bank width and bank height following fires due primarily to local scale burning. Oliver et al. ( 2012 ). H8 : Wildfire reduces vegetation cover in riparian zones as observed by a reduction in percentage cover of riparian vegetation following fires due primarily to local scale burning. Minshall et al. ( 1997 ), Spencer et al. ( 2003 ), Oliver et al. ( 2012 ), Jackson and Sullivan ( 2020 ). H9 : Wildfire leads to an increased proportion of exotic vegetation in burnt areas (and a corresponding decrease in native vegetation) due to local scale burning. Alba et al. ( 2015 ), Verrall and Pickering ( 2019 ). H10 : Wildfire leads to reduced detritus (CPOM, sticks, wood, leaves etc) delivery to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts. Noske et al. ( 2010 ), Jackson et al. ( 2012 ), Cooper et al. ( 2015 ). H11 : The amount of muck (dark or black fine matter, ash, black ooze etc) in waterways increases following wildfire due to both local and catchment impacts. Petticrew et al. ( 2006 ), White et al. ( 2006 ). H12 : Wildfire alters stream habitat quality for stream macroinvertebrates, resulting in decreased habitat assessment scores based on an index of stream condition, due primarily to local scale burning. Ladson et al. ( 1999 ). H13 : Responses in the alpine zone will be different to those in lowland or montane zones because of the effects of seasonal snow and ice at alpine sites, slower rates of vegetation recovery after fire and differences in the fire sensitivity of vegetation communities. e.g., Mast and Clow ( 2008 ). ** Insert Table 1 here – or near to here ** Methods Study area The study was conducted in a temperate climate zone of south-eastern Australia (Koppen-Geiger climate classification Cfb). Sites were either located at sub-alpine elevations (1160–1760 m above sea level (ASL)) near Perisher and Thredbo, Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) within the Australian Alps of New South Wales (NSW), or in montane and sub-montane (395–900 m ASL) environments of NSW and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) (see Fig. 1 , and Supplementary Tables S2 and S3 ). Sub-alpine sites will be referred to as ‘alpine’ sites hereafter, and montane and sub-montane sites will be referred to as ‘montane’ sites. At alpine sites, vegetation types comprise grasslands and heaths with woodlands, the height of which increases at lower elevations. The alpine sites in this study have upstream catchments comprising natural areas, ski resorts including accommodation and a campground. At montane sites, vegetation ranged from open forest and woodlands in natural areas to modified pastures. The catchment use of montane sites used in this study comprised closed drinking water catchments, natural areas, agricultural grazing land, or urban areas. In the summer of 2003 these regions experienced one of the largest wildfires in Australia since 1939, burning over 1.7 million hecares across Victoria, NSW and the ACT, during one of the worst droughts then on record (McLeod 2003 , Worboys 2003 , Lane et al. 2006 ). Fire in Australian alpine and sub-alpine regions is relatively infrequent, with estimates from dendrochronology indicating large fires at intervals ranging from approximately 50 to 140 years during the past 400 years (Williams et al. 2008 ). The mean fire interval in the ACT, i.e., in the region of our montane sites, is approximately 40 years (McCarthy and Lindenmayer 2005 ). Data collection Stream physicochemical and habitat data was analysed for a 28-year period (1994 to 2021). Water samples, physical, chemical and habitat data were collected following standardised methods (Nichols et al. 2000 ) (see Supplementary Table S4 ). These variables were measured on four occassions per year (approximately February, May, August and November) at alpine sites and on two occasions per year (approximately May and November) at montane sites. For the first 12 months following the fire, all alpine sites were sampled monthly. Study design : A before-after-control-impact (BACI) study design (Stewart-Oaten et al. 1986 , Stewart-Oaten et al. 1992 , Christie et al. 2019 ) was used with multiple control and impact sites. BACI controls for potentially confounding temporal variation and allows a more powerful exploration of the effects of fire. The sites were classified into 3 categories: (1) 19 sites where the immediate area of the site (i.e., where sampling occurred) was burnt and varying amounts of the upstream catchment also burnt hereafter referred to as ‘site burnt’, (2) seven sites where no burning occurred at the site where sampling was undertaken, but with significant (> 60%) burning of the upstream catchment, including to the water’s edge upstream of the site, and without major confluences between the burn area and sampling site, hereafter ‘catchment burnt’, and (3) 17 sites where both site and the catchment were unburnt which serve as controls, hereafter ‘unburnt’ (see Supplementary Tables S2 and S3 for a list of the sites). To make this classification, we consulted original datasheets and relevant reports from monitoring and sampling programs. In the case of montane sites, we also consulted a firemap ( https://www.data.act.gov.au/Justice-Safety-and-Emergency/2003-Bushfire-Affected-Areas-/8gwk-tw75 ). Data Analysis All analysis was conducted separately for the alpine and montane environments because of differences in sampling frequency and variables measured. Scatterplots of each variable were visually inspected to determine if there were seasonal or site-related patterns within the data before the fire (i.e., before January 2003). Where patterns were identified, standardisation was performed by calculating the pre-fire mean of the relevant variable for each site and/or season (to obtain constants), and substracting this value (constant) from each observation (e.g.,, observation = x - ). While this standardisation eliminates site and seasonal effects, it makes it more difficult to consider the absolute effects, and thus we have chosen not to plot time-series of response variables. Changes in variables hypothesised to be affected by fire were visualised using boxplots. Changes in univariate responses were then statistically tested using a linear mixed effects model (R-Studio version 4.0.3, R packages ‘ nlme ’ and ‘ lme4 ’). Sites were set as the random factor, while burn category (3 levels – i.e., site burnt, catchment burnt and unburnt) and time since fire (2 levels – before and after the fire) were fixed effects (the use of the variable time since fire is expanded on below). This model included an interaction term (burn category * time since fire) because with a BACI this interaction indicates if there is an effect of the fire, which is our interest. Time since fire was initially set at 12 months post-fire, the model run, and its results interpreted. If this analysis resulted in a statistically significant (p < 0.05) interaction between burn category * time since fire (interaction term hereafter), then the model was re-run for the next 12 months of data (i.e., using before fire data and after fire data for 13 to 24 months following the fire). This process was repeated until the interaction term was no longer significant. If the results of this analyses for the first 12 months did not have a significant interaction term, then the post-fire window was shortened in 3 month increments in case the interaction was significant for a period less than 12 months. The time that the interaction remained significant indicated the temporal extent of post-fire effects. Multivariate analysis of habitat and physicochemical variables was undertaken using Principle Components Analysis (PCA) (Pearson 1901 , Hotelling 1933 , Jolliffe and Cadima 2016 ) within the R-package ‘ FactoMineR ’ using correlation matrices and then plotted to visualise changes in principle components 1 and 2 from before fire to after fire. These were followed with permutational MANOVA (PerMANOVA) (9999 permutations) (Anderson 2014 ) using the R-package ‘ PERMANOVA ’ and the same statistical approach described above for univariate analaysis. Where PerMANOVA detected changes in variables but these were not readily visible in PCA plots, we extracted principle components that contributed greater than 5% to variance observed at alpine sites (6 components), or 9% at montane sites (4 components), with these cutoff points being selected arbitrarily. Each of these components was statistically tested for an interaction using the previously described model. Boxplots were then generated for each of these components and loadings used to determine which of the variables were changing in response to fire where a significant interaction was detected. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) (Kruskal 1964 ) was used to visualise overall differences in response variables at each site. nMDS ordinations were plotted using Euclidean distances, and vectors overlaid using the R-function ‘ envfit ’ from the ‘ vegan ’ package. Results Univariate results: Alpine zone, burnt sites. In the alpine zone, seven of 33 response variables (21%) showed a statistically significant interaction term between burn category and time since fire during the first 12 months following fire, six response variables (18%) for the second year following fire, and four variables (12%) for the third year following fire (p < 0.05, Table 2 ). The interaction term remained significant for three variables (9%) during the fourth year (% riparian shrub cover, % riparian grass cover, and % mud/muck in reach), for two variables (6%) during the fifth year (% riparian shrub cover, and % riparian grass cover), and for one variable (3%) during the sixth through eighth years following fire (% riparian shrub cover). Another three variables (9%) showed a trend but no statistically significant effects of fire during the post-fire period (p > 0.05, Supplementary Figures S1.27, S1.28 and S1.31 ). The remaining response variables showed no trend of a fire effect ( Supplementary Table S5 ). Table 2 Summary of univariate results from statistical testing of the interaction between site type and time since fire for response variables. NSS = not statistically significant. Blank fields indicate insufficient data available for statistical analyses. For full reporting of results see Supplementary Tables S5 and S6 . Response variable Site type Alpine sites results summary Direction of trend Montane sites results summary Direction of trend TN (mg L − 1 ) Site burnt 1–18 months: t 1, 605−1, 617 =2.68–2.84; p = 0.0047–0.0076 ↑ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.09–0.33) ↑ TP (mg L − 1 ) Site burnt NSS (p = 0.96–0.97) NA Catchment burnt 1 month: t 1, 541 =-2.25; p = 0.025 ↓ EC (µS cm − 1 ) Site burnt 1–30 months: t 1, 604 – 1, 617 =2.33–3.32; p = < 0.001–0.020 ↑ NSS (p = 0.06–0.27) NA Catchment burnt 1 month: t 1,541 =2.43; p = 0.015 ↑ 1–6 months: t 1, 118 – 1, 128 =2.10–2.20; p = 0.030–0.038 ↑ pH Site burnt NSS (p = 0.15–0.56) NA 1–24 months: t 1, 154 – 1, 156 =2.14–2.44;p = 0.016–0.034 ↑ Catchment burnt 1–12 months: t 1, 573 – 1, 617 =-2.04 - -2.21; p = 0.027–0.042 ↓ 1–3 months: t 1, 118 =2.00;p = 0.047 ↑ Turbidity (NTU) Site burnt NSS (p = 0.78–0.91) NA 1–6 months: t 1, 118− 1,128 =-2.11 - -2.58;p = 0.011–0.037 ↑ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.20–0.98) NA 1–3 months: t 1, 118 =-2.14; p = 0.035 ↑ Alkalinity (mg CaCO 3 L − 1 ) Site burnt 1–12 months: t 1, 154 =2.39; p = 0.018 ↑ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.12–0.23) ↑ Bank height (m) Site burnt NSS (p = 0.79–0.94) NA NSS (p = 0.013-0.90) ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.79–0.98) NA NSS (p = 0.92–0.95) NA Bank width (m) Site burnt NSS (p = 0.46–0.79) NA 1–18 months: t 1, 152 – 1, 154 =-2.37 - -3.24; p = 0.002–0.019 ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.07–0.49) ↑ NSS (p = 0.07–0.25) ↓ % native vegetation cover Site burnt NSS (p = 0.24–0.37) ↑ NSS (p = 0.054–0.88) ↑ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.07–0.31) NA 1–18 months: t 1, 152 – 1, 154 =2.05–2.09; p = 0.039–0.042 ↑ % exotic vegetation cover Site burnt NSS (p = 0.18–0.30) ↓ NSS (p = 0.07–0.96) ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.053–0.27) NA NSS (p = 0.06–0.20) ↓ % riparian trees > 10 m Site burnt NSS (p = 0.13–0.61) NA NSS (p = 0.26–0.96) ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.74–0.93) NA NSS (p = 0.07–0.18) NA % riparian trees < 10 m Site burnt NSS (p = 0.57–0.70) NA NSS (p = 0.15–0.93) ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.31–0.61) NA NSS (p = 0.11–0.35) NA % riparian shrub cover Site burnt 1–96 months+: t 1, 559 − 1, 617 = -10.53 - -2.96; p = < 0.001–0.003 ↓ 1–30 months: t 1, 152−1, 157 = -3.66 - -2.07; p = < 0.001–0.040 ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.13–0.53) ↓ NSS (p = 0.76–0.92) NA % riparian grass cover Site burnt 1–60 months: t 1, 598 – 1, 617 =-2.84–5.85; p = < 0.001–0.027 ↓12 mths. Then ↑ 1–12 months: t 1, 152 =-3.03; p = 0.003 ↓ Catchment burnt 1–48 months: t 1, 601 − 1, 617 =3.14–6.08; p = < 0.001–0.002 ↑ NSS (p = 0.84–0.98) NA % bedrock in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.37–0.56) NA Catchment burnt 1–60 months: t 1, 598−1, 617 =4.07–7.25; p = < 0.001 ↑ % boulder in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.24–0.50) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.33–0.57) NA % cobble in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.087–0.29) NA Catchment burnt 1–18 months: t 1, 609 − 1, 617 =-2.44 - -2.54; p = 0.012–0.015 ↓ % pebble in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.26–0.94) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.47–0.99) ↓ % gravel in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.08–0.86) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.33–0.56) NA % sand in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.64–0.97) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.32–0.98) NA % silt in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.16–0.64) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.52–0.94) NA % fines in reach Site burnt NSS (p = 0.27–0.96) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.67–0.99) NA % detritus in reach Site burnt 1–6 months: t 1, 565 – 1, 573 =2.37–2.52; p = 0.012–0.018 ↑ Catchment burnt 1–6 months: t 1, 565 − 1, 573 =2.55–2.67; p = 0.011 − 0.008 ↑ % mud/muck in reach Site burnt 1–48 months: t 1, 601−1, 617 =2.38–3.29; p = 0.001–0.018 ↑ Catchment burnt 1–48 months: t 1, 601 – 1, 617 =2.39–4.09; p = < 0.001–0.017 ↑ % bedrock in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.55–0.73) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.62–0.98) NA % boulder in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.41–0.94) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.33–0.86) NA % cobble in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.051–0.41) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.25–0.76) NA % pebble in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.26–0.50) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.58–0.84) ↑ % gravel in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.32–0.43) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.36–0.89) NA % sand in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.16–0.87) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.73–0.89) NA % silt in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.88–0.93) NA Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.59–0.80) NA % detritus in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.14–0.45) ↑ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.41–0.83) ↑ % mud/muck in riffle Site burnt NSS (p = 0.08–0.26) NA Catchment burnt 1–6 months: t 1, 541 – 1, 573 =2.00–3.71; p = < 0.001–0.046 ↑ Habitat score Site burnt 1–18 months: t 1, 609 – 1, 617 =-3.19 - -4.36; p = < 0.001–0.002 ↓ Catchment burnt NSS (p = 0.27–0.38) NA Univariate results: Montane zone, burnt sites. At burnt sites in the montane zone, there was evidence that six of 12 response variables (50%) show a statistically significant (p < 0.05, Table 2 ) and biologically important interaction term during the first 12 months following fire, for three response variables (25%) during the second year following fire (bank width, % shrub cover, pH), and for 1 response variable (8%) during the third year following fire (% shrub cover). Five variables (42%) showed a trend in the post-fire period but no statistically significant fire effects (p > 0.05) (Supplementary Figures S2.5, S2.7, S2.8, S2.11 and S2.12 ). The one remaining response variable (conductivity) showed no evidence of fire effects at montane burnt sites ( Supplementary Table S6 ). Univariate results: Alpine zone, catchment burnt sites. During the first 12 months following fire at catchment burnt sites in the alpine zone, the interaction term is statistically significant for nine of 33 response variables (27%), for four response variables (12%) during the second year, three during the third and fourth years following fire (% riparian grass cover, % bedrock in reach, and % mud and muck in reach), and one variable during the fifth year following fire (% bedrock in reach) (p = 0.05, Supplementary Figures S1.1, S1.9, S1.17, S1.22, S1.25 and S1.31 ), while the remaining response variables showed no trend of fire on them ( Supplementary Table S5 ). Univariate results: Montane zone, catchment burnt sites. At catchment burnt sites in the montane zone, four of 12 response variables (33%) demonstrated a statistically significant (p = < 0.05, Table 2 ) and biologically important interaction term during the first 12 months following fire (turbidity, EC and pH, % native vegetation cover). One variable showed a significant interaction term during the second year following fire at catchment burnt sites (% native vegetation cover). Three variables (33%) showed a trend in the post-fire period but no statistically significant interaction (p > 0.05) (Supplementary Figures S2.4, S2.6, and S2.11 ). Five response variables (42%) showed no effect of fire on them ( Supplementary Table S6 ). ** Insert Table 2 here – or near to here ** Multivariate analyses: Alpine sites PerMANOVA found a significant interaction between fire and site (9999 permutations: R 2 = 0.020–0.054, F = 6.062–18.509, PR(> F) = 0.0001) (Table 3 ) indicating an effect of fire on combined physicochemical and habitat variables. This effect did not have high explanatory power, with 2–5.4% of the variability in the data accounted for by the interaction term. PCA ordinations of components 1 and 2 did not illustrate clear evidence of post-fire data points clustering together, or clustering away from pre-fire conditions (Supplementary Figures S3.1 to S3.3 ). Analysis of component scores for individual principal components between burn category and time since fire indicate that multivariate combinations changed because of fire, but these changes are inconsistent (Table 4 , Supplementary Tables S7.1 to S7.6, Supplementary Figures S7.1 to 7.6 ). Further, each of the principal components explain a relatively small proportion of total variation (< 12% in PC1) (Table 4 , Supplementary Table S7.1 ). Two-dimensional nMDS plots of data for alpine zone sites ( Supplementary Figures S5.1 to S5.3 ) (stress = F) 1 to 12 months 0.054 18.509 0.0001 13 to 24 months 0.036 11.889 0.0001 25 to 36 months 0.040 13.557 0.0001 37 to 48 months 0.034 11.130 0.0001 49 to 60 months 0.022 6.936 0.0001 61 to 72 months 0.023 7.239 0.0001 73 to 84 months 0.031 9.815 0.0001 85 to 96 months 0.020 6.062 0.0001 Table 4 Summary of results from PCA analysis at alpine sites. NSS = not statistically significant. Detailed results are provided at Supplementary Table S7.1. Component Percentage explained Duration of effects at Burnt Sites Duration of effects at Catchment Burnt Sites 1 11.9% Up to 96 months NSS 2 7.7% NSS NSS 3 6.6% Up to 60 months Up to 12 months 4 6.4% Up to 12 months Up to 36 months 5 6.0% Up to 24 months Up to 60 months 6 5.3% Up to 12 months NSS Multivariate analyses: Montane sites PerMANOVA (9999 permutations) did not find a statistically significant interaction at the montane sites (PR(> F) = > 0.05) (Table 5 ). PCA ordinations of components 1 and 2 did not illustrate clear evidence of post-fire data points clustering together or away from pre-fire points in a PCA plot of components 1 and 2 (30% of total variation explained) (Supplementary Figures S4.1 to S4.3 and Supplementary Table S8.1 ). Analysis of component scores for individual principal components between burn category and time since fire indicate that multivariate combinations changed because of fire, but these changes are inconsistent (Table 6 , Supplementary Tables S8.1 to S8.5, Supplementary Figures S8.1 to S8.4 ). Similarly, two-dimensional nMDS plots ( Supplementary Figures S6.1 to S6.3 ) (stress = F) 1 to 12 months 0.01742 1.6409 0.1483 13 to 24 months 0. 00919 0.8814 0.4383 Table 6 Summary of results from PCA analysis at montane sites. NSS = not statistically significant. Detailed results are provided at Supplementary Table S8.1. Component Percentage explained Duration of effects at Burnt Sites Duration of effects at Catchment Burnt Sites 1 16.0% NSS NSS 2 15.1% Up to 12 months NSS 3 14.2% Up to 12 months Up to 12 months 4 10.0% Up to 36 months NSS Discussion There was no single consistent effect of fire on stream physicochemistry or habitat. While variables did respond to fire in a consistent way, the magnitude and longevity of impacts varied by the factors whether the site or upstream catchment was burnt and alpine or montane environment. Even accounting for these factors there was still much variability suggesting that there are a) site differences not accounted for in this study that influence response to fire b) differences in local fire intensity and behaviour that affect impacts. These points aside, in the alpine zone the effects tended to be longer lasting postfire than those observed in the montane zone. Effects of the fire on alpine sites were evident up to 8 years following fire, with for example, % riparian grass cover increasing but % riparian shrub cover decreasing at burnt sites relative to unburnt sites (Table 2 , Supplementary Figure S1 .25 and Figure S1 .26 ). While in the montane sites % riparian grass cover decreased for 2.5 years post-fire but pH increased for 2 years post-fire. However, for 90% of response variables within both alpine and montane site (33 at alpine sites, and 12 at montane sites), there was no evidence of a statistically significant interaction term between site type and time since fire beyond 2 years, e.g., see habitat score at alpine sites (Supplementary Figure S1 .33) and see pH at montane sites (Supplementary Figure S2.3) . Montane vs. alpine sites: As predicted, the effects of fire on water physicochemical and habitat variables differed between the alpine and montane sites. This comparison was not planned when the data was collected, and consequently there are not matched pairs of similar sites at different elevations. There is also only one ‘replicate’ of each elevation type. These points aside, for the three physicochemical water measured in both regions (EC, pH and turbidity), fire effects were greater at montane sites than alpine sites ( Supplementary Figures S1.3 to S1.5 , and Supplementary Figures S2.1 to S2.3 ), but slightly longer lasting at alpine sites (2.5 years vs. 2 years) (Table 2 ). Where riparian vegetation variables were affected, these variables decreased at both montane and alpine sites (% shrub cover and % grass cover) following the fire, but recovery was slower at alpine sites compared to montane sites (up to 8 years versus 4 years). Multiple reasons could explain the differential responses at montane and alpine sites. Fire does not burn evenly throughout the landscape because many factors affect the intensity, severity and spatial extent of wildfire, and these factors vary within the landscape. Firstly, The subalpine woodlands found at our alpine sites contain different communities of plants to those found in montane forests at lower elevations (Costin et al. 1979 , Adams et al. 2013 ), plants in alpine zones grow slower than those at lower elevations (Atkin et al. 1996 ), and Snow Gums ( Eucalyptus pauciflora ) which are found at alpine sites are more fire sensitive relative to lower elevation Eucalyptus species (Barker 1988 , Green and Osborne 1994 ). In general, the vegetation in the alpine zone is lower and sparser (Costin et al. 1979 ) potentially leading to lower fuel load, but see Adams et al. ( 2013 ). Secondly, there are substantial differences in catchment use within each of the two elevational zones. Our sites in the alpine zone are located within largely natural areas with minimal development relative to our sites at lower elevations. While some sites in the montane zone are also located in largely natural areas, many are located in, or adjacent to agricultural and/or urban areas. Thirdly, there are differences in water availability in the two elevational zones. Precipitation is substantially different, with mean annual precipitation in the alpine zone 1750–2200 mm, but about 630 mm in the montane zone ( www.bom.gov.au ). Further differences in water availability arise because of evapotranspiration rates, which tend to decrease as elevation increases (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas 1998 , Lüttge 2007 , Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 2015 , cited in Gallardo-Cruz et al. ( 2009 ). Thus, it is probable the wildfire was less intense in alpine areas relative to montane areas in the current study which was reflected greater proportion of variables effected by the fire in the montane zone relative to the alpine zone, but the effects in alpine zones were generally more severe and longer lasting relative to the montane zone. The longer lasting effects likely related to the slower growth of terrestrial vegetation in the alpine relative to the montane zone (Atkin et al. 1996 ). Effects of fire on nutrients: Increases in nutrient, i.e., N and P, concentrations are frequently reported post wildfire, across different environments (e.g., Smith et al. 2011a , Verkaik et al. 2013 , Sherson et al. 2015 , Verkaik et al. 2015 , Collins et al. 2019 ). TN at alpine sites in our study increased as predicted (Table 1 ) for 18 months post-fire at burnt sites only, but not catchment burnt sites. Increases in nitrogen elsewhere generally return to pre-fire levels within 5 years (e.g., Lane et al. 2008 , Mast and Clow 2008 ), but see Rhoades (2019) that lasted 14 years post-fire). Recovery of TN has been linked to recovery of hillslope and riparian vegetation (Rhoades et al. 2019 ). The largest influxes of nitrogen to waterways are typically associated with erosion after fire (Lane et al. 2008 ), often occurring within 12 months of the fire (Bladon et al. 2008 ). However, seasonal runoff patterns at alpine sites are different to sites at lower elevations because of the seasonal snowpack and its melt at alpine sites, resulting in different rates and patterns of nutrient movement (Mast and Clow 2008 ). The recovery of TN is likely related to recovery of grasses (discussed below) that slow overland water flow, and in doing so reduce ash and sediment movement into waterways that would otherwise increase TN. It is possible that recovery of grasses is more important than recovery of shrubs in terms of reducing or controlling TN concentrations post-fire. Contrary to our predictions, TP decreased at alpine catchment burnt sites for one month following fire. Others have generally observed TP to increase following fires (Son et al. 2015 , Emelko et al. 2016 ), especially after rainfall (Son et al. 2015 ), but reports of TP concentrations decreasing following fire exist (e.g., Noske et al. 2010 ). It is logically possible that fewer people visited and used the areas immediately post-fire because visitor access was restricted, or because fewer people recreated in these areas immediately post-fire. Thus, there may have been a reduced load on sewerage treatment facilities and therefore lower TP in the burn areas. Likewise, we could also expect fewer wildlife e.g., wombats in burnt areas because of mortality or movement to unburnt areas which could lower TP. Effects of fire on conductivity: As predicted electrical conductivity increased following fire. At alpine sites conductivity increased at both site burnt and catchment burnt site categories, for 30 months and 1 month respectively. In contrast, conductivity increased at montane sites only at catchment burnt sites, for 6 months following fire. Elsewhere, conductivity typically changes immediately post fire with changes lasting < 60 months, even with severe fires (Paul et al. 2022 ). Most studies find conductivity increases postfire (e.g., Sherson et al. 2015 ), but examples of decreases exist (e.g., Dahm et al. 2015 ). Conductivity is caused by dissolved ions and its increases postfire have been attributed to ions originating from elevated soil, sediment, rock and plant debris (Reale et al. 2015 ), and from ash formed in higher temperature fires (Rhoades et al. 2011 ). However, we did not observe substantial increases in substrate components, which were only measured at alpine sites, that we would expect if the source of dissolved ions was related to elevated soil, sediment, rock and plant debris. This suggests that the source of dissolved ions contributing to increased EC, at least at alpine sites, is likely to be particles and solutes from ash. pH and Alkalinity: The response of pH in waterways following fire is determined by the buffering capacity of the stream, and the acidity or alkalinity of stream inputs (Paul et al. 2022 ). Thus, a stream with high buffering capacity would be expected to resist changes in pH in response to ash inputs, but a stream with low buffering capacity would be expected to change pH in response to fire. Both increases (e.g., Son et al. 2015 ) and decreases (Dahm et al. 2015 , Sherson et al. 2015 ) in pH following fire have been reported. Indeed, we detected both increases and decreases in pH. Post-fire pH was unchanged at alpine burnt sites but decreased at alpine catchment burnt sites for 12 months post-fire. In contrast, at montane sites, pH increased at both catchment burnt and site burnt sites which is a change in the opposite direction to alpine sites, persisting for 24 months at burnt sites and 3 months at catchment burn sites. Further, alkalinity in the montane zone at burnt sites increased for 12 months following fire, but because this variable was not measured at alpine sites, we cannot compare or contrast changes in the buffering capacity of streams with those at our montane sites. The up to 2 year duration of the responses observed in pH are consistent with those reported elsewhere (e.g., Rhoades et al. 2011 , Lydersen et al. 2014 ) and likely linked to movement of ash. The amount of ash produced by wildfire and its characteristics depend on the mass and type of fuel burned, the completeness of combustion (Bodi et al 2014), and these factors vary spatially within areas burnt. Accordingly, the depth of the ash layer ranges from a thin layer (e.g., < 5mm) from a grassland fire with low fuel load and high combustion completeness (Bodí et al. 2014 ), to a thick layer (e.g., up to 200 mm) from a dense forest that contains a higher fuel load (Gabet and Sternberg 2008 ). Ash is often removed quickly by wind or water (Bodí et al. 2014 ), sometimes within days or weeks (Pereira et al. 2015 ). Suspended solids (turbidity) Although predicted increases in turbidity were not observed at alpine sites, the predicted increases were observed at montane sites within both burnt and catchment burnt site categories for 6 months and 3 months respectively. Within our montane study area, White et al. ( 2006 ) attributed the increase in turbidity to intense and localised storms that eroded fire debris and ash from fire affected slopes. The duration of turbidity increases we detected are shorter than the typical 3–5 years reported elsewhere (e.g., Nyman et al. 2011 , Rhoades et al. 2011 ). Elevated suspended solids post-fire can threaten drinking water supply (White et al. 2006 , Bodí et al. 2014 ) not only by placing great demand on water treatment facilities, but sediments and ash can also contain contaminants including metals (Smith et al. 2011b , Abraham et al. 2017 , Rust et al. 2018 ). Streambed ash, muck and detritus : Streambed ash, muck and detritus data were collected only at alpine sites, and at two spatial scales: the larger ‘reach’ scale i.e., a 100 m stretch of stream, and the smaller 10 m ‘riffle habitat’ scale within the same reach (see Nichols et al. ( 2000 ) for details). The higher energy riffle habitat would likely have less deposition relative to the entire reach. We thus expected greater proportional coverage of sedimentary detritus, muck and ash in the reach relative to the riffle, and we expected this increase for a longer duration. Consistent with expectations, we observed a shorter increase in ‘mud and muck’ (the substrate fraction associated with ash inputs) in the riffle habitat of 6 months at catchment burnt sites only, versus four years at the reach scale in both catchment burnt and site burnt categories. This observation of effect lasting four years is similar to the Verkaik et al. ( 2013 ) review that concluded that increases in these variables lasted 1 to 4 years in Mediterranean climate streams, and 5–10 years in non-Mediterranean streams. The amount of detritus observed in alpine waterways increased post fire instead of decreasing, contradicting our predictions. These changes were only evident at the reach scale, but not riffle scale. Increases in reach scale detritus were detected in the alpine zone in both sites categories for up to 6 months following wildfire. Elsewhere, coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM), fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) and leaf litter inputs have typically been reported to reduce in burned catchments after fires and subsequent storms but CPOM recovered quickly (i.e., within 2 to 4 years) at sites where the riparian canopy remained intact relative to where riparian vegetation was burned (Cooper et al. 2015 ). Where riparian vegetation is burned, recovery of leaf litter inputs and associated CPOM/FPOM ranges from 3 years (Noske et al. 2010 ) to 5 years (Jackson et al. 2012 , Cooper et al. 2015 ), is of longer duration than the 6 months detected in this study, and changes in the opposing direction to that found in our study. Streambed geological substrate : As in the preceding sub-section, streambed geological substrate data were collected only at alpine sites, and at two spatial scales: the larger ‘reach’ scale i.e., a 100 m stretch of stream, and the smaller 10 m ‘riffle habitat’ scale within the same reach (see Nichols et al. ( 2000 ) for details). At catchment burnt sites we detected two unexpected changes in substrate composition. Firstly, increases in % reach bedrock lasting 5 years. Secondly, decreases in % reach cobble lasting for 18 months. Similarly, Oliver et al. ( 2012 ) detected reduced % streambed cobble for two years following a fire, despite not observing any scouring events or large floods post-fire. We offer two non-mutually exclusive mechanisms that could explain our observed increase in reach % bedrock. Firstly, increased surface runoff because of reductions in interception and infiltration of precipitation would tend increase overland flow (Ebel and Moody 2013 ). Increased overland flow would tend to increase peak discharge and velocity, and shorten periods between precipitation and increased peaks (Shakesby and Doerr 2006 ). The resultant ‘peaky’ scouring flows that follow would tend to expose bedrock. Secondly, a common short-term response following fires is reduced infiltration leading to reduced groundwater recharge (e.g., Ebel and Moody 2013 ). If infiltration rates recover before vegetation recovers post-fire, increased recharge of groundwater leads to increased baseflow (Bart and Tague 2017 , Poon and Kinoshita 2018 ), which in turn could contribute to scouring flows thus exposing streambed bedrock. Although changes in these substrate categories were not expected, the site category (catchment burnt) was the area in which we expected to see changes in other substrate size classes. Despite our prediction, we did not detect an increase in substrate fines (sand, silt and clay fractions combined) at either site burnt or catchment burnt sites. Increasing burn severity and extent have been associated with greater interannual variability, rather than perennial increases in sediment loads, likely because of fire and water flow decreasing habitat stability in burned catchments (Arkle et al 2010 ). However, sediment yields in subalpine streams may be less affected than yields from lower elevation streams because of the slow release rate of spring snow melt (Mast and Clow 2008 ). Thus, in the absence of fine sediments at alpine sites, we suggest the fires and subsequent precipitation did not result in entrainment and deposition of fine sediment following fire at alpine sites because the fires in this instance lacked the intensity and severity to mobilise fine sediments, and/or because there was insufficient rainfall or snowmelt to mobilise fine sediments at alpine sites after fire. Stream channel morphology Observations at our alpine site do not support hypothesised reductions in bank stability, either as changes in bank width or bank height. However, at montane sites we observed reduced bank stability as changed bank width (but not bank height) following wildfire. Contrary to our predictions, bank widths decreased in the first 18 months following fire instead of increasing, occurring only at burnt sites. Channel narrowing following wildfire has been reported (Shakesby and Doerr 2006 ) resulting from complex responses to destruction of vegetation and litter, and alteration to soil properties. It may be that the burn severity and extent in our alpine region were insufficient to change our sites, or post-fire rainfall intensity was insufficient to move sediments into the streams. Riparian vegetation Contrary to other studies where wildfire consistently enhanced exotic vegetation composition while having no effect on native species composition (e.g., Alba et al. 2015 ), we did not observe change in the ratio of exotic versus native vegetation following wildfire at alpine sites. Further, at montane catchment burnt sites, we found observed increases in proportions of native vegetation at catchment burnt sites for 18 months following wildfire. These changes were not detected at burnt sites in line with our predictions. The increased portion of native vegetation at catchment burnt sites we observed may result from downstream ash redistributions by wind and water, fertilizing native vegetation. Plants can respond positively to ash additions because of nutrient content including Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , P and N (e.g., Bodí et al. 2014 , Paul et al. 2022 ). These nutrient inputs from the redistribution of ash may explain the increased grass cover in the riparian zone at both alpine and montane sites, and at catchment burnt sites in alpine zones. Indeed, some Australian native plants require ash or chemicals associated with fire for reproduction or growth (Enright and Thomas 2008) offering an explanation for increased native vegetation downstream of fire at catchment burnt sites in the montane zone. Despite our predictions that riparian trees > 10 m, and riparian trees < 10 m, would be reduced in cover following fire, we did not observe this. However, we did observe reduced riparian shrub cover in both alpine sites (for at least 8 years), and at montane zones (for at least 4 years), where sites had been burnt. Alpine plants grow slower than those from lower and warmer elevations (Atkin et al. 1996 ) providing a likely explanation as to why alpine sites recovered slower than montane sites. Riparian grass in both our alpine and montane zones recovered from decreases over the same period (12 months). Further, at alpine sites after 12 months, the amount of grass cover increased above what was observed before wildfire. In addition to potential fertiliser effects from ash redistributions discussed above, grasses colonised riparian areas that pre-fire were covered by riparian shrubs. In eucalyptus woodlands, recovery of the shrub layer is known to be quick relative to grasses (Dragovich and Morris 2002 ). We observed the opposite at alpine sites, where the shrub layer remained sparse for much longer while grasses recover relatively quickly, which is broadly consistent with Adams et al. ( 2013 ) review of fire in elevated environments in south-eastern Australia. The recovery times of riparian vegetation is important because recovery of aquatic systems is closely tied to terrestrial recovery (Verkaik et al. 2013 , Bixby et al. 2015 , Leonard et al. 2017 ). The vegetation is important in different ways because ground cover will be most effective at reducing, slowing and filtering overland flow, while trees and large shrubby vegetation will have a large effect on transpiration and rainfall interception. Conclusion Despite many variables being hypothesised to change in response to fire, only 8 of 33 variables at alpine sites, and 7 of 12 variables at montane sites changed as predicted. In 4 instances, variables changed in the opposite direction to predictions (e.g., TP and % reach detritus). For 90% of the response variables tested at both alpine sites (33 variables) and montane sites (12 variables), effects were not detectable beyond 24 months post-fire. We found no single consistent effects of fire on stream physicochemistry or riparian habitat. Some variables did respond to wildfire in a consistent way, but the magnitude and duration of effects varies by elevation (alpine vs. montane), and proximity of sites to fire. Effects on physicochemical and habitat variables, where measured at both alpine and montane sites, was greater at montane sites, but the longest lasting effects were detected at alpine sites. Grasses and shrubby vegetation in the riparian zone showed the strongest declines of the vegetation categories in response to wildfire at both alpine and montane site groups, with slower recovery at alpine sites. Responses of water physicochemical and habitat variables to wildfires are complex and will therefore continue to provide a challenge for resource managers and the research community, reinforcing the need for research to develop a mechanistic understanding of the effects of fire on streams. The potential for increased fire frequency under changing climates, combined with the relatively slow post-fire recovery of alpine vegetation following fire should be of concern for alpine regions. Until a mechanistic understanding is achieved, fire effects on stream physicochemical and habitat variables will need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Declarations Availability of data and material : The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study will be placed in a publicly available repository on publication. Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding: We thank the Hermon Slade Foundation (Grant HSF20198), for funding. 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Fire as a disturbance in Mediterranean climate streams. Hydrobiologia 719: 353–382. Verkaik, I., M. Vila-Escale, M. Rieradevall, C. V. Baxter, P. S. Lake, G. W. Minshall, P. Reich, and N. Prat. 2015. Stream macroinvertebrate community responses to fire: are they the same in different fire-prone biogeographic regions? Freshwater Science 34: 1527–1541. Verrall, B., and C. M. Pickering. 2019. Recovery of subalpine grasslands 15 years after landscape level fires. Australian Journal of Botany 67: 425–436. Vieira, N. K., W. H. Clements, L. S. Guevara, and B. F. Jacobs. 2004. Resistance and resilience of stream insect communities to repeated hydrologic disturbances after a wildfire. Freshwater Biology 49: 1243–1259. Westerling, A. L., H. G. Hidalgo, D. R. Cayan, and T. W. Swetnam. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313: 940–943. White, I., A. Wade, M. Worthy, N. Mueller, T. Daniell, and R. Wasson. 2006. The vulnerability of water supply catchments to bushfires: impacts of the January 2003 wildfires on the Australian Capital Territory. Australasian Journal of Water Resources 10: 179–194. Williams, R. J., C.-H. Wahren, A. D. Tolsma, G. M. Sanecki, W. A. Papst, B. A. Myers, K. L. McDougall, D. A. Heinze, and K. Green. 2008. Large fires in Australian alpine landscapes: their part in the historical fire regime and their impacts on alpine biodiversity. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17: 793–808. Worboys, G. 2003. A brief report on the 2003 Australian Alps bushfires. Mountain Research and Development 23: 294–295. Supplementary Files ShentonWQandHabitatPaperSupplementaryInformation.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4591610","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":324007296,"identity":"8eca5bbd-a606-4e3f-88ef-feb999e08606","order_by":0,"name":"Mark David Shenton","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0241-9430","institution":"University of Canberra","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mark","middleName":"David","lastName":"Shenton","suffix":""},{"id":324007297,"identity":"340d2d94-668c-4b79-bf81-dde1efe22a62","order_by":1,"name":"Ross M Thompson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Canberra","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ross","middleName":"M","lastName":"Thompson","suffix":""},{"id":324007298,"identity":"a34b7825-755b-4fab-b127-efd4a56e6239","order_by":2,"name":"Ben J Kefford","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Canberra","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ben","middleName":"J","lastName":"Kefford","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-17 03:54:34","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":61503309,"identity":"0f8ddb0c-3cfb-450b-87b3-96e86270b4ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-31 13:14:40","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":153937,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy locations in south eastern Australia showing the two groups of sites in the Perisher-Thredbo area in New South Wales (NSW) and in Australian Capital Territory (ACT). Sites shown as red circles were burnt at the site, yellow squares had burning within their upstream catchment but not at the site itself, and black triangles are unburnt (control) sites.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eDetailled information about individual study sites is provided in Supplementary Tables S2 and S3.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Thesismapsalpineandmontane.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4591610/v1/d20b8dff5bc4ca05aad74c00.jpg"},{"id":65780220,"identity":"2d012cdf-cae8-4b80-bf29-1c7de0273b85","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-02 14:57:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1551431,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4591610/v1/3bbfb87b-80a1-4724-94e9-7c8ca1d2181d.pdf"},{"id":61503310,"identity":"ed201b93-215d-4228-a82a-be156ed8a32f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-31 13:14:40","extension":"docx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":8123592,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ShentonWQandHabitatPaperSupplementaryInformation.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4591610/v1/2e8158ed8809e6889a0bc5ea.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Fire and water: water quality impacts of landscape-scale disturbance by wildfire.","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eWildfire is an important disturbance in many of the world\u0026rsquo;s vegetated terrestrial ecosystems (Minshall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Bowman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, Pausas and Keeley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Van Butsic et al. 2015, Lindenmayer and Taylor \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Fire plays an important role in determining ecosystem structure, condition, composition, and processes (Bowman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, Pausas and Keeley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, Lindenmayer and Taylor \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires (Leigh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and lengthening fire seasons (Westerling et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Dahm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) across many regions and ecosystem types globally (e.g., Cochrane \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Seidl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Fairman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Although many species have adapted to fires and systems recover following fires, changes in fire regimes due to management practices and climate change have the potential to have negative impacts (Bergeron et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, Dey and Hartman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e, Krebs et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Fairman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), hence it is important to understand the effects of fires.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to effects on terrestrial ecosystems, wildfire can also affect the physicochemical and biological characteristics of inland waters (Paul et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The effects of fire on freshwater systems depends on multiple aspects of the fire, landscape and climate. These aspects include; fire regime (Minshall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Arkle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Adams et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Van Oldenborgh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), land use in fire affected areas (Foley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e, Taylor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Van Butsic et al. 2015), hydrologic conditions before and after fire (e.g., flood and/or drought) (Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Leonard et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Van Oldenborgh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), catchment characteristics such as slope, soil and vegetation (Scott and Van Wyk \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e, Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and the nature of the receiving waterways (e.g., discharge, geomorphology, lentic versus lotic waterways) (Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These characteristics vary widely within and between catchments, and therefore the effects of fires on waterways, freshwater organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems are also highly variable (Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effects of wildfire on freshwater physicochemistry and habitat have been relatively poorly described in the literature (Dahm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), despite the importance of water quality for human water supplies and freshwater biodiversity (Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Paul et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). There is the potential for long-term effects of fire due to changes in riparian habitat and catchments (Minshall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) but effects more than 5 years post fire are rarely considered (Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) (but see Albin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e), Romme et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)). Where streams are sampled in years after a fire, sampling typically does not involve long and regular timeseries. Moreover, studies of the effects of time are plagued by sub-optimal design, with the same sites sampled before fires rare (but see (Vieira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)) and typically less than 10 sites (but see Minshall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), Rhoades et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)), especially for long-term studies (Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, knowledge of effect of fires on freshwater physiochemistry and habitat is predominantly based on suboptimal designed and short-medium term studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe aim to determine the effects of landscape-scale wildfires on physicochemical and habitat variables of streams up to 18 years postfire. We improved the design typically in previous studies by having samping during at least two seasons per year up to 9 years prior to the fire and then having data available at at least this frequency of sampling for up to 18 years after fire. Moreover we had 17 control sites with no, or extermely low level of buring, within their upstream catchment to detect any temporal responces unconected to the fire. We further investigated effects at sites in both sub-alpine (hereafter alpine) and montain environments to invistagate variablity in the effect of fire. We had a set of expectations of the effects of fire on physicochemical and habitat variables (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e), and we proposed 12 hypotheses with respect to which aspects of stream physicochemistry and habitat that are likely to be affected by fire at local and landscape scales (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProposed hypotheses of stream physicochemistry and habitat variables likely to be fire affected at local and landscape scales.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH1\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire results in increased nutrient loads (i.e., TN and/or TP) to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarl and Blinn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Sheridan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), Bladon et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), Lane et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), Noske et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), Silins et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), Sherson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Rhoades et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH2\u003c/b\u003e: Electrical conductivity (EC) changes (either increases or decreases) in response to wildfire due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlbin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e), Earl and Blinn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Lyon and O\u0026rsquo;connor (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), Dahm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Reale et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Sherson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH3\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire results in increased turbidity, due to suspended colloidal and particulate matter, in receiving waterways due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), Rhoades et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Dahm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Reale et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH4\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire results in changes in pH (either increases or decreases) due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreases: Cushing Jr and Olson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1963\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecreases: Earl and Blinn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Dahm et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Sherson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH5\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire results in increased alkalinity (the concentration of bicarbonate and carbonate that indicate the buffering capacity of water) in receiving waterways due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhoades et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Lydersen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH6\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire results in increased delivery of fine sediment (sand, silt and/or clay) to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIce et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Vieira et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Lane et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), Petticrew et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), Moody and Martin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), Oliver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), Bladon et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), Cooper et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Leonard et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH7\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire reduces bank stability as observed by increases in bank width and bank height following fires due primarily to local scale burning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOliver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH8\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire reduces vegetation cover in riparian zones as observed by a reduction in percentage cover of riparian vegetation following fires due primarily to local scale burning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinshall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), Spencer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Oliver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), Jackson and Sullivan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH9\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire leads to an increased proportion of exotic vegetation in burnt areas (and a corresponding decrease in native vegetation) due to local scale burning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlba et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Verrall and Pickering (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH10\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire leads to reduced detritus (CPOM, sticks, wood, leaves etc) delivery to waterways due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoske et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), Jackson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), Cooper et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH11\u003c/b\u003e: The amount of muck (dark or black fine matter, ash, black ooze etc) in waterways increases following wildfire due to both local and catchment impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetticrew et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), White et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH12\u003c/b\u003e: Wildfire alters stream habitat quality for stream macroinvertebrates, resulting in decreased habitat assessment scores based on an index of stream condition, due primarily to local scale burning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLadson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eH13\u003c/b\u003e: Responses in the alpine zone will be different to those in lowland or montane zones because of the effects of seasonal snow and ice at alpine sites, slower rates of vegetation recovery after fire and differences in the fire sensitivity of vegetation communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ee.g., Mast and Clow (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e** Insert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere \u0026ndash; or near to here **\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in a temperate climate zone of south-eastern Australia (Koppen-Geiger climate classification Cfb). Sites were either located at sub-alpine elevations (1160\u0026ndash;1760 m above sea level (ASL)) near Perisher and Thredbo, Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) within the Australian Alps of New South Wales (NSW), or in montane and sub-montane (395\u0026ndash;900 m ASL) environments of NSW and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Tables S2\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS3\u003c/em\u003e). Sub-alpine sites will be referred to as \u0026lsquo;alpine\u0026rsquo; sites hereafter, and montane and sub-montane sites will be referred to as \u0026lsquo;montane\u0026rsquo; sites. At alpine sites, vegetation types comprise grasslands and heaths with woodlands, the height of which increases at lower elevations. The alpine sites in this study have upstream catchments comprising natural areas, ski resorts including accommodation and a campground. At montane sites, vegetation ranged from open forest and woodlands in natural areas to modified pastures. The catchment use of montane sites used in this study comprised closed drinking water catchments, natural areas, agricultural grazing land, or urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the summer of 2003 these regions experienced one of the largest wildfires in Australia since 1939, burning over 1.7\u0026nbsp;million hecares across Victoria, NSW and the ACT, during one of the worst droughts then on record (McLeod \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Worboys \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Lane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Fire in Australian alpine and sub-alpine regions is relatively infrequent, with estimates from dendrochronology indicating large fires at intervals ranging from approximately 50 to 140 years during the past 400 years (Williams et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The mean fire interval in the ACT, i.e., in the region of our montane sites, is approximately 40 years (McCarthy and Lindenmayer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eData collection\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eStream physicochemical and habitat data was analysed for a 28-year period (1994 to 2021). Water samples, physical, chemical and habitat data were collected following standardised methods (Nichols et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) (see \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S4\u003c/em\u003e). These variables were measured on four occassions per year (approximately February, May, August and November) at alpine sites and on two occasions per year (approximately May and November) at montane sites. For the first 12 months following the fire, all alpine sites were sampled monthly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eStudy design\u003c/span\u003e: A before-after-control-impact (BACI) study design (Stewart-Oaten et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e, Stewart-Oaten et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e, Christie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) was used with multiple control and impact sites. BACI controls for potentially confounding temporal variation and allows a more powerful exploration of the effects of fire. The sites were classified into 3 categories: (1) 19 sites where the immediate area of the site (i.e., where sampling occurred) was burnt and varying amounts of the upstream catchment also burnt hereafter referred to as \u0026lsquo;site burnt\u0026rsquo;, (2) seven sites where no burning occurred at the site where sampling was undertaken, but with significant (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;60%) burning of the upstream catchment, including to the water\u0026rsquo;s edge upstream of the site, and without major confluences between the burn area and sampling site, hereafter \u0026lsquo;catchment burnt\u0026rsquo;, and (3) 17 sites where both site and the catchment were unburnt which serve as controls, hereafter \u0026lsquo;unburnt\u0026rsquo; (see \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Tables S2\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS3\u003c/em\u003e for a list of the sites). To make this classification, we consulted original datasheets and relevant reports from monitoring and sampling programs. In the case of montane sites, we also consulted a firemap (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.data.act.gov.au/Justice-Safety-and-Emergency/2003-Bushfire-Affected-Areas-/8gwk-tw75\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.data.act.gov.au/Justice-Safety-and-Emergency/2003-Bushfire-Affected-Areas-/8gwk-tw75\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analysis was conducted separately for the alpine and montane environments because of differences in sampling frequency and variables measured. Scatterplots of each variable were visually inspected to determine if there were seasonal or site-related patterns within the data before the fire (i.e., before January 2003). Where patterns were identified, standardisation was performed by calculating the pre-fire mean of the relevant variable for each site and/or season (to obtain constants), and substracting this value (constant) from each observation (e.g.,, observation\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;x - ). While this standardisation eliminates site and seasonal effects, it makes it more difficult to consider the absolute effects, and thus we have chosen not to plot time-series of response variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChanges in variables hypothesised to be affected by fire were visualised using boxplots. Changes in univariate responses were then statistically tested using a linear mixed effects model (R-Studio version 4.0.3, R packages \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003enlme\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003elme4\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;). Sites were set as the random factor, while burn category (3 levels \u0026ndash; i.e., site burnt, catchment burnt and unburnt) and time since fire (2 levels \u0026ndash; before and after the fire) were fixed effects (the use of the variable time since fire is expanded on below). This model included an interaction term (burn category * time since fire) because with a BACI this interaction indicates if there is an effect of the fire, which is our interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime since fire was initially set at 12 months post-fire, the model run, and its results interpreted. If this analysis resulted in a statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) interaction between burn category * time since fire (interaction term hereafter), then the model was re-run for the next 12 months of data (i.e., using before fire data and after fire data for 13 to 24 months following the fire). This process was repeated until the interaction term was no longer significant. If the results of this analyses for the first 12 months did not have a significant interaction term, then the post-fire window was shortened in 3 month increments in case the interaction was significant for a period less than 12 months. The time that the interaction remained significant indicated the temporal extent of post-fire effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariate analysis of habitat and physicochemical variables was undertaken using Principle Components Analysis (PCA) (Pearson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1901\u003c/span\u003e, Hotelling \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1933\u003c/span\u003e, Jolliffe and Cadima \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) within the R-package \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eFactoMineR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; using correlation matrices and then plotted to visualise changes in principle components 1 and 2 from before fire to after fire. These were followed with permutational MANOVA (PerMANOVA) (9999 permutations) (Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) using the R-package \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003ePERMANOVA\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; and the same statistical approach described above for univariate analaysis. Where PerMANOVA detected changes in variables but these were not readily visible in PCA plots, we extracted principle components that contributed greater than 5% to variance observed at alpine sites (6 components), or 9% at montane sites (4 components), with these cutoff points being selected arbitrarily. Each of these components was statistically tested for an interaction using the previously described model. Boxplots were then generated for each of these components and loadings used to determine which of the variables were changing in response to fire where a significant interaction was detected. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS) (Kruskal \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1964\u003c/span\u003e) was used to visualise overall differences in response variables at each site. nMDS ordinations were plotted using Euclidean distances, and vectors overlaid using the R-function \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eenvfit\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; from the \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003evegan\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; package.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eUnivariate results: Alpine zone, burnt sites.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the alpine zone, seven of 33 response variables (21%) showed a statistically significant interaction term between burn category and time since fire during the first 12 months following fire, six response variables (18%) for the second year following fire, and four variables (12%) for the third year following fire (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The interaction term remained significant for three variables (9%) during the fourth year (% riparian shrub cover, % riparian grass cover, and % mud/muck in reach), for two variables (6%) during the fifth year (% riparian shrub cover, and % riparian grass cover), and for one variable (3%) during the sixth through eighth years following fire (% riparian shrub cover). Another three variables (9%) showed a trend but no statistically significant effects of fire during the post-fire period (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S1.27, S1.28\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS1.31\u003c/em\u003e). The remaining response variables showed no trend of a fire effect (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S5\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of univariate results from statistical testing of the interaction between site type and time since fire for response variables. NSS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not statistically significant. Blank fields indicate insufficient data available for statistical analyses. For full reporting of results see \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Tables S5\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS6\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlpine sites results summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirection of trend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontane sites results summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirection of trend\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTN (mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;18 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 605\u0026minus;1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.68\u0026ndash;2.84; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0047\u0026ndash;0.0076\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.09\u0026ndash;0.33)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTP (mg L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.96\u0026ndash;0.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 month: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 541\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.25; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEC (\u0026micro;S cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;30 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 604 \u0026ndash; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.33\u0026ndash;3.32; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06\u0026ndash;0.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 month: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,541\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.43; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 118 \u0026ndash; 1, 128\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.10\u0026ndash;2.20; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.030\u0026ndash;0.038\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15\u0026ndash;0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;24 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 154 \u0026ndash; 1, 156\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.14\u0026ndash;2.44;p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.016\u0026ndash;0.034\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;12 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 573 \u0026ndash; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.04 - -2.21; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.027\u0026ndash;0.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;3 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 118\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.00;p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.047\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78\u0026ndash;0.91)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 118\u0026minus; 1,128\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.11 - -2.58;p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011\u0026ndash;0.037\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.20\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;3 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 118\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.14; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.035\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlkalinity (mg CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;12 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 154\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.39; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12\u0026ndash;0.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBank height (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79\u0026ndash;0.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013-0.90)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92\u0026ndash;0.95)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBank width (m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.46\u0026ndash;0.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;18 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 152 \u0026ndash; 1, 154\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.37 - -3.24; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002\u0026ndash;0.019\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07\u0026ndash;0.49)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07\u0026ndash;0.25)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% native vegetation cover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.24\u0026ndash;0.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.054\u0026ndash;0.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07\u0026ndash;0.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;18 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 152 \u0026ndash; 1, 154\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.05\u0026ndash;2.09; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.039\u0026ndash;0.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% exotic vegetation cover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18\u0026ndash;0.30)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07\u0026ndash;0.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.053\u0026ndash;0.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06\u0026ndash;0.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% riparian trees\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13\u0026ndash;0.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26\u0026ndash;0.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74\u0026ndash;0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07\u0026ndash;0.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% riparian trees\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 m\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.57\u0026ndash;0.70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15\u0026ndash;0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.31\u0026ndash;0.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11\u0026ndash;0.35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% riparian shrub cover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;96 months+: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 559 \u0026minus; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e= -10.53 - -2.96; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;30 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 152\u0026minus;1, 157\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e= -3.66 - -2.07; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.040\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13\u0026ndash;0.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.76\u0026ndash;0.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% riparian grass cover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;60 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 598 \u0026ndash; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.84\u0026ndash;5.85; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.027\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;12 mths.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThen \u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;12 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 152\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-3.03; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;48 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 601 \u0026minus; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=3.14\u0026ndash;6.08; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.84\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% bedrock in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37\u0026ndash;0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;60 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 598\u0026minus;1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=4.07\u0026ndash;7.25; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% boulder in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.24\u0026ndash;0.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.33\u0026ndash;0.57)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% cobble in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.087\u0026ndash;0.29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;18 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 609 \u0026minus; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-2.44 - -2.54; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012\u0026ndash;0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% pebble in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26\u0026ndash;0.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47\u0026ndash;0.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% gravel in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08\u0026ndash;0.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.33\u0026ndash;0.56)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% sand in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.64\u0026ndash;0.97)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.32\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% silt in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16\u0026ndash;0.64)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.52\u0026ndash;0.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% fines in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27\u0026ndash;0.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.67\u0026ndash;0.99)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% detritus in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 565 \u0026ndash; 1, 573\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.37\u0026ndash;2.52; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012\u0026ndash;0.018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 565 \u0026minus; 1, 573\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.55\u0026ndash;2.67; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.008\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% mud/muck in reach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;48 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 601\u0026minus;1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.38\u0026ndash;3.29; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;48 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 601 \u0026ndash; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.39\u0026ndash;4.09; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% bedrock in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55\u0026ndash;0.73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.62\u0026ndash;0.98)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% boulder in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41\u0026ndash;0.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.33\u0026ndash;0.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% cobble in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051\u0026ndash;0.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25\u0026ndash;0.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% pebble in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26\u0026ndash;0.50)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58\u0026ndash;0.84)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% gravel in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.32\u0026ndash;0.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36\u0026ndash;0.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% sand in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16\u0026ndash;0.87)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73\u0026ndash;0.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% silt in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.88\u0026ndash;0.93)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.59\u0026ndash;0.80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% detritus in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.14\u0026ndash;0.45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41\u0026ndash;0.83)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% mud/muck in riffle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08\u0026ndash;0.26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;6 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 541 \u0026ndash; 1, 573\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=2.00\u0026ndash;3.71; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.046\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026uarr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;18 months: t\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e1, 609 \u0026ndash; 1, 617\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e=-3.19 - -4.36; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u0026ndash;0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026darr;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCatchment burnt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27\u0026ndash;0.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eUnivariate results: Montane zone, burnt sites.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt burnt sites in the montane zone, there was evidence that six of 12 response variables (50%) show a statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and biologically important interaction term during the first 12 months following fire, for three response variables (25%) during the second year following fire (bank width, % shrub cover, pH), and for 1 response variable (8%) during the third year following fire (% shrub cover). Five variables (42%) showed a trend in the post-fire period but no statistically significant fire effects (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S2.5, S2.7, S2.8, S2.11\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS2.12\u003c/em\u003e). The one remaining response variable (conductivity) showed no evidence of fire effects at montane burnt sites (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S6\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eUnivariate results: Alpine zone, catchment burnt sites.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the first 12 months following fire at catchment burnt sites in the alpine zone, the interaction term is statistically significant for nine of 33 response variables (27%), for four response variables (12%) during the second year, three during the third and fourth years following fire (% riparian grass cover, % bedrock in reach, and % mud and muck in reach), and one variable during the fifth year following fire (% bedrock in reach) (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Another 6 variables (18%) showed a trend but no statistically significant fire effects during the post-fire period (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S1.1, S1.9, S1.17, S1.22, S1.25 and S1.31\u003c/em\u003e), while the remaining response variables showed no trend of fire on them (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S5\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eUnivariate results: Montane zone, catchment burnt sites.\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt catchment burnt sites in the montane zone, four of 12 response variables (33%) demonstrated a statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and biologically important interaction term during the first 12 months following fire (turbidity, EC and pH, % native vegetation cover). One variable showed a significant interaction term during the second year following fire at catchment burnt sites (% native vegetation cover). Three variables (33%) showed a trend in the post-fire period but no statistically significant interaction (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S2.4, S2.6, and S2.11\u003c/em\u003e). Five response variables (42%) showed no effect of fire on them (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S6\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e** Insert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere \u0026ndash; or near to here **\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMultivariate analyses: Alpine sites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerMANOVA found a significant interaction between fire and site (9999 permutations: R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020\u0026ndash;0.054, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.062\u0026ndash;18.509, PR(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) indicating an effect of fire on combined physicochemical and habitat variables. This effect did not have high explanatory power, with 2\u0026ndash;5.4% of the variability in the data accounted for by the interaction term. PCA ordinations of components 1 and 2 did not illustrate clear evidence of post-fire data points clustering together, or clustering away from pre-fire conditions (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S3.1\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eS3.3\u003c/em\u003e). Analysis of component scores for individual principal components between burn category and time since fire indicate that multivariate combinations changed because of fire, but these changes are inconsistent (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Tables S7.1 to S7.6, Supplementary Figures S7.1 to 7.6\u003c/em\u003e). Further, each of the principal components explain a relatively small proportion of total variation (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;12% in PC1) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Table S7.1\u003c/em\u003e). Two-dimensional nMDS plots of data for alpine zone sites (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Figures S5.1 to S5.3\u003c/em\u003e) (stress\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.20) did not show any clear patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerMANOVA results for the interaction term (burn category * time since fire) at alpine sites (9999 permutations).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-fire period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePR(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.509\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 to 24 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 to 36 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.557\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 to 48 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49 to 60 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61 to 72 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.239\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 to 84 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 to 96 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of results from PCA analysis at alpine sites. NSS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not statistically significant. Detailed results are provided at Supplementary Table S7.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage explained\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of effects at Burnt Sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of effects at Catchment Burnt Sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 96 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 60 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 36 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 24 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 60 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMultivariate analyses: Montane sites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerMANOVA (9999 permutations) did not find a statistically significant interaction at the montane sites (PR(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). PCA ordinations of components 1 and 2 did not illustrate clear evidence of post-fire data points clustering together or away from pre-fire points in a PCA plot of components 1 and 2 (30% of total variation explained) (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigures S4.1\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eS4.3 and Supplementary Table S8.1\u003c/em\u003e). Analysis of component scores for individual principal components between burn category and time since fire indicate that multivariate combinations changed because of fire, but these changes are inconsistent (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Tables S8.1 to S8.5, Supplementary Figures S8.1 to S8.4\u003c/em\u003e). Similarly, two-dimensional nMDS plots (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Figures S6.1 to S6.3\u003c/em\u003e) (stress\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10) also did not show any clear patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerMANOVA results for the interaction term (burn category * time since fire) at montane sites (9999 permutations).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-fire period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePR(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01742\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6409\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1483\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 to 24 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0. 00919\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8814\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of results from PCA analysis at montane sites. NSS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not statistically significant. Detailed results are provided at Supplementary Table S8.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage explained\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of effects at Burnt Sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of effects at Catchment Burnt Sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 12 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUp to 36 months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThere was no single consistent effect of fire on stream physicochemistry or habitat. While variables did respond to fire in a consistent way, the magnitude and longevity of impacts varied by the factors whether the site or upstream catchment was burnt and alpine or montane environment. Even accounting for these factors there was still much variability suggesting that there are a) site differences not accounted for in this study that influence response to fire b) differences in local fire intensity and behaviour that affect impacts. These points aside, in the alpine zone the effects tended to be longer lasting postfire than those observed in the montane zone. Effects of the fire on alpine sites were evident up to 8 years following fire, with for example, % riparian grass cover increasing but % riparian shrub cover decreasing at burnt sites relative to unburnt sites (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.25 and Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.26\u003c/em\u003e). While in the montane sites % riparian grass cover decreased for 2.5 years post-fire but pH increased for 2 years post-fire. However, for 90% of response variables within both alpine and montane site (33 at alpine sites, and 12 at montane sites), there was no evidence of a statistically significant interaction term between site type and time since fire beyond 2 years, e.g., see habitat score at alpine sites (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.33)\u003c/em\u003e and see pH at montane sites (Supplementary \u003cem\u003eFigure S2.3)\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMontane vs. alpine sites:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs predicted, the effects of fire on water physicochemical and habitat variables differed between the alpine and montane sites. This comparison was not planned when the data was collected, and consequently there are not matched pairs of similar sites at different elevations. There is also only one \u0026lsquo;replicate\u0026rsquo; of each elevation type. These points aside, for the three physicochemical water measured in both regions (EC, pH and turbidity), fire effects were greater at montane sites than alpine sites (\u003cem\u003eSupplementary Figures \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1.3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eS1.5\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSupplementary Figures S2.1\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eS2.3\u003c/em\u003e), but slightly longer lasting at alpine sites (2.5 years vs. 2 years) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Where riparian vegetation variables were affected, these variables decreased at both montane and alpine sites (% shrub cover and % grass cover) following the fire, but recovery was slower at alpine sites compared to montane sites (up to 8 years versus 4 years). Multiple reasons could explain the differential responses at montane and alpine sites. Fire does not burn evenly throughout the landscape because many factors affect the intensity, severity and spatial extent of wildfire, and these factors vary within the landscape. Firstly, The subalpine woodlands found at our alpine sites contain different communities of plants to those found in montane forests at lower elevations (Costin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e, Adams et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), plants in alpine zones grow slower than those at lower elevations (Atkin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), and Snow Gums (\u003cem\u003eEucalyptus pauciflora\u003c/em\u003e) which are found at alpine sites are more fire sensitive relative to lower elevation Eucalyptus species (Barker \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e, Green and Osborne \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). In general, the vegetation in the alpine zone is lower and sparser (Costin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e) potentially leading to lower fuel load, but see Adams et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Secondly, there are substantial differences in catchment use within each of the two elevational zones. Our sites in the alpine zone are located within largely natural areas with minimal development relative to our sites at lower elevations. While some sites in the montane zone are also located in largely natural areas, many are located in, or adjacent to agricultural and/or urban areas. Thirdly, there are differences in water availability in the two elevational zones. Precipitation is substantially different, with mean annual precipitation in the alpine zone 1750\u0026ndash;2200 mm, but about 630 mm in the montane zone (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.data.act.gov.au/Justice-Safety-and-Emergency/2003-Bushfire-Affected-Areas-/8gwk-tw75\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.bom.gov.au\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.bom.gov.au\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Further differences in water availability arise because of evapotranspiration rates, which tend to decrease as elevation increases (Bruijnzeel and Veneklaas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e, L\u0026uuml;ttge \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, Stoutjesdijk and Barkman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, cited in Gallardo-Cruz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, it is probable the wildfire was less intense in alpine areas relative to montane areas in the current study which was reflected greater proportion of variables effected by the fire in the montane zone relative to the alpine zone, but the effects in alpine zones were generally more severe and longer lasting relative to the montane zone. The longer lasting effects likely related to the slower growth of terrestrial vegetation in the alpine relative to the montane zone (Atkin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffects of fire on nutrients:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreases in nutrient, i.e., N and P, concentrations are frequently reported post wildfire, across different environments (e.g., Smith et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011a\u003c/span\u003e, Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Sherson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Collins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). TN at alpine sites in our study increased as predicted (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) for 18 months post-fire at burnt sites only, but not catchment burnt sites. Increases in nitrogen elsewhere generally return to pre-fire levels within 5 years (e.g., Lane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, Mast and Clow \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), but see Rhoades (2019) that lasted 14 years post-fire). Recovery of TN has been linked to recovery of hillslope and riparian vegetation (Rhoades et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The largest influxes of nitrogen to waterways are typically associated with erosion after fire (Lane et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), often occurring within 12 months of the fire (Bladon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, seasonal runoff patterns at alpine sites are different to sites at lower elevations because of the seasonal snowpack and its melt at alpine sites, resulting in different rates and patterns of nutrient movement (Mast and Clow \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The recovery of TN is likely related to recovery of grasses (discussed below) that slow overland water flow, and in doing so reduce ash and sediment movement into waterways that would otherwise increase TN. It is possible that recovery of grasses is more important than recovery of shrubs in terms of reducing or controlling TN concentrations post-fire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to our predictions, TP decreased at alpine catchment burnt sites for one month following fire. Others have generally observed TP to increase following fires (Son et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Emelko et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), especially after rainfall (Son et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), but reports of TP concentrations decreasing following fire exist (e.g., Noske et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). It is logically possible that fewer people visited and used the areas immediately post-fire because visitor access was restricted, or because fewer people recreated in these areas immediately post-fire. Thus, there may have been a reduced load on sewerage treatment facilities and therefore lower TP in the burn areas. Likewise, we could also expect fewer wildlife e.g., wombats in burnt areas because of mortality or movement to unburnt areas which could lower TP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffects of fire on conductivity:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs predicted electrical conductivity increased following fire. At alpine sites conductivity increased at both site burnt and catchment burnt site categories, for 30 months and 1 month respectively. In contrast, conductivity increased at montane sites only at catchment burnt sites, for 6 months following fire. Elsewhere, conductivity typically changes immediately post fire with changes lasting\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;60 months, even with severe fires (Paul et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Most studies find conductivity increases postfire (e.g., Sherson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), but examples of decreases exist (e.g., Dahm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Conductivity is caused by dissolved ions and its increases postfire have been attributed to ions originating from elevated soil, sediment, rock and plant debris (Reale et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and from ash formed in higher temperature fires (Rhoades et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). However, we did not observe substantial increases in substrate components, which were only measured at alpine sites, that we would expect if the source of dissolved ions was related to elevated soil, sediment, rock and plant debris. This suggests that the source of dissolved ions contributing to increased EC, at least at alpine sites, is likely to be particles and solutes from ash.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003epH and Alkalinity:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe response of pH in waterways following fire is determined by the buffering capacity of the stream, and the acidity or alkalinity of stream inputs (Paul et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, a stream with high buffering capacity would be expected to resist changes in pH in response to ash inputs, but a stream with low buffering capacity would be expected to change pH in response to fire. Both increases (e.g., Son et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and decreases (Dahm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Sherson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) in pH following fire have been reported. Indeed, we detected both increases and decreases in pH. Post-fire pH was unchanged at alpine burnt sites but decreased at alpine catchment burnt sites for 12 months post-fire. In contrast, at montane sites, pH increased at both catchment burnt and site burnt sites which is a change in the opposite direction to alpine sites, persisting for 24 months at burnt sites and 3 months at catchment burn sites. Further, alkalinity in the montane zone at burnt sites increased for 12 months following fire, but because this variable was not measured at alpine sites, we cannot compare or contrast changes in the buffering capacity of streams with those at our montane sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe up to 2 year duration of the responses observed in pH are consistent with those reported elsewhere (e.g., Rhoades et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, Lydersen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and likely linked to movement of ash. The amount of ash produced by wildfire and its characteristics depend on the mass and type of fuel burned, the completeness of combustion (Bodi et al 2014), and these factors vary spatially within areas burnt. Accordingly, the depth of the ash layer ranges from a thin layer (e.g., \u0026lt; 5mm) from a grassland fire with low fuel load and high combustion completeness (Bod\u0026iacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), to a thick layer (e.g., up to 200 mm) from a dense forest that contains a higher fuel load (Gabet and Sternberg \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Ash is often removed quickly by wind or water (Bod\u0026iacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), sometimes within days or weeks (Pereira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSuspended solids (turbidity)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough predicted increases in turbidity were not observed at alpine sites, the predicted increases were observed at montane sites within both burnt and catchment burnt site categories for 6 months and 3 months respectively. Within our montane study area, White et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) attributed the increase in turbidity to intense and localised storms that eroded fire debris and ash from fire affected slopes. The duration of turbidity increases we detected are shorter than the typical 3\u0026ndash;5 years reported elsewhere (e.g., Nyman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, Rhoades et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated suspended solids post-fire can threaten drinking water supply (White et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Bod\u0026iacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) not only by placing great demand on water treatment facilities, but sediments and ash can also contain contaminants including metals (Smith et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011b\u003c/span\u003e, Abraham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Rust et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eStreambed ash, muck and detritus\u003c/span\u003e: Streambed ash, muck and detritus data were collected only at alpine sites, and at two spatial scales: the larger \u0026lsquo;reach\u0026rsquo; scale i.e., a 100 m stretch of stream, and the smaller 10 m \u0026lsquo;riffle habitat\u0026rsquo; scale within the same reach (see Nichols et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) for details). The higher energy riffle habitat would likely have less deposition relative to the entire reach. We thus expected greater proportional coverage of sedimentary detritus, muck and ash in the reach relative to the riffle, and we expected this increase for a longer duration. Consistent with expectations, we observed a shorter increase in \u0026lsquo;mud and muck\u0026rsquo; (the substrate fraction associated with ash inputs) in the riffle habitat of 6 months at catchment burnt sites only, versus four years at the reach scale in both catchment burnt and site burnt categories. This observation of effect lasting four years is similar to the Verkaik et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) review that concluded that increases in these variables lasted 1 to 4 years in Mediterranean climate streams, and 5\u0026ndash;10 years in non-Mediterranean streams.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe amount of detritus observed in alpine waterways increased post fire instead of decreasing, contradicting our predictions. These changes were only evident at the reach scale, but not riffle scale. Increases in reach scale detritus were detected in the alpine zone in both sites categories for up to 6 months following wildfire. Elsewhere, coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM), fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) and leaf litter inputs have typically been reported to reduce in burned catchments after fires and subsequent storms but CPOM recovered quickly (i.e., within 2 to 4 years) at sites where the riparian canopy remained intact relative to where riparian vegetation was burned (Cooper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Where riparian vegetation is burned, recovery of leaf litter inputs and associated CPOM/FPOM ranges from 3 years (Noske et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) to 5 years (Jackson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, Cooper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), is of longer duration than the 6 months detected in this study, and changes in the opposing direction to that found in our study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eStreambed geological substrate\u003c/span\u003e: As in the preceding sub-section, streambed geological substrate data were collected only at alpine sites, and at two spatial scales: the larger \u0026lsquo;reach\u0026rsquo; scale i.e., a 100 m stretch of stream, and the smaller 10 m \u0026lsquo;riffle habitat\u0026rsquo; scale within the same reach (see Nichols et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) for details). At catchment burnt sites we detected two unexpected changes in substrate composition. Firstly, increases in % reach bedrock lasting 5 years. Secondly, decreases in % reach cobble lasting for 18 months. Similarly, Oliver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) detected reduced % streambed cobble for two years following a fire, despite not observing any scouring events or large floods post-fire. We offer two non-mutually exclusive mechanisms that could explain our observed increase in reach % bedrock. Firstly, increased surface runoff because of reductions in interception and infiltration of precipitation would tend increase overland flow (Ebel and Moody \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Increased overland flow would tend to increase peak discharge and velocity, and shorten periods between precipitation and increased peaks (Shakesby and Doerr \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The resultant \u0026lsquo;peaky\u0026rsquo; scouring flows that follow would tend to expose bedrock. Secondly, a common short-term response following fires is reduced infiltration leading to reduced groundwater recharge (e.g., Ebel and Moody \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). If infiltration rates recover before vegetation recovers post-fire, increased recharge of groundwater leads to increased baseflow (Bart and Tague \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Poon and Kinoshita \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), which in turn could contribute to scouring flows thus exposing streambed bedrock. Although changes in these substrate categories were not expected, the site category (catchment burnt) was the area in which we expected to see changes in other substrate size classes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite our prediction, we did not detect an increase in substrate fines (sand, silt and clay fractions combined) at either site burnt or catchment burnt sites. Increasing burn severity and extent have been associated with greater interannual variability, rather than perennial increases in sediment loads, likely because of fire and water flow decreasing habitat stability in burned catchments (Arkle et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). However, sediment yields in subalpine streams may be less affected than yields from lower elevation streams because of the slow release rate of spring snow melt (Mast and Clow \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, in the absence of fine sediments at alpine sites, we suggest the fires and subsequent precipitation did not result in entrainment and deposition of fine sediment following fire at alpine sites because the fires in this instance lacked the intensity and severity to mobilise fine sediments, and/or because there was insufficient rainfall or snowmelt to mobilise fine sediments at alpine sites after fire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eStream channel morphology\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations at our alpine site do not support hypothesised reductions in bank stability, either as changes in bank width or bank height. However, at montane sites we observed reduced bank stability as changed bank width (but not bank height) following wildfire. Contrary to our predictions, bank widths decreased in the first 18 months following fire instead of increasing, occurring only at burnt sites. Channel narrowing following wildfire has been reported (Shakesby and Doerr \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) resulting from complex responses to destruction of vegetation and litter, and alteration to soil properties. It may be that the burn severity and extent in our alpine region were insufficient to change our sites, or post-fire rainfall intensity was insufficient to move sediments into the streams.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRiparian vegetation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to other studies where wildfire consistently enhanced exotic vegetation composition while having no effect on native species composition (e.g., Alba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), we did not observe change in the ratio of exotic versus native vegetation following wildfire at alpine sites. Further, at montane catchment burnt sites, we found observed increases in proportions of native vegetation at catchment burnt sites for 18 months following wildfire. These changes were not detected at burnt sites in line with our predictions. The increased portion of native vegetation at catchment burnt sites we observed may result from downstream ash redistributions by wind and water, fertilizing native vegetation. Plants can respond positively to ash additions because of nutrient content including Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, P and N (e.g., Bod\u0026iacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Paul et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These nutrient inputs from the redistribution of ash may explain the increased grass cover in the riparian zone at both alpine and montane sites, and at catchment burnt sites in alpine zones. Indeed, some Australian native plants require ash or chemicals associated with fire for reproduction or growth (Enright and Thomas 2008) offering an explanation for increased native vegetation downstream of fire at catchment burnt sites in the montane zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite our predictions that riparian trees\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 m, and riparian trees\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;10 m, would be reduced in cover following fire, we did not observe this. However, we did observe reduced riparian shrub cover in both alpine sites (for at least 8 years), and at montane zones (for at least 4 years), where sites had been burnt. Alpine plants grow slower than those from lower and warmer elevations (Atkin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) providing a likely explanation as to why alpine sites recovered slower than montane sites. Riparian grass in both our alpine and montane zones recovered from decreases over the same period (12 months). Further, at alpine sites after 12 months, the amount of grass cover increased above what was observed before wildfire. In addition to potential fertiliser effects from ash redistributions discussed above, grasses colonised riparian areas that pre-fire were covered by riparian shrubs. In eucalyptus woodlands, recovery of the shrub layer is known to be quick relative to grasses (Dragovich and Morris \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). We observed the opposite at alpine sites, where the shrub layer remained sparse for much longer while grasses recover relatively quickly, which is broadly consistent with Adams et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) review of fire in elevated environments in south-eastern Australia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe recovery times of riparian vegetation is important because recovery of aquatic systems is closely tied to terrestrial recovery (Verkaik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Bixby et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, Leonard et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The vegetation is important in different ways because ground cover will be most effective at reducing, slowing and filtering overland flow, while trees and large shrubby vegetation will have a large effect on transpiration and rainfall interception.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite many variables being hypothesised to change in response to fire, only 8 of 33 variables at alpine sites, and 7 of 12 variables at montane sites changed as predicted. In 4 instances, variables changed in the opposite direction to predictions (e.g., TP and % reach detritus). For 90% of the response variables tested at both alpine sites (33 variables) and montane sites (12 variables), effects were not detectable beyond 24 months post-fire. We found no single consistent effects of fire on stream physicochemistry or riparian habitat. Some variables did respond to wildfire in a consistent way, but the magnitude and duration of effects varies by elevation (alpine vs. montane), and proximity of sites to fire. Effects on physicochemical and habitat variables, where measured at both alpine and montane sites, was greater at montane sites, but the longest lasting effects were detected at alpine sites. Grasses and shrubby vegetation in the riparian zone showed the strongest declines of the vegetation categories in response to wildfire at both alpine and montane site groups, with slower recovery at alpine sites. Responses of water physicochemical and habitat variables to wildfires are complex and will therefore continue to provide a challenge for resource managers and the research community, reinforcing the need for research to develop a mechanistic understanding of the effects of fire on streams. The potential for increased fire frequency under changing climates, combined with the relatively slow post-fire recovery of alpine vegetation following fire should be of concern for alpine regions. Until a mechanistic understanding is achieved, fire effects on stream physicochemical and habitat variables will need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cu\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/em\u003e: The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study will be placed in a publicly available repository on publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cu\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/em\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cu\u003eFunding:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/em\u003e We thank the Hermon Slade Foundation (Grant HSF20198), for funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cu\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/em\u003e Conceptualisation: BJK. Developing methods: BJK, RMT, MDS. Research, data analysis and interpretation, preparation of figures and tables, writing original draft: MDS. Review, commenting and editing of draft manuscript: \u0026nbsp; BJK, RMT, MDS.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cu\u003eAcknowledgements:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/em\u003e The authors thank the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, Kosciuszko Thredbo Pty Ltd, Icon Water Ltd, and ACT Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate for permission to use data for this project. MDS was supported by a scholarship from the University of Canberra.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbraham, J., K. Dowling, and S. Florentine. 2017. Risk of post-fire metal mobilization into surface water resources: A review. \u003cem\u003eScience of the Total Environment\u003c/em\u003e 599: 1740\u0026ndash;1755.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdams, M. A., S. C. 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A brief report on the 2003 Australian Alps bushfires. \u003cem\u003eMountain Research and Development\u003c/em\u003e 23: 294\u0026ndash;295.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"wildfire, stream habitat, water quality, riparian, alpine, montane","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e: Wildfire plays an important role in determining ecosystem processes, composition, structure and condition, and is forecast to play a greater role under climate change. Wildfire affects the physicochemical and habitat characteristics of waterways, and the response in freshwater systems depends on characteristics of the fire, landscape and climate. Knowledge of fire effects on freshwater physiochemistry and habitat is predominantly based on suboptimal designed and short-medium term studies. Using a rigorous before-after-control-impact (BACI) study design and up to 28-years timeseries data, we examined if physicochemical and habitat variables changed following wildfire, and the duration of changes relative to unburnt sites in sub-alpine (hereafter alpine) and montane and sub-montane (montane hereafter) environments in south-eastern Australia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003eOf the variables hypothesised to change in response to fire, 8 out of 33 variables at alpine sites, and 7 out of 12 variables at montane sites, changed in line with our predictions. Four variables changed in the opposite direction to predictions. Of 11 variables measured at both sites in alpine and montane environments, 3 variables responded to the fire in only one environment (montane zone) and 1 variable (electrical conductivity) responded in both environments but in different directions. For 90% of response variables examined at both alpine sites (33 variables) and montane sites (12 variables) effects were not detectable beyond 2 years post-fire. The remaining 10% of variables examined were detected up to 8 years post fire at alpine sites, and for 2.5 years at montane sites. The duration of detectable effects was greater at alpine sites than montane sites.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e: We found no single consistent effect of fire on stream physicochemistry. Although some variables were found to respond to wildfire in a consistent way, the magnitude and duration of effects varied by site group (alpine versus montane) and site type (site burnt versus catchment burnt), illustrating the complexity of responses to wildfire. The complexity and inconsistency of responses of water physicochemical and habitat variables to wildfires reinforces the need for a better mechanistic understanding of the effects of fire on streams.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Fire and water: water quality impacts of landscape-scale disturbance by wildfire.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-31 13:14:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4591610/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1309e863-5443-45f3-9e18-951f12d6e688","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 31st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-02T14:49:18+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-31 13:14:35","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4591610","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4591610","identity":"rs-4591610","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}