An angiospermNLRatlas reveals thatNLRgene reduction is associated with ecological specialization and signal transduction component deletion

Nucleotide-binding site-leucine-rich repeat receptor ( NLR ) genes comprise the largest family of plant disease resistance genes. NLR genes are phylogenetically divided into the TNL, CNL, and RNL subclasses. NLR copy numbers and subclass composition vary tremendously across angiosperm genomes. However, the evolutionary associations between genomic NLR content and plant lifestyle, or between NLR content and signal transduction components, are poorly characterized due to limited genome availability. Here, we established an an giosperm N LR a tlas (ANNA, http://compbio.nju.edu.cn/app/ANNA/ ), which includes NLR genes from over 300 angiosperm genomes. Using ANNA, we revealed that NLR copy numbers differ up to 66-fold among closely related species due to rapid gene loss and gain. Interestingly, NLR contraction was associated with adaptations to aquatic, parasitic, and carnivorous lifestyles. The convergent NLR reduction in aquatic plants resembles the long-term evolutionary silence of NLR genes in green algae before the colonization of land. A co-evolutionary pattern between NLR subclasses and plant immune-pathway components was also identified, suggesting that immune pathway deficiencies may drive TNL loss. Finally, we recovered a conserved TNL lineage that may function independently of the RNL pathway. Our findings provide new insights into the evolution of NLR genes in the context of plant lifestyles and genome content variation.