Wearing Masks Generates Approach Motivation in Times of COVID-19

Wearing Masks Generates Approach Motivation in Times of COVID-19 | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Wearing Masks Generates Approach Motivation in Times of COVID-19 Jiakun Liu, Jiajia Yang, Zhonghua Hu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8017396/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background With the global prevalence of COVID-19, governments recommended wearing face masks as a protective measure. Recent studies have found that face mask influences gaze perception, but the neural mechanism by which the masked face generates approach or avoidance motivation is still unclear. This study investigated whether wearing a mask produced motivation for approach or avoidance. Methods Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy(fNIRS) technology, participants engaged in a gender judgment task. They were shown five faces consecutively, either all masked or all non-masked with three types of gaze directions, and were tasked with determining the gender of the five faces. Following this, they needed to evaluate these faces for attractiveness, trustworthiness, and susceptibility to disease, and to complete related questionnaires. Frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) was obtained by subtracting the oxyhemoglobin of the left channel from that of the right channel, with scores above 0 indicating approach motivation and scores below 0 indicating avoidance motivation. Results The results revealed significant differences in FAS between the prefrontal cortex of masked faces and non-masked faces of the gaze direction at 0°. While at 6° and 12°, no such observation in FAS scores were found between the two face types. Additionally, compared to the non-masked face, the masked face having a slightly higher score in trustworthiness and attractiveness, and a lower score in susceptibility. Conclusion The findings show that face mask generates approach motivation. The present findings are of significance for understanding the impact of wearing masks on human social cognition in the context of COVID-19. face mask gaze direction approach-avoidance motivation COVID-19 Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction The Covid-19 pandemic has made wearing masks a necessary part of people’s daily routines. Various studies have shown that wearing a mask is effective in preventing infection (Bowen, 2010 ; Chu et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2021 )leading governments to implement promoting mask-wearing and a one-meter social distance (Tso & Cowling, 2020 ). Gradually, wearing masks has become a general consensus. However, concerns remain about the limited protection of masks and the uneven distribution of resources (Hui et al., 2012 ; Worby & Chang, 2020 ) leading to skepticism among some individuals. In addition, studies have also highlighted the cultural and attitudinal factors influencing mask-wearing behavior (Timpka & Nyce, 2021 ), so there is a need for further exploration of the significance of masks. Masks result in it being perceived as an integral aspect of the face and, consequently, is regarded as an important feature in face processing. This has drawn considerable attention from researchers to conduct extensive research on the impact of masks. For example, wearing masks confuses emotion cognition (Carbon, 2020 ; Kastendieck et al., 2022 ), alters individual gaze patterns (Frank et al., 2021 ; Kastendieck et al., 2022 ), and influences subjective feelings towards face (Cartaud et al., 2020 ; Grundmann et al., 2021 ). However, previous studies have focused mainly on the impact of masks on facial features. Since eyes are readily detected during face processing (Birmingham et al., 2008 ; Teufel et al., 2010 ) and are still visible when wearing masks, it is still possible to utilize the social cues conveyed through eye contact for interpersonal communication. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically explore how gaze affects social perception in the context of the epidemic. Gaze is contextual in nature, leading to a situation where gaze cannot be interpreted as a signal alone (Ohlsen et al., 2013 ). For instance, a prolonged gaze can lead to avoidance behaviours and can sometimes express love and attraction (Jun et al., 2013 ; Mogg et al., 2007 ). Hence, the specific meaning of a gaze depends on the social context (Hamilton, 2016 ). Moreover, the effect of eye gaze can be swayed by other facial cues, such as fearful expressions causing a leftward bias in gaze direction judgments (Zhang et al., 2021 ). Previous studies have also found that observers associate different gaze directions with approach-avoidance motivation (Hietanen et al., 2008 ; Pönkänen et al., 2011 ) and that facial features also have an effect on observers' motivation (Harmon-Jones et al., 2010 ; Harmon-Jones & Gable, 2018 ). From a particular standpoint, masks can be seen as a source of health threat information. When confronted with threatening expressions or situations, individuals tend to judge others by directly looking at them, namely exhibiting greater CoDG (the cone of direct gaze; Ewbank et al., 2009 ; Harbort et al., 2013 ; Jun et al., 2013 ; Tso & Cowling, 2020 ). However, masks are also be seen as a protective measure during epidemics. This ambiguity makes it unclear whether a masked face generates approach or avoidance motivation. Motivated behavior refers to actions taken in response to stimuli to achieve a goal, in principle two responses to a stimulus, approach or avoidance (M. Ernst & Fudge, 2009 ). Approach motivation involves being energized by or directing behaviour towards positive stimuli, while avoidance motivation involves being energized by or directing behaviour away from negative stimuli(J. Elliot, 2006 ). Absolutely, it is imperative to regulate the short-term needs of the organism by promptly gravitating towards positive stimuli and circumventing negative stimuli. According to neuroimaging literatures, the prefrontal lobe plays a crucial role in exercising top-down control and may potentially contain adjustment or control initiation activity (Dosenbach et al., 2008 ). Approach motivation was associated with increased left frontal activation, while avoidance motivation was linked to right frontal activation (Sutton & Davidson, 1997 ). Several studies have since proposed that asymmetrical activity in the frontal cortex may be related to different types of motivation (Harmon-Jones et al., 2010 , for a review). To date, it has been found that mask wearing increases the perception of being looked at (Liu et al., 2022 ; Lobmaier et al., 2021 ), primarily due to the high-level social significance of mask rather than the low-level facial features (Liu et al., 2022 ). However, investigations have been restricted to behavioral effects (Liu et al., 2022 ; Lobmaier et al., 2021 ) without delving into the neural mechanisms and the profound social significance of the issue. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an emerging functional neuroimaging technology offering a relatively non-invasive, safe, portable, and cost- effective method of indirect and direct monitoring of brain activity (Irani et al., 2007 ). Several studies have provided evidence that fNIRS can measure brain responses to facial stimuli (Blasi et al., 2007 ; Ruba & Pollak, 2020 ). Ernst et al., ( 2013 ) conducted an initial investigation using fNIRS to examine the patterns of prefrontal activation in approach-avoidance motivation, revealing different activations in the frontal lobes. They introduced frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) as an indicator of brain activity, calculated by the difference in oxyhemoglobin concentration between left and right frontal lobes. The increase of oxyhemoglobin level reflects the enhanced brain activation with neural coupling (Krol et al., 2021 ; Lloyd-Fox et al., 2010 ), that is, higher oxyhemoglobin levels indicate increased brain activation. And the subtraction of oxyhemoglobin levels on the left minus the right is also consistent with the asymmetry studies (Kaur et al., 2020 ; Krol et al., 2021 ). The current study utilizes the fNIRS technology to conduct a deeper inquiry into whether the effect of wearing a mask on facial perception is driven by a sense of security (approach motivation) or a sense of threat (avoidance motivation). We examined how mask influence motivation when faces are viewed from different gaze directions during the epidemic, using FAS as the dependent variable. Given that mask-wearing increases the perception of being looked at, this study aims to compare motivation levels between the masked faces and non-masked faces at 0°, 6° and 12° gaze direction. With the government promoting mask use as a protective measure as a protection measure, and recent studies suggesting that masks enhance facial credibility (Cartaud et al., 2020 ; Lobmaier & Knoch, 2022 ) and that direct gaze is linked to approach motivation (Hietanen et al., 2008 ), we hypothesized that there would be significant differences between the non-masked face and masked face at 0° and 6° gaze direction, but not at 12° as individuals could be accurately judged this gaze direction as averted gaze. Methods Participants The data collection took place from June 7, 2022 to July 6, 2022, at a time when the Chinese COVID-19 restrictions were still in place. An a priori power analysis (G∗Power 3; Faul et al., 2007 ) with a medium effect size of 0.25, a 1-β power of 0.80, and an alpha of 0.05 found that the required number of participants in the study should be 19. Finally, a total of 21 participants (4 males, 17 females) aged 18–25 years (M = 20.4, SD = 1.03) were recruited. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal visual acuity and reported no mental illness. One subject (male) was excluded due to poor channel quality, leaving a final valid data of 20 participants (3 males, 17 females). The study was approved by the ethics committee of the Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University [2022LS013]. All the participants provided their written informed consent to take part in this study and received monetary compensation for their participation. Materials The colored full-face photographs of 20 Chinese models (10 female, 10 male) were captured by a camera. The models were asked to show neutral expression and change their gaze direction continuously at 5 gaze directions (6°, 12° each to the left and right, and 0°) while the rest of the body remained motionless. In the mask condition, they were asked to put on an N95 mask and repeat the above actions. Total 200 images were collected, with 2 genders × 10 models × 5 gaze directions × 2 face types. All the photographs were edited using Photoshop CS6 (596 × 596 pixels), keeping all the faces consistent in terms of brightness and contrast, maintaining a gray background (see Fig. 1 ). The experiment was conducted on a 24-inch (1,920 by 1,080 pixels; 60 Hz refresh rate) LCD monitor. Stimulus presentations and recordings of the behavioral measures were controlled by E-prime 2.0(https://pstnet.com/). Design and procedure A 2 (face type: non-masked faces, masked faces) × 3 (gaze direction: 6°, 12° each to the left and right, and 0°) within-subjects design was used. The participants were seated comfortably in a dimly lit room with a distance of ∼60 cm from a LCD monitor. Lighting conditions were kept constant for all the participants and the screen position was manually adapted so that the eyes of the avatars were vertically aligned with the eyes of the participants. They completed 3 tasks in sequence, a gender judgment task, a face evaluation task and questionnaires. Gender judgment task Initially, a blank screen with a gray background was displayed (1 min) to ascertain the baseline level. Following this, a fixation cross was introduced and maintained for 1000 ms. Fixation cross offset was immediately succeeded by five consecutive images of faces with the same gender, gaze direction and face type. Each image was maintained for a duration of 1000 ms, and the time interval between the images was 500 ms. After this sequence, the screen became empty again and was displayed for 4000 ms. Subsequently, a response screen was appeared on the screen where a question was displayed asking participants to determine the gender of the faces shown previously. If all five images depicted female faces, the participant was instructed to press 1; If all the images showed male faces, the participant needed to press 2; If both male and female faces were present, the participant was required to press 3. Finally, to allow the participant to prepare for the next trial, a random blank screen was presented for a duration of 6000ms-8000ms (see Fig. 2 ). The experiment consisted of 48 trials, with 2 gender x 10 model x 2 face type. The trial of gaze direction at 0° was repeated twice due to the presence of other directions (6° and 12°) in two directions (left and right). Additionally, four catch trials (displaying both male and female’s pictures) were included to verify the participants' attentive examination of the facial images. Face evaluation task After gender judgment task, participants were asked to rate the faces that had been shown during the task. Firstly, a facial image with the gaze direction at 0° was displayed on the screen, and the participants were requested to press the space bar to enter the evaluation phase after closely examine the picture. Subsequently, they assess the face's attractiveness, trustworthiness, and susceptibility to disease on a 7-point scale. Specifically, the participants were instructed to imagine their feelings towards the facial images as well as their inclination to engage with them socially in the context of COVID-19. Attractiveness pertains to the positive emotion evoked by the face and the degree to which one desires proximity with the face; trustworthiness denotes the level of confidence of the face; and susceptibility means the probability of the face contracting the coronavirus. Questionnaires After the two tasks, participants were asked to fill Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick & Clarke, 1998 ), Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS; Zung et al., 1965 ) and a COVID-19 questionnaire. The aim is to gain a deeper insight into the participants' perspectives on the epidemic and masks. The COVID-9 questionnaire consists of 6 questions using a Likert five-point scale: (a) Q1 = I wear a mask when I go out during the COVID-19 pandemic; (b) Q2 = I think masks played a big role in protection during the COVID-19 pandemic; (c) Q3 = In public, I prefer to communicate with people wearing masks; (d) Q4 = Does wearing a mask outside make you feel more secure or threatened? (e) Q5 = How is your feeling when facing the new coronavirus outbreak? (f) Q6 = How has your social life been impacted during the COVID-19 outbreak? Data recording and analysis Behaviour data The data were subjected to screening based on accuracy in the gender judgement task. In case of any erroneous responses in the 4 catch trials, the participant was deemed to have not exercised due diligence and accordingly, the data was excluded. The results found that all participants had no errors on the 4 catch trials. fNIRS fNIRS measurements were carried out using a continuous wave system (NIRSMARTⅡ-3000A, Danyang Huichuang Medical Equipment Co., Ltd., China) with two different wavelengths (700 and 850 nm) at a temporal resolution of 11 Hz. We employed a 47-channels array comprising 16 light emitters and 16 photo-detectors to capture the hemodynamic response of frontal and temporal lobes (see Fig. 3 ). A channel (i.e., a measuring point of activation) is defined as the region between one emitter and one neighboring detector (Ernst et al., 2013 ). The fNIRS data were pre-processed by Homer2( https://homer-fnirs.org/ ) in MATLAB 2017b( https://matlab.p2hp.com/ ). Raw data were converted to changes in optical density units and motion artefacts were identified and excluded. Then, the data were further motion corrected using wavelet motion correction and a band-pass filter (cut-off frequencies of 0.01 Hz and 0.5 Hz) was applied to remove high and low frequency portion of it such as breathing. Finally, data were converted to HbO and HbR concentrations. Following pre-processing, a general linear model (GLM), a model-based approach, was used to analyze the pre-processed fNIRS time series, setting the parameter baseline to 2s and the time period of interest to 11s, of which the stimulation time was 7s. Visualizations of cortical projections were created in nirsLAB software (NIRx), which projects fNIRS channels onto adult MNI brain space (locked to 10–20 coordinates) (Krol et al., 2021 ). The mean oxyhemoglobin concentration was extracted for each channel and the frontal lobe asymmetry score was calculated. The channels and selected brain areas were as follows: prefrontal cortex (channels 1, 3), inferior frontal gyrus (channels 2, 4), frontal cortex (channels 10, 21, channels 11, 20), frontal lobe (channels 15, 18), dorsolateral prefrontal lobe (channels 13, 17, channels 14, 16, channels 26, 33). To more specific, frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) were created by subtracting right prefrontal cortex (e.g., channel 1) oxy-Hb response from left prefrontal cortex (e.g.,channel 3) oxy-Hb response. Frontal asymmetry scores(FAS) = Oxyhemoglobin left channel - Oxyhemoglobin right channel Thus, scores above zero indicate increased brain response in the left hemisphere as opposed to the right (approach), and scores below zero indicate increased brain response in the right hemisphere as opposed to left (avoidance) (Krol et al., 2021 ). Results fNIRS A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted for the FAS of the symmetrical channels in 5 brain regions, with 2 face type × 3 gaze direction as within-subject factors. In the prefrontal cortex (channels 1 and 3, see Figure 3), a significant interaction between face type and gaze direction was found, F (2, 38) = 4.608, p = 0.016, = 0.195. To further explore this interaction, a simple effect analysis was performed (see Figure 4) and found that when gaze direction was at 0°, masked faces (M = 0.022; SD = 0.012) differed significantly from unmasked faces (M = - 0.015; SD = 0.014), p = 0.007; when gaze direction was at 6° and 12°, mask faces did not differ significantly from non-masked faces (6°: p = 0.458; 12°: p = 0.141). Besides, the FAS of masked faces is significantly larger when gaze direction is at 0° compared to when it is at 12°, p = 0.03, while no such observation was found in non-masked faces. However, the main effect of face type, gaze direction was not significant (face type: F (2, 38) = 0.096, p = 0.761, = 0.005; gaze direction: F (2, 38) = 1.796, p = 0.18, = 0.086). In addition, we also analyzed asymmetry scores for other channels and did not find significant differences, p s > 0.05(for more details please see Supplementary Material). Face evaluation A paired t-test of scores between the non-masked and masked face showed a marginally significance in trustworthiness, t (19) = 1.985, p = 0.062, with the masked face (M = 5.05; SD = 0.83) having a slightly higher score than the non-masked face (M = 4.67; SD = 0.78), a significant difference in attractiveness, t (19) = 2.37, p = 0.028, with the masked face (M = 4.16; SD = 21.27) having a higher score than the non-masked face (M = 3.85; SD = 18.29), and a significance in the susceptibility, t (19) = -3.813, p = 0.001, with the masked face (M = 3.58; SD = 1.07) having a lower score than the non-masked face (M = 5.02; SD = 1.13). Questionnaires To further understand the participants' attitudes towards the epidemic and masks, we conducted a one-sample test to compare the scores of each question in the COVID-19 questionnaire to the average score of 3.16 (Table 1 ). As shown, it can be found that the scores of Q1 ( p = 0.002) and Q2 ( p = 0.013) are significantly higher than 3.16, meaning that individuals are more likely to wear masks in public and are open to interacting with others who wear masks; the score of Q3 is not significantly different from 3.16, meaning that people have a neutral attitude towards the impact of masks on social interactions; the score of Q4 is also significantly higher than 3.16, meaning that individuals feel that wearing a mask in public enhances their sense of security; the scores of Q5 and Q6 are significantly lower than 3.16, meaning that individuals perceive the epidemic as having minimal impact on their social lives. Table 1 the one-sample test for each question in the COVID-19 questionnaire Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Mean ± SD 3.9 ± 0.91 3.9 ± 1.21 3.0 ± 1.29 4.55 ± 0.69 1.90 ± 0.85 1.70 ± 1.22 t 3.629 2.736 -0.551 9.057 − 6.612 − 5.359 p 0.002 0.013 0.588 0 0 0 In order to investigate the correlation between FAS and self-assessment questionnaires, we compared Pearson correlations between FAS and the COVID-19 questionnaire, SIAS as well as SDS (Table 2 ). These calculations were performed under the masked and non-masked faces of 0° in the prefrontal cortex. Following Bonferroni correction, it was found that the scores of FAS for non-masked face was negatively correlate with SIAS, r = -0.493, p = 0.027. However, there were no other significant correlations, ps > 0 .05 (for more details please see Supplementary Material). Table 2 the correlation between FAS and self-assessment questionnaires Non-masked faces Masked faces t p t p Q1 0.35 0.13 0.062 0.795 Q2 0.058 0.808 0.113 0.635 Q3 0.372 0.106 0.327 0.16 Q4 0.063 0.793 0.054 0.82 Q5 0.144 0.545 -0.075 0.752 Q6 0.1 0.676 0.133 0.576 SIAS − .493* 0.027 -0.065 0.785 SDS 0.152 0.522 0.051 0.831 Discussion In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, the present study utilizing fNIRS revealed that the use of face masks induces approach motivation. To prove this, participants were asked to complete a gender judgement task and then assess the faces they had previously viewed. The results revealed significant differences in FAS between the prefrontal cortex of masked faces and non-masked faces at 0° gaze direction. At 6° and 12° gaze direction, no such observation in FAS scores were found between the two face types, suggesting that wearing mask did not affect individuals’ judgments when facing averted gaze. Concerning the post-hoc facial evaluations, it was found that individuals rated masked faces higher in terms of both trustworthiness and attractiveness, while concurrently perceiving them as less prone to sickness when compared to non-masked faces. These implies that masked faces are perceived as more trustworthy, more attractive and less likely to be sick, thereby increasing the likelihood of interpersonal interactions. When individuals faced with masked faces at 0° gaze direction, their prefrontal cortex showed increased activity, indicating a motivation to approach. People tend to perceive masked individuals as making eye contact with them (Liu et al., 2022 ), which can lead to a sense of safety and encourage approach behavior. Conversely, the sight of non-masked faces can trigger a stronger desire to avoid interaction, as the risk of illness transmission is perceived to be higher. Furthermore, the correlation analysis also revealed that the higher the anxiety levels, the stronger the avoidance motivation. Put simply, direct eye contact from someone without a mask may be interpreted as a threat, leading individuals to distance themselves from such situations. What is more, the ratings from the COVID-19 questionnaire reveal a greater emphasis on the protective function of masks (Q1, Q2, Q4), which aligns with the fNIRS findings indicating that masked faces produce approach motivation. This consistency between internal attitude and external evaluations demonstrates the coherence across different aspects of perception. Regarding facial ratings, our study found that wearing a mask enhanced perceptions of face trustworthiness and attractiveness compared to the non-masked faces, consistence with previous results (Cartaud et al., 2020 ; Lobmaier & Knoch, 2022 ). In contrast to Cartaud et al., ( 2020 ), our study revealed that wearing a mask decreased face susceptibility. This difference may be due to the fact that the previous study was conducted in Western countries where attitudes towards mask-wearing were mixed, often associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, our participants were Chinese university students, who generally supported mask usage and recognized their effectiveness in preventing virus transmission. Despite our expectations, we did not find any effect of masks on approach-avoidance motivation when gaze direction was at 6°. To elaborate, non-masked faces generate avoidance motivation at 0° gaze direction and approach motivation at 6° gaze direction, while the strength of approach motivation for masked faces reduced from 0° to 6° gaze direction. The reason could possibly be explained by the implementation of coronavirus prevention measures in our country after the outbreak, which included not only the mandatory wearing of masks, but also the adoption of a one-meter social distance. These guidelines appear to have resulted in a certain level of restriction on daily interactions. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory(Janet. et al., 1987), social needs are essential to human beings (Anderson, 2014) and therefore the restriction of daily socialization may lead individuals to develop a stronger desire to socialize. As the 6° gaze direction does not convey as strong a threat message as direct gaze, people may be more willing to interact with it and thus increase approach motivation. Yet when wearing a mask, direct gaze is more likely to express interaction, whereas at 6° people are more likely to judge it as an averted gaze and thus have lower approach motivation. Weather wearing a mask at 12° or not, they may not have the corresponding motivation when faced with a situation where the other person is not paying attention to them. Taken together, the results support the notion that people feel safer and more comfortable interacting socially when confronted with masked faces. This parallels the Siu, ( 2016 ) discussion on the cultural significance of masks during SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) outbreak, where the benefits of wearing a mask were acknowledged. One possible reason could be the public's awareness of the protective effects of masks during the 2003 SARS outbreak (Siu, 2016 ). Consequently, when the COVID-19 pandemic began, the Chinese government quickly implemented scientifically grounded and efficacious prevention measures. As people became more informed about the importance of masks, they started to see wearing them as a socially acceptable behavior (Greenhalgh et al., 2020 ), leading to a significant increase in mask usage in China (Cao et al., 2020). Another explanation could new social norms during the epidemic. Trust in the health-care system has made health-care workers influential figures, shaping people's attitudes and actions (McCall, 2010 ). Importantly, wearing a mask is a sign of health-care workers, leading individuals to associate mask-wearing with authority and positivity. As mask-wearing becomes a social norm, people are more likely to view it as a beneficial behavior (Bavel et al., 2020 ). There were some limitations. Firstly, the current study did not find other significant correlation between the self-report questionnaire and the mask effect, which could potentially be associated with the sample size, and forthcoming research may consider utilizing larger samples to explore the association between individual perceptions and traits as well as the mask effect. Secondly, the participants in this study were recruited from university, resulting in a certain degree of homogeneity among them. Therefore, future studies could recruit participants of different ages and different occupations. Conclusion By employing fNIRS technology, the current study adapted a gender judgment task and a facial evaluation task to reveal that masks generate motivation to approach. The results provide novel evidence linking the wearing of masks to the potential neural mechanism. Individuals were more likely to interact with people wearing masks during the new crown epidemic for they being more trustworthy, attractive and less likely to be sick. This study has significant implications for understanding the impact of wearing masks on human social perceptions in the backdrop of COVID-19. Declarations Author contributions Z.H. and J.L. conceived and designed the experiments. J.L. and J.Y. performed the data acquisition and analyzed the data. Z.H. and J.Y. interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the manuscript. Acknowledgements We thank all the participants. Author contributions Z.H. and J.L. conceived and designed the experiments. J.L. and J.Y. performed the data acquisition and analyzed the data. Z.H. and J.Y. interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the manuscript. Funding This study was supported by the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (grant number 2024NSFSC2092 to Zhonghua Hu). Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author ( [email protected] , Zhonghua Hu) on reasonable request. Ethical approval and consent to participate This study complied with the Helsinki Declaration and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sichuan Normal University (Approval No: 2022LS013). Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication Prior to the experiment, each participant signed a written informed consent form. All models executed a portrait rights license agreement, authorizing the use of their images as experimental material and their publication. This study did not involve any patients or clinical samples. Declaration of interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 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Zhang Y, Hu Q, Lai X, Hu Z, Gao S. Fear-specific leftward bias in gaze direction judgment. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):17574. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97039-3 . Zung WWK, Richards CB, Short MJ. Self-rating depression scale in an outpatient clinic: Further validation of the SDS. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1965;13(6):508–15. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01730060026004 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplemnetaryMaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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13:52:58","extension":"html","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":130868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/b16452e413326ed32b6ed280.html"},{"id":97986443,"identity":"f0a9c324-c7e6-4499-a534-d64c712a868d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 13:52:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":163913,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA）Sample of a female model displaying the two face types used in Experiment. B）Sample of a female model displaying the five gaze directions: 6°, 12° each to the left and right, and 0°.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/6f75289aa6ad155e9c238855.png"},{"id":98424779,"identity":"21f7b44a-e2c2-4ccb-8e34-869286a581ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:33:49","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":136512,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA) Experimental procedure: the fNIRS technology employed in baseline and gender judgment task; (B) Gender judgment task: The black dashed box shows the experimental materials and the red dashed lines show the time window of experimental interest. The black dashed box shows pictures of five faces with the same gender, gaze direction and condition.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/f5f901d39b24d3a8f1a7f6cf.png"},{"id":97986451,"identity":"5029909d-4736-4bbb-9f9d-74bd03479957","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 13:52:58","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":479676,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA) Region of interest (ROI). S represents the transmitter, D represents the receiver, the S-D junction represents the channel, and the red-labeled channel is the prefrontal cortex. B) Activation maps. fNIRS measured mean oxyhemoglobin levels in the right and left brain for mask and no mask.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/d7df3fc502247cbd9a74bb93.png"},{"id":97986445,"identity":"b106f569-a0c8-4e14-87a5-4951372dc292","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 13:52:58","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":171751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA) The time course of oxyhemoglobin concentration in channel 1,3 for non-masked and masked faces at 0° gaze direction. B) The time course of oxyhemoglobin concentration in channel 1,3 for non-masked and masked faces at 6° gaze direction. C) The time course of oxyhemoglobin concentration in channel 1,3 for n non-masked and masked faces at 12° gaze direction. D) FAS in the prefrontal cortex. The error line represents the standard error of the mean, * p \u0026lt; 0.05, ns p \u0026gt; 0.05.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/af13265454f76fd3a17504d7.png"},{"id":109168259,"identity":"7aff8622-8327-4a9a-92a1-7c994921acef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-13 08:33:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1294389,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/5e1d8a07-8cba-4f94-a90a-c6c98b414e7d.pdf"},{"id":98424420,"identity":"ddbc8881-b8ae-4420-b2c1-e73075c67d35","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:33:20","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22321,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplemnetaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8017396/v1/ad673270b4a333d7c8d5bcc8.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Wearing Masks Generates Approach Motivation in Times of COVID-19","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Covid-19 pandemic has made wearing masks a necessary part of people\u0026rsquo;s daily routines. Various studies have shown that wearing a mask is effective in preventing infection (Bowen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Chu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)leading governments to implement promoting mask-wearing and a one-meter social distance (Tso \u0026amp; Cowling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Gradually, wearing masks has become a general consensus. However, concerns remain about the limited protection of masks and the uneven distribution of resources (Hui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Worby \u0026amp; Chang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) leading to skepticism among some individuals. In addition, studies have also highlighted the cultural and attitudinal factors influencing mask-wearing behavior (Timpka \u0026amp; Nyce, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), so there is a need for further exploration of the significance of masks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMasks result in it being perceived as an integral aspect of the face and, consequently, is regarded as an important feature in face processing. This has drawn considerable attention from researchers to conduct extensive research on the impact of masks. For example, wearing masks confuses emotion cognition (Carbon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kastendieck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), alters individual gaze patterns (Frank et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kastendieck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and influences subjective feelings towards face (Cartaud et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Grundmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, previous studies have focused mainly on the impact of masks on facial features. Since eyes are readily detected during face processing (Birmingham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Teufel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and are still visible when wearing masks, it is still possible to utilize the social cues conveyed through eye contact for interpersonal communication. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically explore how gaze affects social perception in the context of the epidemic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGaze is contextual in nature, leading to a situation where gaze cannot be interpreted as a signal alone (Ohlsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, a prolonged gaze can lead to avoidance behaviours and can sometimes express love and attraction (Jun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Mogg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, the specific meaning of a gaze depends on the social context (Hamilton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the effect of eye gaze can be swayed by other facial cues, such as fearful expressions causing a leftward bias in gaze direction judgments (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have also found that observers associate different gaze directions with approach-avoidance motivation (Hietanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026ouml;nk\u0026auml;nen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and that facial features also have an effect on observers' motivation (Harmon-Jones et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Harmon-Jones \u0026amp; Gable, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). From a particular standpoint, masks can be seen as a source of health threat information. When confronted with threatening expressions or situations, individuals tend to judge others by directly looking at them, namely exhibiting greater CoDG (the cone of direct gaze; Ewbank et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Harbort et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Jun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Tso \u0026amp; Cowling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, masks are also be seen as a protective measure during epidemics. This ambiguity makes it unclear whether a masked face generates approach or avoidance motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMotivated behavior refers to actions taken in response to stimuli to achieve a goal, in principle two responses to a stimulus, approach or avoidance (M. Ernst \u0026amp; Fudge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Approach motivation involves being energized by or directing behaviour towards positive stimuli, while avoidance motivation involves being energized by or directing behaviour away from negative stimuli(J. Elliot, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Absolutely, it is imperative to regulate the short-term needs of the organism by promptly gravitating towards positive stimuli and circumventing negative stimuli. According to neuroimaging literatures, the prefrontal lobe plays a crucial role in exercising top-down control and may potentially contain adjustment or control initiation activity (Dosenbach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Approach motivation was associated with increased left frontal activation, while avoidance motivation was linked to right frontal activation (Sutton \u0026amp; Davidson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have since proposed that asymmetrical activity in the frontal cortex may be related to different types of motivation (Harmon-Jones et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, for a review).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo date, it has been found that mask wearing increases the perception of being looked at (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lobmaier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), primarily due to the high-level social significance of mask rather than the low-level facial features (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, investigations have been restricted to behavioral effects (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lobmaier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) without delving into the neural mechanisms and the profound social significance of the issue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunctional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is an emerging functional neuroimaging technology offering a relatively non-invasive, safe, portable, and cost- effective method of indirect and direct monitoring of brain activity (Irani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have provided evidence that fNIRS can measure brain responses to facial stimuli (Blasi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Ruba \u0026amp; Pollak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Ernst et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) conducted an initial investigation using fNIRS to examine the patterns of prefrontal activation in approach-avoidance motivation, revealing different activations in the frontal lobes. They introduced frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) as an indicator of brain activity, calculated by the difference in oxyhemoglobin concentration between left and right frontal lobes. The increase of oxyhemoglobin level reflects the enhanced brain activation with neural coupling (Krol et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lloyd-Fox et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), that is, higher oxyhemoglobin levels indicate increased brain activation. And the subtraction of oxyhemoglobin levels on the left minus the right is also consistent with the asymmetry studies (Kaur et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Krol et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study utilizes the fNIRS technology to conduct a deeper inquiry into whether the effect of wearing a mask on facial perception is driven by a sense of security (approach motivation) or a sense of threat (avoidance motivation). We examined how mask influence motivation when faces are viewed from different gaze directions during the epidemic, using FAS as the dependent variable. Given that mask-wearing increases the perception of being looked at, this study aims to compare motivation levels between the masked faces and non-masked faces at 0\u0026deg;, 6\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg; gaze direction. With the government promoting mask use as a protective measure as a protection measure, and recent studies suggesting that masks enhance facial credibility (Cartaud et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lobmaier \u0026amp; Knoch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and that direct gaze is linked to approach motivation (Hietanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), we hypothesized that there would be significant differences between the non-masked face and masked face at 0\u0026deg; and 6\u0026deg; gaze direction, but not at 12\u0026deg; as individuals could be accurately judged this gaze direction as averted gaze.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collection took place from June 7, 2022 to July 6, 2022, at a time when the Chinese COVID-19 restrictions were still in place. An \u003cem\u003ea priori\u003c/em\u003e power analysis (G\u0026lowast;Power 3; Faul et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) with a medium effect size of 0.25, a 1-β power of 0.80, and an alpha of 0.05 found that the required number of participants in the study should be 19. Finally, a total of 21 participants (4 males, 17 females) aged 18\u0026ndash;25 years (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.4, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.03) were recruited. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal visual acuity and reported no mental illness. One subject (male) was excluded due to poor channel quality, leaving a final valid data of 20 participants (3 males, 17 females). The study was approved by the ethics committee of the Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University [2022LS013]. All the participants provided their written informed consent to take part in this study and received monetary compensation for their participation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaterials\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe colored full-face photographs of 20 Chinese models (10 female, 10 male) were captured by a camera. The models were asked to show neutral expression and change their gaze direction continuously at 5 gaze directions (6\u0026deg;, 12\u0026deg; each to the left and right, and 0\u0026deg;) while the rest of the body remained motionless. In the mask condition, they were asked to put on an N95 mask and repeat the above actions. Total 200 images were collected, with 2 genders \u0026times; 10 models \u0026times; 5 gaze directions \u0026times; 2 face types.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the photographs were edited using Photoshop CS6 (596 \u0026times; 596 pixels), keeping all the faces consistent in terms of brightness and contrast, maintaining a gray background (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted on a 24-inch (1,920 by 1,080 pixels; 60 Hz refresh rate) LCD monitor. Stimulus presentations and recordings of the behavioral measures were controlled by E-prime 2.0(https://pstnet.com/).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDesign and procedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA 2 (face type: non-masked faces, masked faces) \u0026times; 3 (gaze direction: 6\u0026deg;, 12\u0026deg; each to the left and right, and 0\u0026deg;) within-subjects design was used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants were seated comfortably in a dimly lit room with a distance of \u0026sim;60 cm from a LCD monitor. Lighting conditions were kept constant for all the participants and the screen position was manually adapted so that the eyes of the avatars were vertically aligned with the eyes of the participants. They completed 3 tasks in sequence, a gender judgment task, a face evaluation task and questionnaires.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender judgment task\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInitially, a blank screen with a gray background was displayed (1 min) to ascertain the baseline level. Following this, a fixation cross was introduced and maintained for 1000 ms. Fixation cross offset was immediately succeeded by five consecutive images of faces with the same gender, gaze direction and face type. Each image was maintained for a duration of 1000 ms, and the time interval between the images was 500 ms. After this sequence, the screen became empty again and was displayed for 4000 ms. Subsequently, a response screen was appeared on the screen where a question was displayed asking participants to determine the gender of the faces shown previously. If all five images depicted female faces, the participant was instructed to press 1; If all the images showed male faces, the participant needed to press 2; If both male and female faces were present, the participant was required to press 3. Finally, to allow the participant to prepare for the next trial, a random blank screen was presented for a duration of 6000ms-8000ms (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment consisted of 48 trials, with 2 gender x 10 model x 2 face type. The trial of gaze direction at 0\u0026deg; was repeated twice due to the presence of other directions (6\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg;) in two directions (left and right). Additionally, four catch trials (displaying both male and female\u0026rsquo;s pictures) were included to verify the participants' attentive examination of the facial images.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFace evaluation task\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter gender judgment task, participants were asked to rate the faces that had been shown during the task. Firstly, a facial image with the gaze direction at 0\u0026deg; was displayed on the screen, and the participants were requested to press the space bar to enter the evaluation phase after closely examine the picture. Subsequently, they assess the face's attractiveness, trustworthiness, and susceptibility to disease on a 7-point scale. Specifically, the participants were instructed to imagine their feelings towards the facial images as well as their inclination to engage with them socially in the context of COVID-19. Attractiveness pertains to the positive emotion evoked by the face and the degree to which one desires proximity with the face; trustworthiness denotes the level of confidence of the face; and susceptibility means the probability of the face contracting the coronavirus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQuestionnaires\u003c/b\u003e After the two tasks, participants were asked to fill Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS; Mattick \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS; Zung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e) and a COVID-19 questionnaire. The aim is to gain a deeper insight into the participants' perspectives on the epidemic and masks. The COVID-9 questionnaire consists of 6 questions using a Likert five-point scale: (a) Q1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;I wear a mask when I go out during the COVID-19 pandemic; (b) Q2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;I think masks played a big role in protection during the COVID-19 pandemic; (c) Q3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;In public, I prefer to communicate with people wearing masks; (d) Q4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Does wearing a mask outside make you feel more secure or threatened? (e) Q5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;How is your feeling when facing the new coronavirus outbreak? (f) Q6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;How has your social life been impacted during the COVID-19 outbreak?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData recording and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBehaviour data\u003c/b\u003e The data were subjected to screening based on accuracy in the gender judgement task. In case of any erroneous responses in the 4 catch trials, the participant was deemed to have not exercised due diligence and accordingly, the data was excluded. The results found that all participants had no errors on the 4 catch trials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003efNIRS\u003c/b\u003e fNIRS measurements were carried out using a continuous wave system (NIRSMARTⅡ-3000A, Danyang Huichuang Medical Equipment Co., Ltd., China) with two different wavelengths (700 and 850 nm) at a temporal resolution of 11 Hz. We employed a 47-channels array comprising 16 light emitters and 16 photo-detectors to capture the hemodynamic response of frontal and temporal lobes (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). A channel (i.e., a measuring point of activation) is defined as the region between one emitter and one neighboring detector (Ernst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fNIRS data were pre-processed by Homer2(\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://homer-fnirs.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://homer-fnirs.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) in MATLAB 2017b(\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://matlab.p2hp.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://matlab.p2hp.com/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Raw data were converted to changes in optical density units and motion artefacts were identified and excluded. Then, the data were further motion corrected using wavelet motion correction and a band-pass filter (cut-off frequencies of 0.01 Hz and 0.5 Hz) was applied to remove high and low frequency portion of it such as breathing. Finally, data were converted to HbO and HbR concentrations. Following pre-processing, a general linear model (GLM), a model-based approach, was used to analyze the pre-processed fNIRS time series, setting the parameter baseline to 2s and the time period of interest to 11s, of which the stimulation time was 7s. Visualizations of cortical projections were created in nirsLAB software (NIRx), which projects fNIRS channels onto adult MNI brain space (locked to 10\u0026ndash;20 coordinates) (Krol et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mean oxyhemoglobin concentration was extracted for each channel and the frontal lobe asymmetry score was calculated. The channels and selected brain areas were as follows: prefrontal cortex (channels 1, 3), inferior frontal gyrus (channels 2, 4), frontal cortex (channels 10, 21, channels 11, 20), frontal lobe (channels 15, 18), dorsolateral prefrontal lobe (channels 13, 17, channels 14, 16, channels 26, 33). To more specific, frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) were created by subtracting right prefrontal cortex (e.g., channel 1) oxy-Hb response from left prefrontal cortex (e.g.,channel 3) oxy-Hb response.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrontal asymmetry scores(FAS) = Oxyhemoglobin \u003csub\u003eleft channel\u003c/sub\u003e - Oxyhemoglobin \u003csub\u003eright channel\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, scores above zero indicate increased brain response in the left hemisphere as opposed to the right (approach), and scores below zero indicate increased brain response in the right hemisphere as opposed to left (avoidance) (Krol et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003efNIRS\u003c/strong\u003e A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted for the FAS of the symmetrical channels in 5 brain regions, with 2 face type \u0026times; 3 gaze direction as within-subject factors. In the prefrontal cortex (channels 1 and 3, see Figure 3), a significant interaction between face type and gaze direction was found,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;F\u003c/em\u003e (2, 38) = 4.608, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.016, \u003cimg width=\"11\" height=\"15\" src=\"data:image/jpeg;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e = 0.195. To further explore this interaction, a simple effect analysis was performed (see Figure 4) and found that when gaze direction was at 0\u0026deg;, masked faces (M = 0.022; SD = 0.012) differed significantly from unmasked faces (M = - 0.015; SD = 0.014), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.007; when gaze direction was at 6\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg;, mask faces did not differ significantly from non-masked faces (6\u0026deg;: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.458; 12\u0026deg;: \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.141). Besides, the FAS of masked faces is significantly larger when gaze direction is at 0\u0026deg; compared to when it is at 12\u0026deg;, \u003cem\u003ep =\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e0.03, while no such observation was found in non-masked faces.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the main effect of face type, gaze direction was not significant (face type:\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;F\u003c/em\u003e (2, 38) = 0.096,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p\u003c/em\u003e = 0.761, \u003cimg width=\"11\" height=\"15\" src=\"data:image/jpeg;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e = 0.005; gaze direction: \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e (2, 38) = 1.796, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.18, \u003cimg width=\"11\" height=\"15\" src=\"data:image/jpeg;base64,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\" alt=\"image\"\u003e = 0.086). In addition, we also analyzed asymmetry scores for other channels and did not find significant differences, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026gt; 0.05(for more details please see Supplementary Material).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFace evaluation\u003c/b\u003e A paired t-test of scores between the non-masked and masked face showed a marginally significance in trustworthiness, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (19)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.985, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.062, with the masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.05; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83) having a slightly higher score than the non-masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.67; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78), a significant difference in attractiveness, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (19)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028, with the masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.16; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.27) having a higher score than the non-masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.85; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.29), and a significance in the susceptibility, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e (19) = -3.813, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001, with the masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.58; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.07) having a lower score than the non-masked face (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.02; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.13).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQuestionnaires\u003c/b\u003e To further understand the participants' attitudes towards the epidemic and masks, we conducted a one-sample test to compare the scores of each question in the COVID-19 questionnaire to the average score of 3.16 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). As shown, it can be found that the scores of Q1 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002) and Q2 (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013) are significantly higher than 3.16, meaning that individuals are more likely to wear masks in public and are open to interacting with others who wear masks; the score of Q3 is not significantly different from 3.16, meaning that people have a neutral attitude towards the impact of masks on social interactions; the score of Q4 is also significantly higher than 3.16, meaning that individuals feel that wearing a mask in public enhances their sense of security; the scores of Q5 and Q6 are significantly lower than 3.16, meaning that individuals perceive the epidemic as having minimal impact on their social lives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe one-sample test for each question in the COVID-19 questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.629\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.736\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.551\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.057\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6.612\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.359\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.588\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to investigate the correlation between FAS and self-assessment questionnaires, we compared Pearson correlations between FAS and the COVID-19 questionnaire, SIAS as well as SDS (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These calculations were performed under the masked and non-masked faces of 0\u0026deg; in the prefrontal cortex. Following Bonferroni correction, it was found that the scores of FAS for non-masked face was negatively correlate with SIAS, \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.493, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.027. However, there were no other significant correlations, \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0 .05 (for more details please see Supplementary Material).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe correlation between FAS and self-assessment questionnaires\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-masked faces\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMasked faces\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.372\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.793\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.545\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.075\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.752\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eQ6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.676\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.576\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSIAS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.493*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.785\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.152\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, the present study utilizing fNIRS revealed that the use of face masks induces approach motivation. To prove this, participants were asked to complete a gender judgement task and then assess the faces they had previously viewed. The results revealed significant differences in FAS between the prefrontal cortex of masked faces and non-masked faces at 0\u0026deg; gaze direction. At 6\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg; gaze direction, no such observation in FAS scores were found between the two face types, suggesting that wearing mask did not affect individuals\u0026rsquo; judgments when facing averted gaze. Concerning the post-hoc facial evaluations, it was found that individuals rated masked faces higher in terms of both trustworthiness and attractiveness, while concurrently perceiving them as less prone to sickness when compared to non-masked faces. These implies that masked faces are perceived as more trustworthy, more attractive and less likely to be sick, thereby increasing the likelihood of interpersonal interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen individuals faced with masked faces at 0\u0026deg; gaze direction, their prefrontal cortex showed increased activity, indicating a motivation to approach. People tend to perceive masked individuals as making eye contact with them (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which can lead to a sense of safety and encourage approach behavior. Conversely, the sight of non-masked faces can trigger a stronger desire to avoid interaction, as the risk of illness transmission is perceived to be higher. Furthermore, the correlation analysis also revealed that the higher the anxiety levels, the stronger the avoidance motivation. Put simply, direct eye contact from someone without a mask may be interpreted as a threat, leading individuals to distance themselves from such situations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat is more, the ratings from the COVID-19 questionnaire reveal a greater emphasis on the protective function of masks (Q1, Q2, Q4), which aligns with the fNIRS findings indicating that masked faces produce approach motivation. This consistency between internal attitude and external evaluations demonstrates the coherence across different aspects of perception. Regarding facial ratings, our study found that wearing a mask enhanced perceptions of face trustworthiness and attractiveness compared to the non-masked faces, consistence with previous results (Cartaud et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Lobmaier \u0026amp; Knoch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast to Cartaud et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), our study revealed that wearing a mask decreased face susceptibility. This difference may be due to the fact that the previous study was conducted in Western countries where attitudes towards mask-wearing were mixed, often associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, our participants were Chinese university students, who generally supported mask usage and recognized their effectiveness in preventing virus transmission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite our expectations, we did not find any effect of masks on approach-avoidance motivation when gaze direction was at 6\u0026deg;. To elaborate, non-masked faces generate avoidance motivation at 0\u0026deg; gaze direction and approach motivation at 6\u0026deg; gaze direction, while the strength of approach motivation for masked faces reduced from 0\u0026deg; to 6\u0026deg; gaze direction. The reason could possibly be explained by the implementation of coronavirus prevention measures in our country after the outbreak, which included not only the mandatory wearing of masks, but also the adoption of a one-meter social distance. These guidelines appear to have resulted in a certain level of restriction on daily interactions. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory(Janet. et al., 1987), social needs are essential to human beings (Anderson, 2014) and therefore the restriction of daily socialization may lead individuals to develop a stronger desire to socialize. As the 6\u0026deg; gaze direction does not convey as strong a threat message as direct gaze, people may be more willing to interact with it and thus increase approach motivation. Yet when wearing a mask, direct gaze is more likely to express interaction, whereas at 6\u0026deg; people are more likely to judge it as an averted gaze and thus have lower approach motivation. Weather wearing a mask at 12\u0026deg; or not, they may not have the corresponding motivation when faced with a situation where the other person is not paying attention to them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, the results support the notion that people feel safer and more comfortable interacting socially when confronted with masked faces. This parallels the Siu, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) discussion on the cultural significance of masks during SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) outbreak, where the benefits of wearing a mask were acknowledged. One possible reason could be the public's awareness of the protective effects of masks during the 2003 SARS outbreak (Siu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, when the COVID-19 pandemic began, the Chinese government quickly implemented scientifically grounded and efficacious prevention measures. As people became more informed about the importance of masks, they started to see wearing them as a socially acceptable behavior (Greenhalgh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), leading to a significant increase in mask usage in China (Cao et al., 2020). Another explanation could new social norms during the epidemic. Trust in the health-care system has made health-care workers influential figures, shaping people's attitudes and actions (McCall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, wearing a mask is a sign of health-care workers, leading individuals to associate mask-wearing with authority and positivity. As mask-wearing becomes a social norm, people are more likely to view it as a beneficial behavior (Bavel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were some limitations. Firstly, the current study did not find other significant correlation between the self-report questionnaire and the mask effect, which could potentially be associated with the sample size, and forthcoming research may consider utilizing larger samples to explore the association between individual perceptions and traits as well as the mask effect. Secondly, the participants in this study were recruited from university, resulting in a certain degree of homogeneity among them. Therefore, future studies could recruit participants of different ages and different occupations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBy employing fNIRS technology, the current study adapted a gender judgment task and a facial evaluation task to reveal that masks generate motivation to approach. The results provide novel evidence linking the wearing of masks to the potential neural mechanism. Individuals were more likely to interact with people wearing masks during the new crown epidemic for they being more trustworthy, attractive and less likely to be sick. This study has significant implications for understanding the impact of wearing masks on human social perceptions in the backdrop of COVID-19.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZ.H. and J.L. conceived and designed the experiments. J.L. and J.Y. performed the data acquisition and analyzed the data. Z.H. and J.Y. interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank all the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZ.H. and J.L. conceived and designed the experiments. J.L. and J.Y. performed the data acquisition and analyzed the data. Z.H. and J.Y. interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (grant number 2024NSFSC2092 to Zhonghua Hu).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author ([email protected], Zhonghua Hu) on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study complied with the Helsinki Declaration and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sichuan Normal University (Approval No: 2022LS013). Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to the experiment, each participant signed a written informed consent form. All models executed a portrait rights license agreement, authorizing the use of their images as experimental material and their publication. This study did not involve any patients or clinical samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBavel JJV, Baicker K, Boggio PS, Capraro V, Cichocka A, Cikara M, Crockett MJ, Crum AJ, Douglas KM, Druckman JN, Drury J, Dube O, Ellemers N, Finkel EJ, Fowler JH, Gelfand M, Han S, Haslam SA, Jetten J, Willer R. 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Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1965;13(6):508\u0026ndash;15. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01730060026004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1001/archpsyc.1965.01730060026004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"face mask, gaze direction, approach-avoidance motivation, COVID-19","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8017396/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8017396/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith the global prevalence of COVID-19, governments recommended wearing face masks as a protective measure. Recent studies have found that face mask influences gaze perception, but the neural mechanism by which the masked face generates approach or avoidance motivation is still unclear. This study investigated whether wearing a mask produced motivation for approach or avoidance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing functional near-infrared spectroscopy(fNIRS) technology, participants engaged in a gender judgment task. They were shown five faces consecutively, either all masked or all non-masked with three types of gaze directions, and were tasked with determining the gender of the five faces. Following this, they needed to evaluate these faces for attractiveness, trustworthiness, and susceptibility to disease, and to complete related questionnaires. Frontal asymmetry scores (FAS) was obtained by subtracting the oxyhemoglobin of the left channel from that of the right channel, with scores above 0 indicating approach motivation and scores below 0 indicating avoidance motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results revealed significant differences in FAS between the prefrontal cortex of masked faces and non-masked faces of the gaze direction at 0\u0026deg;. While at 6\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg;, no such observation in FAS scores were found between the two face types. Additionally, compared to the non-masked face, the masked face having a slightly higher score in trustworthiness and attractiveness, and a lower score in susceptibility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings show that face mask generates approach motivation. The present findings are of significance for understanding the impact of wearing masks on human social cognition in the context of COVID-19.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Wearing Masks Generates Approach Motivation in Times of COVID-19","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-11 13:52:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8017396/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3addeb94-c8eb-4355-842f-02f02b41441c","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Withdrawn","date":"2026-05-13T08:21:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-13T08:32:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-11 13:52:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8017396","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8017396","identity":"rs-8017396","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}