Emergent Reading of Japanese Hiragana via Stimulus Equivalence: A Preliminary Approach

Emergent Reading of Japanese Hiragana via Stimulus Equivalence: A Preliminary Approach | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report Emergent Reading of Japanese Hiragana via Stimulus Equivalence: A Preliminary Approach Priscila Crispillho Grisante, Saory Miyakawa Morais, Eliana Isabel de Moraes Hamasaki, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8640772/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluated an experimental procedure for establishing an emergent reading repertoire of Japanese Hiragana (a non-alphabetic script) using the stimulus equivalence paradigm. Three native Portuguese speakers were exposed to a matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure to establish conditional discriminations between dictated syllables (A), Hiragana characters (B), and their corresponding Romanized representations (C). After directly training AB and AC relations for ten Hiragana characters, participants were tested for the emergence of BC and CB relations, followed by emergent Hiragana reading tests. All participants reached over 97% accuracy in the emergent relations, demonstrating the formation of equivalence classes. Two participants successfully read between 85% and 100% of the Hiragana characters without direct reinforcement. These results highlight the "teaching economy" inherent in relational models and suggest that auditory-visual equivalence protocols are effective for promoting emergent reading with symbolic comprehension. The findings are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of the procedure for emergent reading. Psychology Stimulus equivalence Hiragana emergent reading matching-to-sample Japanese language Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction The acquisition of reading skills in a second language that employs a non-alphabetic writing system, such as Japanese, presents unique behavioral challenges for learners accustomed to Western alphabetic scripts. Japanese orthography integrates logographic characters, Kanji, with two distinct phonetic syllabaries: Hiragana and Katakana. Hiragana serves as the foundational phonetic script. For native speakers of alphabetic languages, these characters initially function as visually complex stimuli devoid of meaning, providing an ideal experimental model for investigating the emergence of symbolic repertoires in controlled settings. From a behavior-analytic perspective, the development of reading can be understood through the stimulus equivalence paradigm (Sidman, 1994). This framework explains how the direct teaching of a limited set of conditional discriminations can lead to the emergence of untrained relations between stimuli (i.e., teaching economy), characterizing the formation of symbolic classes (Sidman & Tailby, 1982). According to Matos (1999), the establishment of these relational bases allows for conceptual abstraction that is independent of physical structural properties, thereby increasing the probability that an individual will act appropriately in novel linguistic contexts. Historically, the matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure has been the primary tool for investigating reading as a relational repertoire, dating back to seminal studies on auditory-visual equivalence (Sidman, 1971). Within this tradition, reading has been systematically operationalized as a complex network of stimulus-stimulus and stimulus-response relations, where the acquisition of a symbolic repertoire depends on the establishment of equivalence between dictated words, printed words, and their corresponding referents (de Souza et al., 1996; de Souza & de Rose, 2006). Research on verbal behavior further suggests that training involving relations between auditory and visual stimuli tends to be more effective (Horne & Lowe, 1996; Miguel & Petursdottir, 2009). Recently, Nakayama (2021) expanded this investigation into the Japanese language by conducting a large-scale study with 99 learners. Nakayama manipulated stimulus configurations to compare visual-auditory shadowing, where learners hear sounds and immediately repeat them while viewing the text (an echoic-tact behavior), against purely visual-visual combinations. The results indicated that the visual-auditory method significantly facilitated the pronunciation of Kanji and was particularly effective for low-proficiency learners who were still mastering Hiragana, highlighting the role of auditory-visual integration in second-language acquisition. While the literature extensively covers the application of equivalence to alphabetic literacy, a gap remains regarding the systematic teaching of non-Western syllabic scripts (Nakayama, 2021). To address this, the present study aimed to evaluate whether a standard stimulus equivalence procedure could promote the emergence of reading Japanese Hiragana characters in native Portuguese speakers. An arbitrary MTS procedure was used to establish AB (dictated syllable–Hiragana) and AC (dictated syllable–Romaji) relations; subsequently, the emergence of BC and CB relations (Hiragana–Romaji and Romaji–Hiragana, respectively) was tested to verify equivalence class formation. Building on these derived relations, emergent reading, defined as the oral naming of characters with symbolic comprehension, was also assessed. Method Participants Three native Portuguese speakers with typical development participated in the study: Two adults, CGC (female, 30) and SES (male, 33), and one adolescent, AGO (female, 14). All participants reported no prior knowledge of the Japanese language, including its writing systems (Hiragana, Katakana, or Kanji). Setting and Apparatus Sessions were conducted individually in a quiet environment, free from external distractions. The experimental procedure was implemented using a custom-made PCR software (version 1.2) designed for matching-to-sample (MTS) tasks. Data collection was conducted using a 13-inch laptop equipped with noise-canceling headphones. Stimuli The stimuli consisted of three sets of 10 itens each (Figure 1). Set A (Auditory) consisted of the dictated sounds of 10 Hiragana characters recorded in a clear, neutral male voice. Set B (Visual) consisted of the 10 corresponding characters in Hiragana. Set C (Visual) consisted of the 10 corresponding Romanized representations (Romaji). Procedure The stimulus equivalence paradigm was employed using a matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure as described below. Trial Structure. Each trial began with the presentation of a white square in the center of the screen. Upon mouse clicking this square, the sample stimulus (Set A) was presented through headphones. Immediately following the sample, three comparison stimuli (from Set B or C) appeared in the corners of the screen. Correct mouse selections were reinforced with both visual and auditory stimuli ('Correct!'), whereas incorrect responses produced a 2-s timeout with a darkened screen. Trials were presented with a 1.5-s intertrial interval (ITI), in which the screen remained white. Training. The 10 syllables were divided into five pairs [(/a/ + /ka/), (/sa/ + /ta/), (/na/ + /ha/), (/ma/ + /ra/) and (/ya/ + /wa/) and introduced gradually in blocks containing 30 randomized trials each. For each pair, participants were trained on AC relations (Auditory-Romaji) and AB relations (Auditory-Hiragana) separately until they had reached the mastery criterion of 100% accuracy in a block of trials. After completing a new pair, previously learned syllables were interleaved with the current ones to ensure maintenance and prevent interference. Equivalence Testing. Immediately after mastering the AC/AB relations for a pair, emergent BC (Hiragana-Romaji) and CB (Romaji-Hiragana) relations were tested without reinforcement to verify the formation of two equivalence classes with three stimuli in each. By the end of the experiment, 10 equivalence classes were formed, each one containing a vocal sound, the corresponding Hiragana character and the corresponding Romaji. Emergent Reading Tests. To evaluate the transfer of control to vocal topography, two distinct Reading Tests were conducted. One was performed after the first three pairs were mastered. This test evaluated the emergent vocalization of the initial six syllables. The second was conducted upon the completion of all five pairs (10 syllables). In both tests, a Hiragana character (Set B) was presented on the screen, and the participant was instructed to "read the character aloud". The experimenter recorded the responses, scoring them as correct only if the vocalization perfectly matched the sound of the displayed Hiragana character. These tests were conducted without reinforcement. Results All three participants reached the 100% accuracy mastery criterion for the trained baseline relations (AC and AB). As illustrated in Fig. 2 , CGC and SES achieved this criterion with fewer training blocks compared to AGO, who required more extensive exposure to the training trials. Following training, the emergence of derived relations was evaluated. In the BC/CB equivalence tests, all participants demonstrated high accuracy: CGC and SES reached 100%, while AGO achieved between 97% and 98% accuracy. Regarding the Reading Tests, performance varied across participants. Two participants demonstrated higher accuracy in emergent reading, with CGC scoring between 85% and 100%, and SES scoring between 95.2% and 100%. In contrast, AGO showed lower reading accuracy, ranging between 40% and 50%. These results confirm that while all participants formed the symbolic equivalence classes, the emergent reading was more robust for two participants, CGC and SES. Discussion The present study demonstrated that the stimulus equivalence paradigm can effectively promote the emergence of reading Japanese Hiragana characters in native Portuguese speakers. By training only a subset of relations (AB and AC), all participants derived untrained relations (BC and CB) and achieved high levels of accuracy in equivalence class formation. These findings corroborate the "teaching economy" inherent in the equivalence model, where the establishment of a few baseline relations leads to the emergence of multiple new behavioral repertoires (Sidman, 1994 ; Sidman & Tailby, 1982 ). The effectiveness of the auditory-visual MTS procedure used here corroborates the findings of Nakayama ( 2021 ) regarding the facilitation of Japanese character recognition through multi-modal integration. Specifically, the use of dictated syllables as the sample stimulus (A) functioned as a foundational phonetic anchor, allowing the visual stimuli, Hiragana (B) and Romaji (C), to become members of the same equivalence class. As suggested by Matos ( 1999 ), this process reflects a level of conceptual abstraction where Hiragana characters, initially meaningless and visually complex to the participants, acquired specific symbolic functions through the establishment of relational bases. However, the results of the emergent reading tests varied across participants. While participants CGC and SES achieved high accuracy (above 85%), AGO’s reading performance remained between 40% and 50%. This discrepancy highlights that the formation of equivalence classes (BC and CB) does not automatically guarantee the emergence of vocal naming with the same precision for all learners. In AGO’s case, although the symbolic "meaning" was established, as evidenced by nearly 98% accuracy in BC/CB relations, the control over the vocal topography did not fully occur. This result can be discussed relative to the functional independence between receptive and expressive repertoires. As noted by Sidman ( 1994 ), while matching-to-sample procedures establish the necessary prerequisites for equivalence, the transition to a vocal response involves a transfer of function from the auditory stimulus (A) to the visual stimulus (B). Furthermore, the nature of the Japanese Hiragana script may have played a significant role in this variability. Unlike alphabetic systems with redundant phoneme-grapheme correspondences, Hiragana is a non-alphabetic, syllabic script that presents unique visual and discriminative challenges for native speakers of Western languages (Nakayama, 2021 ). The complex and novel visual features of Hiragana characters (Set B) likely required a higher degree of discrimination. The fact that AGO required more training blocks to reach criteria in the baseline relations (AB and AC) suggests that the visual complexity of the stimuli may have competed with the emergence of precise vocal naming. For such learners, stimulus equivalence protocols might need to be supplemented with reinforced echoic training or explicit naming probes to ensure the full emergence of the reading repertoire (de Rose et al., 1996 ). The data presented here contribute to the literature by reinforcing the role of arbitrary conditional discriminations as a prerequisite for generative reading. By establishing equivalence between auditory and visual modalities, the current procedure mirrors successful laboratory efforts in literacy that treat reading as a network of stimulus-stimulus relations rather than isolated responses (Millan & Postalli, 2019 ). These results expand the external validity of equivalence-based instruction, demonstrating that even scripts with high visual complexity and no prior topographical familiarity can be efficiently incorporated into an individual's verbal repertoire through the strategic arrangement of teaching contingencies. There is significant potential for scaling this procedure to encompass the complete set of 46 basic Hiragana characters, as well as the complete Katakana set. Given the systematic nature of the Hiragana/Katakana, the current protocol could be implemented in a modular format, allowing for the progressive expansion of equivalence classes. Future studies should investigate whether the establishment of the full Hiragana/Katakana sets through equivalence-based instruction facilitates the subsequent acquisition of more complex units, such as word-composition and the transition to logographic systems (Kanji). Additionally, exploring the emergence of tacting (oral reading) and transcription (writing) from the same training structure would provide a more comprehensive account of the generative potential of this methodology. The applied relevance of these findings is particularly significant in the Brazilian context. Brazil hosts the largest population of Japanese descent outside Japan, estimated at approximately 2 million people (IBGE, 2022 ). Moreover, recent data indicate a growing interest in the Japanese language, with Japan consolidating its position as a major economic partner for Brazil (APEX/Brasil, 2024 ) and over 26,000 students formally enrolled in language programs (Japan Foundation, 2025). Within this demographic and economic landscape, the development of evidence-based, efficient teaching protocols is essential to meet the demand for second-language proficiency through methodologies that maximize learning gains. Declarations The present study is part of a research project approved by the University of São Paulo's Institute of Psychology Ethics Committee (CAAE: 58516616.0.0000.5561). Conflict of Interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Availability of Data and Materials Data and materials are available upon request. Authors’ contributions The first and third authors conceived the experimental design, performed the data analysis, and prepared the manuscript. Data collection was carried out by the first author, while the second and third authors contributed to the initial draft. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript and the authorship order. Author Note: The authors declare no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest. The authors acknowledge the use of artificial intelligence (Gemini 1.5 Pro) as a tool for linguistic refinement and grammatical review of this manuscript. The final intellectual content, data analysis, and theoretical interpretations remain the sole responsibility of the authors. Funding : INCT (FAPESP 2014/50909-8, CNPq 465686/2014-1 and CAPES 8887.136407/2017-00) and Post Doctoral Fellowship (FAPESP 2012/08192-3). References APEX/Brasil. (2024). Perfil de comércio e investimentos: Japão [Trade and investment profile: Japan]. Agência Brasileira de Promoção de Exportações e Investimentos. https://apexbrasil.com.br/content/apexbrasil/br/pt/solucoes/inteligencia/estudos-e-publicacoes/perfil-de-comercio-e-investimentos/perfil-de-comercio-e-investimentos---japao---2024.html de Souza, D. G., & Rose, J. C. de (2006). Desenvolvendo programas individualizados para o ensino de leitura [Developing individualized programs for reading]. Acta Comportamentalia, 14 (1), 77- 98. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=274520148004. de Rose, J. C., de Souza, D. G., & Hanna, E. S. (1996). Teaching reading and spelling: Exclusion and stimulus equivalence. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29 (4), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-451. Fundação Japão em São Paulo. (2025). Pesquisa sobre o ensino da língua japonesa no exterior [ Survey on Japanese language education abroad ]. https://fjsp.org.br/ Horne, P. J., & Lowe, C. F. (1996). On the origins of naming and other symbolic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 65 (1), 185–241. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1996.65-185 IBGE (2022). Censo demográfico 2022. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Brasil. https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/sociais/trabalho/22827-censo-demografico-2022.html Matos, M. A. (1999). Controle de estímulos e comportamento simbólico [Stimulus control and symbolic behavior]. Em R. R. Kerbauy (Org.), Sobre comportamento e cognição: Vol. 4. Psicologia comportamental e cognitiva (pp. 15–23). Arbytes. Miguel, C. F., & Petursdottir, A. I. (2009). Naming and frames of coordination. In R. A. Rehfeldt, & Y. Barnes-Holmes (Eds.), Derived relational responding: Applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities (pp. 129-148). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Millan, A. E., & Postalli, L. M. M. (2019). Ensino de habilidades de leitura para alunos com autismo [Teaching reading skills to students with autism]. Revista Brasileira de Educação Especial, 25 (1), 133-154. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-65382519000100009 Nakayama, T. (2021). Effectiveness of the visual-auditory shadowing method on learning the pronunciation of Kanji. Japanese Psychological Research, 63 (1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12278 Sidman, M. (1971). Reading and auditory-visual equivalence. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 14 (1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.1401.05 Sidman, M. (1994). Equivalence relations and behavior: A research story . Authors Cooperative. Sidman, M., & Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the testing paradigm. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37 (1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1982.37-5 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8640772","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Short Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":576940470,"identity":"870e03fe-27cc-4cb3-a296-b5b6102c6787","order_by":0,"name":"Priscila Crispillho Grisante","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6363-288X","institution":"Universidade de São Paulo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Priscila","middleName":"Crispillho","lastName":"Grisante","suffix":""},{"id":576940471,"identity":"88d799bd-3b69-45fa-85d3-915545d78df6","order_by":1,"name":"Saory Miyakawa 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06:26:44","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115271,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePercentage of correct responses for participants CGC, SES, and AGO during baseline training (AC and AB relations), equivalence tests (BC and CB relations), and oral reading tests for ten Hiragana characters.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8640772/v1/51b883f74b0f7312e2139a64.png"},{"id":101751132,"identity":"3d4ad7fa-f4d1-4fa7-85f6-5907941a482a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 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Japanese orthography integrates logographic characters, Kanji, with two distinct phonetic syllabaries: Hiragana and Katakana. Hiragana serves as the foundational phonetic script. For native speakers of alphabetic languages, these characters initially function as visually complex stimuli devoid of meaning, providing an ideal experimental model for investigating the emergence of symbolic repertoires in controlled settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom a behavior-analytic perspective, the development of reading can be understood through the stimulus equivalence paradigm (Sidman, 1994). This framework explains how the direct teaching of a limited set of conditional discriminations can lead to the emergence of untrained relations between stimuli (i.e., teaching economy), characterizing the formation of symbolic classes (Sidman \u0026amp; Tailby, 1982). According to Matos (1999), the establishment of these relational bases allows for conceptual abstraction that is independent of physical structural properties, thereby increasing the probability that an individual will act appropriately in novel linguistic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHistorically, the matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure has been the primary tool for investigating reading as a relational repertoire, dating back to seminal studies on auditory-visual equivalence (Sidman, 1971). Within this tradition, reading has been systematically operationalized as a complex network of stimulus-stimulus and stimulus-response relations, where the acquisition of a symbolic repertoire depends on the establishment of equivalence between dictated words, printed words, and their corresponding referents (de Souza et al., 1996; de Souza \u0026amp; de Rose, 2006).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch on verbal behavior further suggests that training involving relations between auditory and visual stimuli tends to be more effective (Horne \u0026amp; Lowe, 1996; Miguel \u0026amp; Petursdottir, 2009). Recently, Nakayama (2021) expanded this investigation into the Japanese language by conducting a large-scale study with 99 learners. Nakayama manipulated stimulus configurations to compare visual-auditory shadowing, where learners hear sounds and immediately repeat them while viewing the text (an echoic-tact behavior), against purely visual-visual combinations. The results indicated that the visual-auditory method significantly facilitated the pronunciation of Kanji and was particularly effective for low-proficiency learners who were still mastering Hiragana, highlighting the role of auditory-visual integration in second-language acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the literature extensively covers the application of equivalence to alphabetic literacy, a gap remains regarding the systematic teaching of non-Western syllabic scripts (Nakayama, 2021). To address this, the present study aimed to evaluate whether a standard stimulus equivalence procedure could promote the emergence of reading Japanese Hiragana characters in native Portuguese speakers. An arbitrary MTS procedure was used to establish AB (dictated syllable\u0026ndash;Hiragana) and AC (dictated syllable\u0026ndash;Romaji) relations; subsequently, the emergence of BC and CB relations (Hiragana\u0026ndash;Romaji and Romaji\u0026ndash;Hiragana, respectively) was tested to verify equivalence class formation. Building on these derived relations, emergent reading, defined as the oral naming of characters with symbolic comprehension, was also assessed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree native Portuguese speakers with typical development participated in the study: Two adults, CGC (female, 30) and SES (male, 33), and one adolescent, AGO (female, 14). All participants reported no prior knowledge of the Japanese language, including its writing systems (Hiragana, Katakana, or Kanji).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSetting and Apparatus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSessions were conducted individually in a quiet environment, free from external distractions. The experimental procedure was implemented using a custom-made PCR software (version 1.2) designed for matching-to-sample (MTS) tasks. Data collection was conducted using a 13-inch laptop equipped with noise-canceling headphones.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStimuli\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stimuli consisted of three sets of 10 itens each (Figure 1). Set A (Auditory) consisted of the dictated sounds of 10 Hiragana characters recorded in a clear, neutral male voice. Set B (Visual) consisted of the 10 corresponding characters in Hiragana. Set C (Visual) consisted of the 10 corresponding Romanized representations (Romaji).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stimulus equivalence paradigm was employed using a matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure as described below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrial Structure.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEach trial began with the presentation of a white square in the center of the screen. Upon mouse clicking this square, the sample stimulus (Set A) was presented through headphones. Immediately following the sample, three comparison stimuli (from Set B or C) appeared in the corners of the screen. Correct mouse selections were reinforced with both visual and auditory stimuli (\u0026apos;Correct!\u0026apos;), whereas incorrect responses produced a 2-s timeout with a darkened screen. Trials were presented with a 1.5-s intertrial interval (ITI), in which the screen remained white.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTraining.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe 10 syllables were divided into five pairs [(/a/ + /ka/), (/sa/ + /ta/), (/na/ + /ha/), (/ma/ + /ra/) and (/ya/ + /wa/) and introduced gradually in blocks containing 30 randomized trials each. For each pair, participants were trained on AC relations (Auditory-Romaji) and AB relations (Auditory-Hiragana) separately until they had reached the mastery criterion of 100% accuracy in a block of trials. After completing a new pair, previously learned syllables were interleaved with the current ones to ensure maintenance and prevent interference.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEquivalence Testing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eImmediately after mastering the AC/AB relations for a pair, emergent BC (Hiragana-Romaji) and CB (Romaji-Hiragana) relations were tested without reinforcement to verify the formation of two equivalence classes with three stimuli in each. By the end of the experiment, 10 equivalence classes were formed, each one containing a vocal sound, the corresponding Hiragana character and the corresponding Romaji.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmergent Reading Tests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eTo evaluate the transfer of control to vocal topography, two distinct Reading Tests were conducted. One was performed after the first three pairs were mastered. This test evaluated the emergent vocalization of the initial six syllables. The second was conducted upon the completion of all five pairs (10 syllables). In both tests, a Hiragana character (Set B) was presented on the screen, and the participant was instructed to \u0026quot;read the character aloud\u0026quot;. The experimenter recorded the responses, scoring them as correct only if the vocalization perfectly matched the sound of the displayed Hiragana character. These tests were conducted without reinforcement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll three participants reached the 100% accuracy mastery criterion for the trained baseline relations (AC and AB). As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, CGC and SES achieved this criterion with fewer training blocks compared to AGO, who required more extensive exposure to the training trials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing training, the emergence of derived relations was evaluated. In the BC/CB equivalence tests, all participants demonstrated high accuracy: CGC and SES reached 100%, while AGO achieved between 97% and 98% accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the Reading Tests, performance varied across participants. Two participants demonstrated higher accuracy in emergent reading, with CGC scoring between 85% and 100%, and SES scoring between 95.2% and 100%. In contrast, AGO showed lower reading accuracy, ranging between 40% and 50%. These results confirm that while all participants formed the symbolic equivalence classes, the emergent reading was more robust for two participants, CGC and SES.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study demonstrated that the stimulus equivalence paradigm can effectively promote the emergence of reading Japanese Hiragana characters in native Portuguese speakers. By training only a subset of relations (AB and AC), all participants derived untrained relations (BC and CB) and achieved high levels of accuracy in equivalence class formation. These findings corroborate the \"teaching economy\" inherent in the equivalence model, where the establishment of a few baseline relations leads to the emergence of multiple new behavioral repertoires (Sidman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Sidman \u0026amp; Tailby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of the auditory-visual MTS procedure used here corroborates the findings of Nakayama (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) regarding the facilitation of Japanese character recognition through multi-modal integration. Specifically, the use of dictated syllables as the sample stimulus (A) functioned as a foundational phonetic anchor, allowing the visual stimuli, Hiragana (B) and Romaji (C), to become members of the same equivalence class. As suggested by Matos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), this process reflects a level of conceptual abstraction where Hiragana characters, initially meaningless and visually complex to the participants, acquired specific symbolic functions through the establishment of relational bases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the results of the emergent reading tests varied across participants. While participants CGC and SES achieved high accuracy (above 85%), AGO\u0026rsquo;s reading performance remained between 40% and 50%. This discrepancy highlights that the formation of equivalence classes (BC and CB) does not automatically guarantee the emergence of vocal naming with the same precision for all learners. In AGO\u0026rsquo;s case, although the symbolic \"meaning\" was established, as evidenced by nearly 98% accuracy in BC/CB relations, the control over the vocal topography did not fully occur. This result can be discussed relative to the functional independence between receptive and expressive repertoires. As noted by Sidman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), while matching-to-sample procedures establish the necessary prerequisites for equivalence, the transition to a vocal response involves a transfer of function from the auditory stimulus (A) to the visual stimulus (B).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the nature of the Japanese Hiragana script may have played a significant role in this variability. Unlike alphabetic systems with redundant phoneme-grapheme correspondences, Hiragana is a non-alphabetic, syllabic script that presents unique visual and discriminative challenges for native speakers of Western languages (Nakayama, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The complex and novel visual features of Hiragana characters (Set B) likely required a higher degree of discrimination. The fact that AGO required more training blocks to reach criteria in the baseline relations (AB and AC) suggests that the visual complexity of the stimuli may have competed with the emergence of precise vocal naming. For such learners, stimulus equivalence protocols might need to be supplemented with reinforced echoic training or explicit naming probes to ensure the full emergence of the reading repertoire (de Rose et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data presented here contribute to the literature by reinforcing the role of arbitrary conditional discriminations as a prerequisite for generative reading. By establishing equivalence between auditory and visual modalities, the current procedure mirrors successful laboratory efforts in literacy that treat reading as a network of stimulus-stimulus relations rather than isolated responses (Millan \u0026amp; Postalli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These results expand the external validity of equivalence-based instruction, demonstrating that even scripts with high visual complexity and no prior topographical familiarity can be efficiently incorporated into an individual's verbal repertoire through the strategic arrangement of teaching contingencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is significant potential for scaling this procedure to encompass the complete set of 46 basic Hiragana characters, as well as the complete Katakana set. Given the systematic nature of the Hiragana/Katakana, the current protocol could be implemented in a modular format, allowing for the progressive expansion of equivalence classes. Future studies should investigate whether the establishment of the full Hiragana/Katakana sets through equivalence-based instruction facilitates the subsequent acquisition of more complex units, such as word-composition and the transition to logographic systems (Kanji). Additionally, exploring the emergence of tacting (oral reading) and transcription (writing) from the same training structure would provide a more comprehensive account of the generative potential of this methodology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe applied relevance of these findings is particularly significant in the Brazilian context. Brazil hosts the largest population of Japanese descent outside Japan, estimated at approximately 2\u0026nbsp;million people (IBGE, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, recent data indicate a growing interest in the Japanese language, with Japan consolidating its position as a major economic partner for Brazil (APEX/Brasil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and over 26,000 students formally enrolled in language programs (Japan Foundation, 2025). Within this demographic and economic landscape, the development of evidence-based, efficient teaching protocols is essential to meet the demand for second-language proficiency through methodologies that maximize learning gains.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe present study is part of a research project approved by the University of S\u0026atilde;o Paulo\u0026apos;s Institute of Psychology Ethics Committee (CAAE: 58516616.0.0000.5561).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData and materials are available upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first and third authors conceived the experimental design, performed the data analysis, and prepared the manuscript. Data collection was carried out by the first author, while the second and third authors contributed to the initial draft. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript and the authorship order.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Note:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge the use of artificial intelligence (Gemini 1.5 Pro) as a tool for linguistic refinement and grammatical review of this manuscript. The final intellectual content, data analysis, and theoretical interpretations remain the sole responsibility of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: INCT (FAPESP 2014/50909-8, CNPq 465686/2014-1 and CAPES 8887.136407/2017-00) and Post Doctoral Fellowship (FAPESP 2012/08192-3).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAPEX/Brasil. (2024). \u003cem\u003ePerfil de com\u0026eacute;rcio e investimentos: Jap\u0026atilde;o\u003c/em\u003e [Trade and investment profile: Japan]. Ag\u0026ecirc;ncia Brasileira de Promo\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o de Exporta\u0026ccedil;\u0026otilde;es e Investimentos. https://apexbrasil.com.br/content/apexbrasil/br/pt/solucoes/inteligencia/estudos-e-publicacoes/perfil-de-comercio-e-investimentos/perfil-de-comercio-e-investimentos---japao---2024.html\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ede Souza, D. G., \u0026amp; Rose, J. C. de (2006). Desenvolvendo programas individualizados para o ensino de leitura [Developing individualized programs for reading]. \u003cem\u003eActa Comportamentalia, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 77- 98. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=274520148004.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ede Rose, J. C., de Souza, D. G., \u0026amp; Hanna, E. S. (1996). Teaching reading and spelling: Exclusion and stimulus equivalence. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29\u003c/em\u003e(4), 451\u0026ndash;469. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-451.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFunda\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o Jap\u0026atilde;o em S\u0026atilde;o Paulo. (2025). \u003cem\u003ePesquisa sobre o ensino da l\u0026iacute;ngua japonesa no exterior\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cem\u003eSurvey on Japanese language education abroad\u003c/em\u003e]. https://fjsp.org.br/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHorne, P. J., \u0026amp; Lowe, C. F. (1996). On the origins of naming and other symbolic behavior. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 65\u003c/em\u003e(1), 185\u0026ndash;241. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1996.65-185\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIBGE (2022). \u003cem\u003eCenso demogr\u0026aacute;fico 2022. \u003c/em\u003eInstituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat\u0026iacute;stica. Brasil. https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/sociais/trabalho/22827-censo-demografico-2022.html\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatos, M. A. (1999). Controle de est\u0026iacute;mulos e comportamento simb\u0026oacute;lico [Stimulus control and symbolic behavior]. Em R. R. Kerbauy (Org.), \u003cem\u003eSobre comportamento e cogni\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o: Vol. 4. Psicologia comportamental e cognitiva\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 15\u0026ndash;23). Arbytes.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiguel, C. F., \u0026amp; Petursdottir, A. I. (2009). Naming and frames of coordination. In R. A. Rehfeldt, \u0026amp; Y. Barnes-Holmes (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eDerived relational responding: Applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 129-148). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMillan, A. E., \u0026amp; Postalli, L. M. M. (2019). Ensino de habilidades de leitura para alunos com autismo [Teaching reading skills to students with autism]. \u003cem\u003eRevista Brasileira de Educa\u0026ccedil;\u0026atilde;o Especial, 25\u003c/em\u003e(1), 133-154. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-65382519000100009\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNakayama, T. (2021). Effectiveness of the visual-auditory shadowing method on learning the pronunciation of Kanji. \u003cem\u003eJapanese Psychological Research, 63\u003c/em\u003e(1), 26\u0026ndash;34. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12278\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSidman, M. (1971). Reading and auditory-visual equivalence. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Speech and Hearing Research, 14\u003c/em\u003e(1), 5\u0026ndash;13. https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.1401.05\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSidman, M. (1994). \u003cem\u003eEquivalence relations and behavior: A research story\u003c/em\u003e. Authors Cooperative.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSidman, M., \u0026amp; Tailby, W. (1982). Conditional discrimination vs. matching to sample: An expansion of the testing paradigm. \u003cem\u003eJournal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37\u003c/em\u003e(1), 5\u0026ndash;22. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1982.37-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Universidade de São Paulo","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Stimulus equivalence, Hiragana, emergent reading, matching-to-sample, Japanese language","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8640772/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8640772/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated an experimental procedure for establishing an emergent reading repertoire of Japanese Hiragana (a non-alphabetic script) using the stimulus equivalence paradigm. Three native Portuguese speakers were exposed to a matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure to establish conditional discriminations between dictated syllables (A), Hiragana characters (B), and their corresponding Romanized representations (C). After directly training AB and AC relations for ten Hiragana characters, participants were tested for the emergence of BC and CB relations, followed by emergent Hiragana reading tests. All participants reached over 97% accuracy in the emergent relations, demonstrating the formation of equivalence classes. Two participants successfully read between 85% and 100% of the Hiragana characters without direct reinforcement. These results highlight the \"teaching economy\" inherent in relational models and suggest that auditory-visual equivalence protocols are effective for promoting emergent reading with symbolic comprehension. The findings are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of the procedure for emergent reading.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Emergent Reading of Japanese Hiragana via Stimulus Equivalence: A Preliminary Approach","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-23 06:26:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8640772/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a619f3ac-e609-4b1a-a641-6201d65244b4","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 23rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61381070,"name":"Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-23T06:26:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-23 06:26:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8640772","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8640772","identity":"rs-8640772","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}