Unwrapping Textile Culture in Southern Italy: Evidence from Classical and Hellenistic Sicily

Unwrapping Textile Culture in Southern Italy: Evidence from Classical and Hellenistic Sicily | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Unwrapping Textile Culture in Southern Italy: Evidence from Classical and Hellenistic Sicily Gabriella Longhitano, Giovanni Quarta, Maurizio Masieri, Milena Primavera This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Archaeological textiles are rare in Sicily, except under specific environmental conditions, as the Sicilian climate is not conducive to the preservation of organic materials. Consequently, the study of textile culture in Sicily has primarily relied on the analysis of textile tools, which, in contrast, are both abundant and ubiquitous. This study presents the results of the analysis of textile remains recovered from the cemeteries of Vassallaggi (San Cataldo-Caltanissetta, Sicily) and Lipari (Aeolian islands, Sicily), located in central and northern Sicily, respectively. It offers the opportunity to examine the fifth-third century BC textile production at two sites on the island. The textiles have survived in a mineralised form as a result of direct contact with metal objects. The fabrics were mainly wrapped around grave goods ­ — including urns containing cremated remains, ashes themselves, and items such as strigils and knives. The practice of wrapping grave objects was a well-documented funerary custom in Italy and Greece from as early as the Iron Age. In Sicily, it was observed among certain Greek and local communities during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. All textile fragments were examined using a digital microscope to analyse fabric structures, including weave types and thread characteristics. Fibre types were then identified through the use of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The results allowed us to shed light on the textile culture in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily, placing it in the wider Mediterranean context. Moreover, the funerary practice of wrapping goods provided valuable insights into the role of textiles in cultural interaction contexts, as well as the ways in which local communities expressed their social and cultural affiliations. Classical-Hellenistic Sicily Textiles Textile culture Funerary practice Cultural interaction Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 1. Introduction As perishable materials, textiles rarely survive in archaeological contexts where climate is not favourable to their preservation, as is the case in the Mediterranean area. This has undoubtedly contributed to little know about textile cultures of many communities in southern Italy. However, recent research on this topic has gained momentum, and new discoveries along with the application of cutting-edge methodologies have thrown light on the textile production of past societies in the Italian Peninsula (Gleba 2017 a; 2017 b; Gleba et al. 2018 ). In Sicily, research on textile culture has mainly focused on the study of textile tools, which are abundant and ubiquitous on the island (Quercia and Foxhall 2014 ; Landenius 2015; Quercia 2018 ; Longhitano 2021 ). Conversely, archaeological textiles are rare since their preservation depends on favorable taphonomic processes, which are affected by physic-chemical environments, climate factors and specific contextual conditions. Sicily and Aeolian islands have acted as a crossroads through the millennia. From the end of the eighth century BC, Greeks reached the east coast of Sicily and established overseas settlements and continued to arrive during the seventh century BC, spreading west along the south and north coasts and founding a number of settlements. Local communities began initiating contact with Greek incomers. The complexity and local variability of economic and cultural contacts between the diverse communities led to various degrees of interaction. Over the past decades, scholars have moved away from a model of Hellenisation towards a post-colonial approach resulting in a re-evaluation of the social dynamics between local and foreign people within the framework of cultural interactions (Dietler 1998 ; Bhabha 2004 ; van Dommelen 2005 ; 2006a ; 2006b ; 2011 ; Liebmann 2013 ; Silliman 2015 ). In Sicily, many local communities adopted and adapted Greek practices and their choices are reflected in the material culture. Burial costumes, in particular, offer a significant opportunity to investigate the way in which communities expressed their own cultural identity through the adoption or adaption of specific elements as well as ritual practices. Among the categories of material culture, textiles and clothing had a symbolic significance and played an important role in communicating various aspects and forms of social and personal identity (Wobst 1977 ; Schneider 1987 ; Eicher 1995 ; Roach-Higgins et al. 1995 ; Wagner-Hasel 2000 ; 2006; Harlow et al. 2020 ). This paper focuses on two textile assemblages recovered in Sicily, from the cemeteries of Vassallaggi and Lipari respectively, where the textiles were used to wrap metal grave goods. These textiles were preserved in mineralised form through contact with metal objects in which metal corrosion produces form casts around fibres, keeping their external morphology and size almost intact (Chen et al. 1998 ). These assemblages were analysed using a digital microscope to investigate both the qualitative (weave, twist and structure of the threads) and quantitative characteristics (thread count and diameter) of each find. This study was undertaken by G. Longhitano as part of her PhD project ‘Cultura tessile in Sicilia tra l’età del Ferro e quella Ellenistica: dall’analisi delle evidenze dirette ed indirette alla tradizione tessile’ conducted at the University of Catania between 2019 and 2024. Moreover, samples from each textile remain were observed under a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to identify the raw material used in their production. This second microscopic investigation was carried out at the Optical and Electronic Microscopy CNR-ISPC Laboratory at Lecce and is part of the ARAKNE project PRIN2022-PNRR “The intertwining of Biodiversity and Culture of textile fibres heritage. Bioarchaeological investigation on flax and wool diversity loss; from a deep time perspective to strategies for conservation and promotion of Bio-cultural Heritage”. This is an ongoing project carried out at the Department of Cultural Heritage at the University of Salento aiming to investigate, from a diachronic perspective, the lost 'biodiversity' and eroded cultural heritage associated with two major textile fibres of plant and animal origin. Through the analysis of both ecofacts (such as flax remains and ovicaprine bones) and artefacts (including textiles), complemented by historical and ethnographic sources, the Arakne project applies an integrated approach. It spans from prehistory to the pre-Roman period, with a geographical focus on Sardinia and central-southern Italy, where evidence of textile fibres and flax remains is particularly abundant and well preserved. After briefly describing the archaeological contexts of Vassallaggi and Lipari necropolises, this paper presents the results of the microscopic investigation of textiles and fibres. This data is crucial to enhance our understanding of technical parameters. At the same time, the new information will be discussed and contextualised within the broader framework of south Italy and the wider Mediterranean scenario. Last but not least, this work demonstrates the potential of a detailed analysis of ancient textile remains from funerary contexts and the significance such analysis has in providing new insights into constructing identity within cultural contact contexts. 2. Archaeological contexts 2.1 The classical necropolis at Vassallaggi The site of Vassallaggi is located in the modern province of Caltanissetta in central Sicily (Fig. 1 ). Situated in a strategic position between the southern coast and the inland, it had intense contacts with Greek settlers. Inhabited by local people, it became a fortified site of Akragas destroyed by Ducetius in 451 BC and reconquered by the Greeks the following year. During the fifth century BC the village assumed the appearance of a small Greek centre, with houses on terraces, streets laid out in a grid plan, and a sanctuary with a small temple decorated by painted antefixes of the Geloan-Akragan type. Shortly after its destruction, the city was reconstructed; houses and sanctuary were rebuilt, and the small temple received new decoration with molded antefixes. The southern necropolis documented the shift towards the adoption of Greek costume and social practices. The cemetery was in use between the second quarter and the end of the fifth century BC. Archaeological excavations carried out between 1956 and 1961 yielded 262 graves, some of which had been disturbed or partially despoiled (Orlandini 1971 ; Pizzo 1999 ). The tombs mainly consist of trench graves, sarcophagies and jar burials, following Greek rituals. The depositions mostly include pottery and personal objects, while dress ornaments are rare. Male graves are characterised by sets of vessels related to wine consumption, whereas goods in female burials primarily consist of perfume vessels, utilitarian items, and personal objects. Textiles were unearthed from male burials with the sole exception of a single female grave. All the recovered textiles were found on iron knives, which were commonly associated with both male and female graves (Table 1 ). The sex of the deceased has been inferred according to the grave goods. No osteological analysis has been conducted. 2.2 The Classical and Hellenistic necropolis at Lipari Lipari is the largest of the Aeolian Islands, situated to the north of Sicily (Fig. 1 ). According to different ancient authors 1 , the Greek settlement was founded at the end of the seventh or the beginning of sixth century BC. The island, known as Lipára, remained a Greek settlement until the Roman conquest in 252 − 51 BC when it was destroyed. The site has been systematically investigated since 1950 by Luigi Bernabò Brea and Madeleine Cavalier, whose research has been extensively published (Bernabò Brea and Cavalier 1965 ; Bernabò Brea et al. 2001 ). Over 2800 graves have been uncovered beneath the acropolis, an area now referred to as ‘the Castle’. These burials provide exceptional insights into many aspects of Greek and Roman Lipari, spanning a chronological framework of over a thousand years. Both inhumation and cremation practices are attested; however, inhumation was the predominant burial tradition during the Greek period. With some exceptions, grave goods are generally modest, consisting primarily of pottery, while personal ornaments and objects, such as fibulae or pins, are rare. Metal artefacts are mainly represented by strigils, with occasional finds of knives and mirrors. Textiles were recovered on and inside two bronze urns containing cremated ashes and in contact with bronze strigils. No osteological analysis has been conducted, except for grave 437 (Tables 2 ). Table 1 List of graves of Vassallaggi’s necropolis where textile remains were recovered. Grave Type of burial Chronology Grave goods Sex of the deceased Reference 177 inhumation second quarter of the 5th c. BC oinochoe, lekythos and the iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 203 167 inhumation around 470 BC oinochoe, lekythoi, iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 197–198 150 inhumation around 450 BC oinochoe, lekythos, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 180. 149 inhumation around 450 BC pelike, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 177–180. 49 inhumation second half of the 5th c. BC oinochoe, alabastron, iron knife and a ceramic object female Orlandini 1971 , 86–87. 39 inhumation 440 BC pelike, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 73. 81 inhumation 440 − 430 BC oinochoe, bronze strigil, alabastron, iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 123–127. 41A inhumation around 430 BC Bronze strigil and iron knife inside the krater; lekythoi and a vessel male Pizzo 1999 , 225–231. 31A inhumation around 430 BC vessels, lekythoi, bronze strigil and iron knife male Pizzo 1999 , 248–251. 40A inhumation 440 − 420 BC oinochoe,bronze strigil, and an iron knife inside the krater male Pizzo 1999 , 251–254. 30 inhumation 430 − 420 BC pelike, iron knife inside the krater and a bronze strigil male Orlandini 1971 , 59. 31 inhumation 430 − 420 BC lekythos, pelike, a iron knife inside the krater and a bronze strigil male Orlandini 1971 , 59–63. 10 inhumation 430 − 420 BC pelike, lekythos, alabastron, bronze stud, iron knife and a bronze strigil inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 25–28. 85 inhumation 430 − 420 BC iron knife, oinochoe and alabastron inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 135. 32 inhumation 420 − 410 BC lekythos, bronze strigil, pelike, alabastra, an iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 67. 176 inhumation 5th c. BC oinochoe, lekythoi, an iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 201–203. 144 inhumation end of the 5th c. BC oinochoe, alabastra, bronze strigil and an iron knife inside the krater male Orlandini 1971 , 173–176. Table 2 List of graves of Lipari’s necropolis where textile remains were recovered. Grave Type of burial Chronology Grave goods inside the graves Sex of the deceased Reference 312 cremation End of the 5th /beginning of the 4th BC bronze hydria, bronze strigil and bronze olpe NA Bernabò Brea e Cavalier 1965, 114; Mastelloni 2020 . 437 cremation First half of 5th century BC bronze hydria, golden ring, olpe Male Bernabò Brea e Cavalier 1965, 156; Mastelloni 2020 . 227 inhumation 400 − 335 BC bronze strigil and iron orthopaedic tool NA Bernabò Brea e Cavalier 1965, 77. 340 inhumation 335 − 280 BC two lekanai, bronze ring and bronze strigil NA Bernabò Brea e Cavalier 1965, 124. 722 inhumation 335 − 300 BC iron strigil placed next to the deceased NA Bernabò Brea et al. 2001 , 116–117. 2049 inhumation 3rd c. BC small amphora, patera, olphai, skyphoi, three iron knives and strigil, golden ring NA Bernabò Brea et al. 2001 , 602. 338 inhumation End of the 4th-beginning of the 3th c. BC bronze strigil NA Bernabò Brea e Cavalier 1965, 123. 3. Materials and Methods The examined material comprises 27 fragments of textiles and single threads recovered from 25 objects (17 objects from Vassallaggi; eight objects from Lipari) (Tables 3 and 4 ). The identification of the examined objects from both sites was based on the excavator’s documentation. However, in some cases, the textiles were no longer visible due to modern restorations. Moreover, a few textile remains were identified directly by the authors through meticulous visual examinations. Table 3 List of samples and related burials from the southern necropolis at Vassallaggi Sample Grave Burial object Inv. No. 1 177 iron knife 2285 2 167 iron knife 1925 3 150 iron knife 2460 4 149 iron knife 1672 5 49 iron knife NA 6 39 iron knife NA 7 81 iron knife 1569 8 41A iron knife 9256 9 31A iron knife 13335 10 40A iron knife 13402 11 30 iron knife NA 12 31 iron knife 1595 13 10 iron knife 1585 14 85 iron knife 1858 15 32 iron knife 1705 16 176 iron knife 2317 17 144 iron knife 1676 Table 4 List of samples and related burials from the Greek necropolis at Lipari Sample Grave Burial object Inv. No. 18 312 bronze hydria 748 19 437 bronze hydria 2331 20–21 227 orthopaedic tool NA 22 340 strigil NA 23–24 722 strigil NA 25 2049 strigil NA 26 2049 knife NA 27 338 strigil NA The structural examination was carried out using a portable Dino-Lite digital microscope at different magnifications (x20, x50 magnifications). With the aim to determine the morphological characteristics of the fibre and acquire more detailed surface information for fibre identification, SEM observations were performed by SEM ZEISS EVO 15 equipped with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (EDS) (Oxford Instruments Azteclive Lite Ultim Max) and with tungsten filament. SEM analysis was conducted using both secondary (SE) and backscattered electrons (BSE); the low-vacuum mode was used on samples without metallisation using the following conditions: Working Distance 10 mm, Accelerating Voltage 15–20 kV, Variable Pressure 90 Pa, Scan speed 9 and cycle time 23 Secs. The fibres were examined longitudinally and, where possible, in cross section for morphological features (Catling and Grayson 1982; Margariti 2009 ; Houck 2009 ; Bergfjord and Holst 2010 ; Margariti et al. 2011 ; Haugan and Holst 2013 ; Rast-Eicher 2016 ; Suomela et al. 2017 ; Lukesova and Holst 2024 ). 4. Results 4.1 Textiles at Vassallaggi: Structural Analysis and Fibre Identification At Vassallaggi, textile remains or single yarns were identified on 17 iron knives recovered from an equal number of burials (Table 5 ). The textiles show varying degrees of mineralisation, with the organic fibres being partially or completely replaced by metal. In some cases, analysis was hampered by the extreme deterioration of the fabrics while in others, conservation treatments obscured structural details (Fig. 2 ). All identified textiles are balanced tabby weaves, the simplest loom-based textile structure, characterised by an equal number of threads in both systems, ranging between 12 and 30 threads per cm. Similarly, yarn diameter is consistent across both systems, varying from 0.2 mm up to 1 mm. None of the textiles preserve edges (Fig. 3 ). The textiles from Vassallaggi are all woven using medium-hard z-twisted warp and weft (the conventional way of indicating clockwise spin direction) threads. In three cases, the thread is composed of two spun singles of z-direction and then plied in an S direction (S2z). The twist in the singles is generally light to medium, although in some cases, no discernible twist is present (Fig. 4 ). Due to the mineralisation process, fibre identification was challenging. SEM analysis revealed that all of them exhibit bundles of long fibres with visible dislocations or nodes, which are characteristic of plant fibres. Also, the presence of S-cracks suggests the S fibrillary orientation of the fibre (Bergfjord and Holst 2010 , 1193; Suomela et al. 2017 ; Lukesova and Holst 2024 ). Where measurable, fibre diameters range between 10 and 20 µ, which is consistent with flax (Margariti et al. 2011 ). The fibres are generally well-separated and parallel, indicating careful combing prior to spinning (Rast-Eicher 2016 , 98) (Fig. 5). Table 5 Textile finds at Vassallaggi: structural parameters and fibre identification Sample Weave Thread count per cm in warp/weft Thread diameter in warp/weft (mm) Thread twist in warp/weft Fibre characteristics Raw material 1 Balanced tabby / 0.4/0.4 hard z/medium-hard z Not analysed because of its extremely poor preservation NA 2 Balanced tabby 14/14 0.5/0.5 z (?)/z (?) Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 14–15µ linen 3 Balanced tabby 25–30/25–30 0.2/0.2 medium-hard z/medium-hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks linen 4 Balanced tabby ? 0.2/0.2 medium-hard z/medium-hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks linen 5 Single yarns / 2–3 medium S2z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 15µ linen 6 Balanced tabby 15–20/15–20 0.2/0.2 medium z/medium z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 6–8 µ linen 7 Balanced tabby / 0.2/0.2 hard z/hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 11µ linen 8 Balanced tabby 20/20 0.5/0.5 hard z/hard z No permission to analyse NA 9 Balanced tabby 20/20 0.9-1/0.9-1 medium-light S2z/medium-light S2z No permission to analyse NA 10 Balanced tabby 15–20/15–20 0.5/0.5 hard z-hard z No permission to analyse NA 11 Balanced tabby 15/15 0.5/0.5 medium-light S2z/medium-light S2z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks NA 12 Balanced tabby 18/18 0.5/0.5 hard z/hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks NA 13 Balanced tabby 17/17 0.2/0.2 hard z/hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks linen 14 Balanced tabby 12/12 1/1 hard-medium z/hard-medium z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 8–11µ linen 15 Balanced tabby 20–25/20–25 0.5-1/0.5-1 hard z/hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks linen 16 Balanced tabby / 1/1 medium-hard z/medium-hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 8–10µ linen 17 Balanced tabby 30/30 0.2–0.5/0.2–0.5 medium-hard z medium-hard z Dislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 11µ linen a b Figure 5a-b SEMicrographs of fibres in Vassallaggi textile fragments: sample 4 (a) and 15 (b) (images: M. Masieri and G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Pietro Griffo’. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission) 4.2 Textiles at Lipari: Structural Analysis and Fibre Identification At Lipari, remains of 10 different textile weaves were identified on eight objects from an equal number of burials (Table 6 ). Structural analysis and fibre identification were significantly affected by poor preservation and, in a few cases, by the conservation treatment that obscured organic material. The degree of mineralisation varies allowing textile structures to be clearly observed in some fragments, while in others they are nearly indiscernible. Textile remains were found on four strigils dated to the fourth-third centuries BC and on two funerary urns dated to the fifth-fourth centuries BC. Moreover, faint traces of textile were observed on a knife (Fig. 6 ). Particularly noteworthy are the textiles recovered from a distinctive object in tomb 227, which will be discussed below. Table 6 Textile finds at Lipari: structural parameters and fibre identification Sample Position Weave Thread count per cm in warp/weft Thread diameter in warp/weft (mm) Thread twist in warp/weft Fibre characteristics Raw material 18 outside the hydria: around the shoulders, rim and beneath the foot Unbalanced tabby 14–15/28–30 1/0.8 z/i (?) poorly preserved and presence of consolidant-possible presence of lumen linen? 19 inside the hydria / / / / poorly preserved and presence of consolidant NA 20 Textile 1 : wrapped around the entire tool Weft-faced tabby 10/more 40 0.4–0.5/0.2 hard z/i Irregular mosaic cuticle pattern wool 21 Textile 2 : located on the edge of fragment 1 Unbalanced tabby 6/13 ?/1 ? poorly preserved-fibrils visible wool 22 wrapped around the strigil Unbalanced tabby 10/19–20 0.6/0.4 hard s/s poorly preserved- S fibrillar orientation linen? 23 Textile 1 : located next to the handle Balanced tabby 20/20 1/1 hard s/hard s poorly preserved and presence of consolidant- polygonal cross section shape, narrow lumen linen 24 Textile 2 : small fragments-located next to the pointed end Balanced tabby 20/20 0.2/0.2 i/i poorly preserved-fibrils visible and possible scales wool? 25 on one edge Unbalanced tabby ? 11/? 1/1 s?/s? poorly preserved NA 26 small fragment on the blade ? ? 1/1 / poorly preserved NA 27 on the convex side Basket tabby 12/26 0.5/0.5 hard s/hard s bundles, regular dislocations, S-cracks, 12.4–20 µ linen All analysed textiles are tabby weaves, with both balanced and unbalanced variants present (Fig. 7 ). Balanced tabbies consist of 20 thread per cm. Unbalanced tabbies feature a significantly higher thread count in one system, often so tightly packed that the warp becomes invisible, making structural analysis challenging. None of the textiles preserve edges, except for one found in tomb 227 (sample 20), which will be discussed below. In weft-faced tabby, warp threads are significantly thicker than weft threads—almost double in diameter. This is because the warp threads have to be solid enough to support the weight of the wefts without breaking. One of the textiles at Lipari is a basket weave (tomb 338, sample 27), which is a variation of plain weave, where the warp and weft yarns are used in parallel pairs (Barber 1991 , 127) (Fig. 7 ). The textiles analysed have different yarn structures. With the exception of two z-twisted textiles, the majority are woven using s-twisted threads with a hard twist angle or no discernable twist at all (Fig. 8 ). Most textiles were likely used to wrap bronze strigils and urns containing cremated remains. They are both balanced and unbalanced tabby. The textile from tomb 437 was found inside the urn 2331, while, traces of fabric were observed on the shoulders, rim and foot of urn 748 (tomb 312), indicating that it had been wrapped around the vessel (Mastelloni 2020 ). A fragment shows some whitish threads which might be dyed, although further analysis is needed to investigate this aspect. Among the analysed metal objects, one is particularly ambiguous. Recovered from tomb 227 and dated to the fourth century BC (Bernabò Brea and Cavalier 1965 , 77), it has been interpreted as an orthopaedic tool due to its position in relation to pelvis bones (Langella and Langella 2000 ). The object consists of a semicircular iron structure terminating in two discs, one of which features a ring suspended from a thicker one (Fig. 6 ). According to Bernabò Brea, similar rings were originally present on the other disc, possibly used to secure the tool to the body with a belt. Textiles cover the whole object, on both sides. Two different textiles were identified: Textile 1 is a band approximately 4 cm wide, wrapping around fragments 2 and 3 entirely and it is best preserved on the handle of fragment 1 and the external part of the disc. The arrangement suggests that Textile 1 was wrapped multiple times around the object, with certain areas displaying multiple layers (Fig. 9). The warp and weft structure is clearly visible in some areas where the weft threads clearly were going up and down the warp (Fig. 10 ) showing distinct yarn diameters, resulting in a weft-faced tabby. On fragment 2, traces of a whitish/yellowish material similar to plaster are visible, which might have been used to prevent the wrapped textile from unravelling, although its function is not as clear. Textile 2 is visible on the edge on both internal and external sides, and partially inside the discoid part on fragment 1. The rings, however, do not bear textile traces. This fabric may have entirely or partially wrapped the disc, beginning immediately after the rings. The weave is either warp- or weft-faced tabby. The visible threads are about 1 mm in diameter, and the weave is densely packed (Fig. 11 ). If we accept the interpretation of the object as an orthopaedic tool, Textile 1 may have served to prevent direct metal-to-body contact. However, the function of Textile 2 remains unclear—it could represent either a shroud or an additional wrapping around the disc. Similarly, the strigil from tomb 722 bears traces of two distinct fabrics differing in yarn diameter and raw material. While one textile likely served to wrap up the strigil (sample 23), the nature of the second (sample 24) remains uncertain and it may belong to the deceased’s garment or shroud. Figure 9 close-up photograph of Textile 1 wrapped displaying multiple layers (left) (image: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission) Due to the nature of the mineralisation, the fibre surface is not preserved, rendering fibre identification based on morphological observations not straightforward. Most analysed textiles (except for three) show bundles of long fibres with visible dislocations or nodes. Where measurable, fibre diameter ranges between 10 e 20 µ, which could confirm the flax (Margariti et al. 2011 ). Fibres are generally well separated and parallel suggesting they were thoroughly combed before spinning (Rast-Eicher 2016 , 98). In contrast, cuticular scales are present in both textiles found on the orthopaedic tool, indicating animal fibre. The irregular mosaic cuticle pattern suggests sheep’s wool. (Rast-Eicher 2016 , 11–13). Animal fibres were also identified in Textile 2 from the strigil in tomb 722 (sample 24) (Fig. 12 ). 5. Discussion 5.1 Textile culture in Sicily The results of the analysis of the textiles from Vassallaggi and Lipari provides significant insights into textile production and consumption in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily. As documented for the Italian Peninsula, balanced tabby weaves were commonly used in funerary contexts as wrapping material for grave goods (Gleba 2017 a). In addition to this widespread balanced type, a smaller group is represented by unbalanced tabby weaves, likely weft-faced tabby as it is certain for one sample. Tabby is also attested in one case in the less common variation of basket weave. This weave was well-attested from the Neolithic in Near East and Egypt (Barber 1991 ; Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001 , 92; Andersson Strand and Nosch 2015), while to date no comparable examples have been recorded from the Classical and Hellenistic period in Italy. Notably, neither twill nor tablet weaves were identified in the analysed assemblage. The growing body of research of textile tools in Sicily allows us for a comparative approach, integrating textile evidence with loom weight analysis. A limited number of loom weights is known from the Archaic settlement of Vassallaggi (Militello et al. 2015 ) whereas a significantly larger assemble have been analysed from the Archaic-Classical context at Lipari (Longhitano 2021 ). The potential loom set-ups inferred from these loom weights (Tables 7 and 8 ) fit with the warp thread counts observed in the mineralised textiles from Vassallaggi and Lipari, ranging mainly between 12 and 20–25 threads/cm, with one instance reaching up to 40 threads/cm (). More broadly, the production of loom weights in Archaic-Classical Sicily appears to have been standardised, with the majority not exceeding 100 g. This suggests a consistent system of textile production, likely characterised by low-tension weaving techniques (Longhitano 2021 ). Table 7 Calculations for potential loom set-ups: truncated loom weight, weight 90 g, thickness 3.6 cm (Vassallaggi). Calculations based on the CTR method (Andersson Strand et al. 2010 ). Warp thread tension (g) No. of warp threads per loom weight No. of warp threads per two loom weights Threads per cm Evaluation 5 18 36 10 optimal 10 9 18 5 optimal Table 8 Calculations for potential loom set-ups: truncated loom weight, weight 70 g, thickness 3.2 cm (Lipari). Calculations based on the CTR method (Andersson Strand et al. 2010 ). Warp thread tension (g) No. of warp threads per loom weight No. of warp threads per two loom weights Threads per cm Evaluation 5 14 26 9 optimal 10 7 14 4 unlikely This type of fine-quality fabric production, characterised by a low warp thread count seems to fit into what has emerged in other areas of southern Italy during the Archaic period, such as at Cumae (Gleba et al. 2017 ), Ripacandida, Chiaromonte, Ascoli Satriano (Gleba et al. 2018 ) and in Tomba Spina 418 at Paestum (Gleba and Meo 2017 ). Possible evidence for textiles used for garments or shroud have been identified at both Vassallaggi and Lipari. Notably, a balanced tabby from tomb 722 at Lipari and traces of single yarns from tomb 49 at Vassallaggi may represent different types of textiles that came into occasional contact with metal objects. Recent studies of textiles at other sites in south Italy and Greece allow us to contextualise the data from Vassallaggi and Lipari within a broader geographical and cultural framework. It is well established that Greek textiles were predominantly represented by balanced and weft-faced tabbies (Spantidaki and Moulhérat 2012; Spantidaki 2016 ; Gleba 2017 b), while twill weave is not attested before the Roman period 2 (Spantidaki 2016 , 55–57; Gleba 2017 b). In contrast, the textile tradition of the Italian mainland was technically, aesthetically and conceptually very different from that of Greece, even though the two countries shared similar technologies, such as the low-whorl drop spindle and the warp-weighted loom (Gleba 2017 a, 1219). Central Italian culture in the first millennium BC shares features with the Central European tradition. Twill- and tablet-weaving traditions appear well established and settled technologies spread throughout northern and central Tyrrhenian and southern Italy, possibly indicating an earlier development during the Bronze Age (Gleba 2017 a, 1214. See also Grömer et al. 2013 ; Grömer 2014 ). Tabby and warp-faced tabbies are commonly found, while weft-faced tabby is only present (with a few exceptions) in the central Adriatic region and southern Italy. Gleba ( 2017 b, 1220) has suggested that, during the establishment of Greek settlements in southern Italy, twill tradition was supplanted by the Greek weft-faced tabby, which was also the dominant weave type in the Roman period. Given this broader context, an important question arises: what was the textile culture of Sicilian communities during this period? Does Sicily fit into the Italian peninsular tradition or the Greek one? The data from Vassallaggi offers valuable insights into the technical aspects of textile production and largely correspond to the Greek textile tradition of the same period. Greek textiles recovered from burial contexts are predominantly balanced tabbies in linen, woven with single z-twisted warp and weft threads, typically measuring between 0.2 and 0.3 mm in diameter, with thread counts ranging from 14 to 26 threads per cm (Spantidaki and Moulherat 2012 ; Spantidaki 2016 ). The textiles from Vassallaggi, while similar, show slightly thicker threads and occasional use of plied yarns. This difference in thread diameter may be indicative of variations in weaving expertise among indigenous communities. For the Hellenistic period, the evidence from Lipari suggests a continuation of balanced tabby production using thicker threads, while the characteristics of the weft-faced tabbies align with those found in Greece (Spantidaki and Moulherat 2012 ). Studies on textile production in the Italian Peninsula indicate that a tabby-based textile culture began spreading westward by the seventh century BC, likely as a result of direct or indirect contact with Greek populations. By the end of the first millennium BC, this tabby tradition had largely supplanted the earlier indigenous Italian twill tradition (Gleba et al. 2017 ). Textile culture of Sicily prior to the Greek arrival remains poorly understood, as no extant textiles are known from the earlier period. However, other aspects of textile culture in Bronze and Iron Age Sicily—such as textile tool types and dress ornaments—exhibit affinities with both Central Europe and the Italian Peninsula (Longhitano 2021 ; 2024 ). Movements of people from the Italian Peninsula to Sicily during the Bronze and Iron Ages, well documented through ceramic and metal assemblages (Leighton 1999 , 216; Albanese Procelli 2003 , 23), may have influenced local textile traditions. This data could suggest that, as in the Italian Peninsula, the arrival of Greek settlers in Sicily marked a significant transformation in the island’s textile culture. 5.2 Funerary Practices and the Construction of Identity in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily The textiles analysed at Vassallaggi and Lipari are related to two distinct funerary practices. At Classical Lipari, textiles were used to wrap both the urns containing cremated remains and the ashes themselves. The use of textiles, particularly linen, to envelop cremated bones or the container that held them recalls a ritual described by Homer in relation to the burials of Hector and Patroklos (Iliad 34.796 and 23.254; Stampolidis 1996 , 96). In both cases, following cremation, the ashes were wrapped in a shroud and placed inside the urn, which was subsequently buried beneath a burial mound. One of the earliest evidence is dated back to the 10th century BC at Lefkandi (Popham et al. 1982 , 173; Margariti and Spantidaki 2020 ) and the practice persisted throughout the Classical and Hellenistic periods (Spantidaki and Moulherat 2012 ; Spantidaki 2016 ). From Greece, this custom is assumed to have been adopted by the elites throughout the Mediterranean during the Iron Age (Bérard 1970 , 28; d’Agostino 1977 , 59–60). In Italy, it was likely adopted by the native populations from Greeks, especially from Euboean people, and in some cases, it was modified for local needs (Gleba 2014 , 138). The practice of wrapping urns appears to have been well-established in central and northern Italy as early as the ninth century BC. Traces of textiles found on the rims, shoulders, and bases of burial urns suggest that these vessels were entirely wrapped in cloth, sometimes secured with fibulae and adorned with accessories, as if they were dressed in garments (Gleba 2014 , 139–141). Evidence of textiles found on the outside of the funerary urns is documented in Classical Greece as well. Demitra Andrianou ( 2012 , 47–48) has proposed that this practice had a decorative function, analogous to the painted textile ribbons ( tainiai ) often depicted on Greek tombstones. Another well-known practice was the wrapping objects buried along with the deceased. This tradition is widely documented in Etruscan contexts (D’Agostino 1977 ; Chiesa 1993 ), southern Italy (Chiesa 1993 ; Gleba 2008 ) and in Hellenistic Greece (Spantidaki and Moulherat 2012 , 199, table 7.7). The objects subject to this treatment were predominantly associated with male burials and included weapons, knives, strigils, spits, as well as utilitarian metal objects such as mirrors. In the Hellenistic necropolis of Lipari, textiles have been preserved only on one side of the strigils, the flatter surface, perhaps because the convex side did not allow for the fabric to adhere. In some instances, however, textile traces are visible along the edges, suggesting that the fabric was wrapped around the entire object, possibly in multiple layers. Whether this phenomenon carried a ritual significance in the funerary context or was simply a protective measure for valuable metal objects remains uncertain. The latter hypothesis is plausible, yet it is notable that other metal items, such as knives, appear to have been excluded from this practice. At Vassallaggi, textiles were specifically used to wrap knives placed in male graves. It remains unclear whether this practice was widespread across all male burials or whether it was reserved for a particular social category. The knives were deposited inside a krater, the main ceramic vessel found in male graves, which was associated with symposium rituals and the communal consumption of meat. The symposium was a fundamental moment in the life of a male individual in Greek culture, symbolising equality among citizens and membership in the community (Vernant 1962 ; D’Agostino 1977 ; Detienne and Vernant 1979 ; Durand 1988 ). All extant textile remains used to wrap knives display significant homogeneity in terms of weave, density, structure, thread twist, thread diameter, and raw materials. A comparative analysis of textile traces found on a knife from a female grave (sample 5) suggests that only knives from male burials were wrapped in fabric, reinforcing the hypothesis that this practice held a specific ritual significance within the funerary context at Vassallaggi. The practice of wrapping the knives highlights the importance of the symposium practice and aligns with the broader adoption of Greek customs by the inhabitants of Vassallaggi, who appear to have embraced these traditions in a standardised manner. Adoption of Greek costumes at the site is also documented in other aspects of material culture such as pottery, burial types and grave goods (Pizzo 1999 ). A similar shift in the adoption of Greek customs is further reflected in the textile tool traditions of the site. Loom weights recovered from Vassallaggi closely resemble those found in Greek settlements in Sicily, such as Lipari and Himera, both in terms of shape, weight, and manufacturing techniques (Longhitano 2021 ). Additionally, recent studies on dress ornaments worn by the deceased indicate that fibulae served as key markers of indigenous textile traditions (Longhitano 2024 ). Fibulae were the predominant accessory in the Archaic necropolis at Vassallaggi, yet they are conspicuously absent from the Classical-period graves, which instead exhibit Greek funerary customs. This shift suggests a deliberate choice on the part of the deceased to be buried according to Greek rites, both in terms of grave typology and associated burial goods. 6. Conclusions This study represents the first systematic investigation of textile culture in ancient Sicily based on the analysis of extant textile remains. The detailed examination of textile assemblages from Vassallaggi and Lipari has yielded significant new insights: The analysis of weave structures suggests that textile culture in these sites was primarily based on balanced and unbalanced tabbies, a pattern widely attested across southern Italy after the late eighth century BC. However, the current evidence is exclusively derived from funerary contexts, and further research is required to establish whether similar patterns existed in everyday life. The application of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) has enabled the identification of flax and wool as the primary raw materials. It appears that linen was predominantly used for wrapping burial goods, while wool was likely employed for garments or funerary clothing. This study lays the groundwork for further research, and it is hoped that additional textile discoveries from other Sicilian sites will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of local textile traditions. In particular, a detailed examination of textiles from earlier contexts would be crucial in assessing the nature of textile culture prior to the arrival of the Greeks. In conclusion, the analysis of textiles in funerary contexts not only enhanced our understanding of local textile production but also provided valuable insights into the ways in which indigenous communities actively adopted Greek elements as markers of social and cultural identity. This study reaffirmed the significance of textile culture as a crucial lens for investigating identity construction in the ancient world. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Classical authors and texts Diodorus Siculus, Bibliothecae Historicae Eusebio, Chronica Homer, Iliad Author Contribution G.L. wrote the main manuscript text and prepared tables and figures.G.L and M.P. wrote the 'Introduction'.G.L. and M.M. wrote the 'materials and methods' paragraph.All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement Permission to study and publish the material has been given by the director of the Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie Arch. R. Vilardo to whom go our warmest thanks (prot. n. 1504, 4-10-2021; 10-05-2023; 17-05-2024; 620, 26-03-2025). We are grateful to Dr. M. C. Martinelli for helping with the work at the museum and sharing important references and information and unpublished photos. For studying and publishing the material from Vassallaggi, we thank the director of the Parco Archaeologico Valle dei Templi, dr. R. Sciarratta, dr. G. Avenia, dr. A. Mangione (prot. n. 2735 29/7/2022; n. 3012 18/7/2023 and n. 2025/2327) and the Director of the Parco Archeologico di Gela Arch. L. Gattuso (prot. n. 2286 15/6/2022 and n. 2474 24/4/2024). G.L. sincerely thanks Prof. P. Militello for helping her in obtaining the permits and his support. Fibre identification was carried out with the support of the ARAKNE Project (Prot. P2022CXH73, P.I. Milena Primavera, Università del Salento- Italy), funded by Italian Ministry of University and Research (M.U.R.https://www.mur.gov.it/it) and European Union through NextGenerationEU (PRIN2022-PNRR, National Recovery and Resilience Plan, Mission 4: Education and Research). References Andersson Strand E, Frei KM, Gleba M, Mannering U, Nosch ML, Skals I (2010) Old textiles—new approaches. Eur J Archaeol 13:149–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461957110365513 Andersson E, Nosch ML (eds) (2015) Tools, Textiles and Contexts. Investigating Textile Production in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age. Oxbow Books, Oxford Andrianou D (2012) Eternal Comfort: Funerary Textiles in Late Classical and Hellenistic Greece. In: Carroll M, Wild JP (eds) Dressing the Dead in Classical Antiquity. Amberley Publishing, Stroud, pp 42–61 Albanese Procelli RM (2003) Sicani, Siculi, Elimi: Forme di identità, modi di contatto e processi di trasformazione. Longanesi, Milano Barber EJW (1991) Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Princeton University Press, Princeton Bérard C (1970) L’hérôon à la Porte de l’ouest. Eretria III. Éditions Francke Beme, Berne Bergfjord C, Holst B (2010) A procedure for identifying textile bast fibres using microscopy: Flax, nettle/ramie, hemp and jute. Ultramicroscopy 110(9):1192–1197 Bernabò Brea L, Cavalier M (1965) Meligunìs Lipàra II. La necropoli greca e romana nella contrada Diana. Palermo. Flaccovio Editore Bernabò Brea L, Cavalier M, Villard F (2001) Meligunìs Lipàra XI. Gli scavi nella necropoli greca e romana di Lipari nell’area del terreno vescovile Parte I e Parte II. Palermo, Regione Siciliana Bhabha HK (2004) The Location of Culture. Routledge, London Catling D, Grayson G (1998) The Identification of Vegetable Fibers, London Chen HL, Jakes KA, Foreman DW (1998) Preservation of archaeological textiles through fibre mineralization. J Archaeol Sci 25:1015–1021. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1997.0286 Chiesa F (1993) Aspetti dell’Orientalizzante recente in Campania. La Tomba 1 di Cales. Cisalpina, Milano d’Agostino B (1977) Tombe ‘Principesche’ da Pontecagnano. Monumenti Antichi. Serie Miscellanea 2:1. Academia Nazionale dei Lincei, Roma Detienne M, Vernant JP (1979) La cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec. Gallimard, Paris Dietler M (1998) Consumption, agency, and cultural entanglement: theoretical implications of a Mediterranean colonial encounter. In: Cusick JG (ed) Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change and Archaeology. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 25. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp 288–315 Durand JL (1988) Sacrificare, dividere e ripartire. In: Grottanelli C, Parise NF (eds) Sacrificio e società nel mondo antico. Laterza, Bari, pp 193–202 Eicher JB (ed) (1995) Dress and Ethnicity: Change across Space and Time. Berg, Oxford and Washington D.C. Gleba M (2008) Textile Production in Pre-Roman Italy. Oxbow Books, Oxford Gleba M (2014) Wrapped up for safe keeping: ‘wrapping’ customs in Early Iron Age Europe. In: Douny L, Harris S (eds) Wrapping and Unwrapping Material Culture. Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives. Routledge, New York, pp 135–146 Gleba M (2017a) Textiles in Pre-Roman Italy: from qualitative to quantitative approach. Origini 40:9–28 Gleba M (2017b) Tracing textile cultures of Italy and Greece in the early first millennium BC. Antiquity 144:1205–1222. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.144 Gleba M, Meo F (2017) L’abbigliamento funerario. In: Niola M, Zuchtriegel G (eds) Action Painting. Rito & arte nelle tombe di Paestum. Editrice Politecnica, Napoli, pp 141–191 Gleba M, Menale I, Rescigno C (2017) Textiles and rituals in Cumaean cremation burials. In: Gleba M, Laurito R (eds) Contextualising Textile Production in Italy in the 1st Millennium BC. Origini 40. Gangemi Editore, Roma, pp 45–63 Gleba M, Heitz C, Landenius Enegren H, Meo F (2018) At the crossroads of textile cultures: textile production and use at the south Italian archaic site of Ripacandida. J Mediterr Archaeol 31(1):27–51 Gleba M, Vanden Berghe I (n.d.) Textiles from Cumae Fondo Artiaco 104: structural and dye analyses. In: Babbi A, Cumae, Grave Artìaco 104: performative identity and transculturality in the Middle-Tyrrhenian region at the end of the 8th c. BC. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums (Forthcoming) Grömer K, Kern A, Reschreiter H, Rösel-Mautendorfer H (eds) (2013) Textiles from Hallstatt: Weaving Culture in Bronze and Iron Age Salt Mines. Archaeolingua, Budapest Grömer K (2014) Römische Textilien in Noricum und Westpannonien im Kontext der archäologischen Gewebefunde 2000 v. Chr.–500 n. Chr. in Österreich. Austria Antiqua 5. Uni Press Graz, Graz Harlow M, Michel C, Quillien L (eds) (2020) Textiles and Gender in Antiquity. From the Orient to the Mediterranean. Bloomsbury Academic Haugan E, Holst B (2013) Determining the Fibrillary Orientation of Bast Fibres with Polarized Light Microscopy: The Modified Herzog Test (Red Plate Test) Explained. J Microsc 252(2):159–168. 10.1111/jmi.12079 Houck MM (2009) Identification of textile fibers. Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles, Elsevier Kemp BJ, Vogelsang-Eastwood G (2001) The Ancient Textile Industry at Amarna. London Landenius Enegren H (2015) Loom weights in Archaic South Italy and Sicily: five case studies. Opuscula: Annual Swed Inst Athens Rome 8:123–155 Langella A, Langella M (2000) Un caso di archeo-ortopedia. In: Spigo U, Martinelli MC (eds) Nuovi studi di archeologia siciliana. pp 153–156 Leighton R (1999) Sicily before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Duckworth, London Liebmann M (2013) Parsing hybridity: archaeologies of amalgamation in seventeenth-century New Mexico. In J. Card (ed.), The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 39: 25–49. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press Longhitano G (2021) Textile Activity and Cultural Identity in Sicily between the Late Bronze Age and the Archaic Period. Oxbow Books, Oxford Longhitano G (2024) Archeologia del tessuto in Sicilia tra l’età del Ferro e quella ellenistica: dall’analisi delle evidenze dirette ed indirette alla tradizione tessile. PhD Dissertation, Università di Catania Lukesova H, Holst B (2024) Identifying plant fibres in cultural heritage with optical and electron microscopy: how to present results and avoid pitfalls. Herit Sci 12:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-023-01122-z Margariti C (2009) Exploring the Application of Instrumental Analysis for the conservation of Textiles Excavated in Greece. PhD Thesis, University of Southampton Margariti C, Protopapas S, Orphanou V (2011) Recent analyses of the excavated textile find from Grave 35 HTR73, Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, Greece. J Archaeol Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.005 Margariti C, Spantidaki S (2020) Revising the Hero of Lefkandi. In: Bustamante-Álvarez M, Sánchez López EH, Jiménez Ávila J (eds) Purpurae Vestes VII, Redefining ancient textile handcraft. Structures, tools and production processes. Granada, pp 401–412 Mastelloni MA (2020) Hydriai di bronzo da Lipari. In: Spadea R, Lo Schiavo F, Lazzarini ML (eds) Tra Ionio e Tirreno: Orizzonti d’archeologia. Roma, pp 682–695 Militello P, Messina T, Longhitano G (2015) Tra Indigeni e Greci: la filatura e la tessitura in area nissena. In: Panvini R, Congiu M (eds) Indigeni e Greci tra le valli dell'Himera e dell'Halykos. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi. Caltanissetta, Parruzzo, pp 64–85 Orlandini P (1971) Vassallaggi (S. Cataldo). Scavi 1961, I. La necropoli meridionale. Notizie Scavi Antichità Supplementi 9:9–13 Pizzo M (1999) Vassallaggi (S. Cataldo, Caltanissetta). La necropoli meridionale, scavi 1956. Notizie Scavi Antichità 207:207–395 Popham MR, Touloupi E, Sackett LH (1982) The Hero of Lefkandi. Antiquity 56:169–174 Quercia A, Foxhall L (2014) Temporality, materiality and women’s networks: the production and manufacture of loom weights in the Greek and indigenous communities of southern Italy. In: Rebay-Salisbury K, Brysbaert A, Foxhall L (eds) Knowledge Networks and Craft Traditions in the Ancient World: Material Crossovers. Studies in Archaeology, vol 13. Routledge, London, pp 62–81 Quercia A (2018) Weaving during the Archaic period in south Italy: two key studies. In: Busana MS, Gleba M, Meo F, Tricomi AR (eds) Purpureae Vestes VI, Textiles and dyes in the Mediterranean economy and society. Libros Portico, Zaragoza, pp 145–156 Rast-Eicher A (2016) Fibres: microscopy of archaeological textiles and furs. Archaeolingua, Budapest Roach-Higgins ME, Eicher JB, Johnson KKP (eds) (1995) Dress and identity. Fairchild, New York Schneider J (1987) The anthropology of cloth. Annual Rev Anthropoly 16:409–448 Silliman S (2015) A requiem for hybridity? The problem with Frankensteins, purées, and mules. J Social Archaeol 15:277–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469605315574791 Spantidaki S (2016) Textile production in Classical Athens. Oxbow Books, Oxford Spantidaki Y, Moulherat C (2012) Greece. In: Gleba M, Mannering U (eds) Textiles and textile production in Europe from prehistory to AD 400. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp 185–200 Stampolidis N (1996) Reprisals: contributions to the study of customs of the geometric-archaic period. Publications of the University of Crete, Rethymno Staufer A (2012) Case study: the textiles from Verucchio, Italy. In: Gleba M, Mannering U (eds) Textiles and textile production in Europe from prehistory to AD 400. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp 242–253 Suomela JA, Vajanto K, Räisänen R (2017) Seeking nettle textiles – utilizing a combination of microscopic methods for fibre identification. Stud Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2017.1410956 van Dommelen P (2005) Colonial interactions and hybrid practices: Phoenician and Carthaginian settlement in the ancient Mediterranean. In: Stein G (ed) The archaeology of colonial encounters: comparative perspectives. School of Advanced Research, Santa Fe, pp 109–141 van Dommelen P (2006a) Colonial matters: material culture and postcolonial theory in colonial situations. In: Cusick JG (ed) Studies in culture contact: interaction, culture change, and archaeology. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp 267–308 van Dommelen P (2006b) The orientalizing phenomenon: hybridity and material culture in the western Mediterranean. In: Riva C, Vella N (eds) Debating orientalization: multidisciplinary approaches to change in the ancient Mediterranean. Equinox, London, pp 135–152 van Dommelen P (2011) Postcolonial archaeologies between discourse and practice. World Archaeol 43:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2011.544883 van Dommelen P, Knapp AB (eds) (2010) Material connections in the ancient Mediterranean: mobility, materiality and Mediterranean identities. Routledge, London and New York Vernant JP (1962) Les origines de la pensée grecque. PUF, Paris Wagner-Hasel B (2000) Der Stoff der Gaben: Kultur und Politik des Schenkens und Tauschens in archaischen Griechenland. Campus, Frankfurt am Main Wobst H (1977) Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In: Cleland CE (ed) For the director: research essays in honor of James B. Griffin. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp 317–342 Footnotes It was founded by Cnidians in 628 BC according to EUSEB. Chron., or in 580–576 BC according to DIOD. SIC. 5, 9. However, twill might have been known and used in Greece as depictions of twill occur in Archaic and Classical vase-paintings (Spantidaki 2016 , 61). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 02 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 02 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 May, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 30 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 29 May, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 28 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 28 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6767090","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":464709830,"identity":"f65e3a34-fc38-44b1-b54e-5e258c2d9eaa","order_by":0,"name":"Gabriella Longhitano","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Salento","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gabriella","middleName":"","lastName":"Longhitano","suffix":""},{"id":464709831,"identity":"50f0e56f-e9ab-4185-88de-60affd976fd1","order_by":1,"name":"Giovanni Quarta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CNR ISPC","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Giovanni","middleName":"","lastName":"Quarta","suffix":""},{"id":464709832,"identity":"c2c06e27-c106-4e67-876c-fc9aa9d3f7f1","order_by":2,"name":"Maurizio Masieri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CNR ISPC","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maurizio","middleName":"","lastName":"Masieri","suffix":""},{"id":464709833,"identity":"2e46247c-0908-4beb-aa98-c7e8ea9c277c","order_by":3,"name":"Milena Primavera","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Salento","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Milena","middleName":"","lastName":"Primavera","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-28 10:23:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02297-1","type":"published","date":"2025-08-26T15:58:15+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83761523,"identity":"768d0c96-e592-4a39-b2ae-933d2518e3f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2701794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Sicily with the sites of Vassallaggi and Lipari (image: G. Longhitano)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/e60669360afc4fb41aec019a.png"},{"id":83761773,"identity":"8c8e3dda-d753-469f-b5e2-f9586b394afa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:51:37","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1227015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eKnives from Vassallaggi necropolis with mineralised textile traces (images: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Pietro Griffo’. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/8c2a865c5b8cbd1f34ed2b51.png"},{"id":83762479,"identity":"b33e58a3-c83f-421d-94c9-62bd32a7c2a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:59:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6037173,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMicrographs of tabby weaves from Vassallaggi (images: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Pietro Griffo’. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/10792efdb471ca52e15b5f88.png"},{"id":83761510,"identity":"fa19ece1-b593-44a7-ba2e-63b7385b1be6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1245356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eClose-up photographs of the plied threads from Vassallaggi in tomb 49 and 30 respectively. (images: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Pietro Griffo’. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/f47484c5abb357028ca0d111.png"},{"id":83761512,"identity":"884695c9-ea65-425b-89af-edd36c80281d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":784003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea-b \u003c/strong\u003eSEMicrographs of fibres in Vassallaggi textile fragments: sample 4 (a) and 15 (b) (images: M. Masieri and G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘Pietro Griffo’. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/94f2cbe9bb963b9e50813f3e.png"},{"id":83761775,"identity":"4c0fa14b-7456-44a0-9993-67f2bad5882d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:51:37","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1268243,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFinds from Lipari tombs with mineralised textile traces (images: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/fc0d7e158d13d0cc53d2c2c8.png"},{"id":83761513,"identity":"c003fced-3013-4706-bd10-280230166cf1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1798436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eclose-up photographs of tabby weaves from Lipari\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(images: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/d8acb2900f1cf72e09f626f7.png"},{"id":83761518,"identity":"a63b149c-8308-4b57-8e4d-0c0413932614","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":669951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003es-twisted thread with hard twist angle (image: G. Longhitano with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/6d3eb5299e4e3e455091a193.png"},{"id":83761511,"identity":"5c34d9a7-8eb2-41d1-a234-6362caf9419a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eclose-up photograph of Textile 1 wrapped displaying multiple layers (left) (image: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/fc1f6f4d1c80d1bdac9fd600.jpg"},{"id":83761522,"identity":"f9e2ca38-e4b0-42fa-af7c-476da5aa0644","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:38","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":639339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eweft thread going up and down the warp in Textile 1 (tomb 227) (right) (image: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/13e509083353e2d06f384eab.png"},{"id":83761520,"identity":"b37db884-fdb4-4618-b52a-632849065df2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1446559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTextile 2 on the orthopaedic tool (tomb 227) (image: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/7584cb39c75e74e15265e06c.png"},{"id":83761519,"identity":"6aa220dd-4900-49fe-8aa8-2e992ce808b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 09:43:37","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":943015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEMicrographs of fibres in Lipari textile fragments: samples 20 and 21 (a-b); samples 23-24 (c-d); sample 27 (e) (images: M. Masieri and G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernabò Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/dc7524ae454fdc2d4fa494bf.png"},{"id":90345610,"identity":"5f3e9851-9f81-48c2-8e42-699a94f14de3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 16:10:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":19150273,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6767090/v1/b9ceede0-0cd9-483f-b0e9-1a33633dfbd6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Unwrapping Textile Culture in Southern Italy: Evidence from Classical and Hellenistic Sicily","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs perishable materials, textiles rarely survive in archaeological contexts where climate is not favourable to their preservation, as is the case in the Mediterranean area. This has undoubtedly contributed to little know about textile cultures of many communities in southern Italy. However, recent research on this topic has gained momentum, and new discoveries along with the application of cutting-edge methodologies have thrown light on the textile production of past societies in the Italian Peninsula (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003ea; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003eb; Gleba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Sicily, research on textile culture has mainly focused on the study of textile tools, which are abundant and ubiquitous on the island (Quercia and Foxhall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Landenius 2015; Quercia \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, archaeological textiles are rare since their preservation depends on favorable taphonomic processes, which are affected by physic-chemical environments, climate factors and specific contextual conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSicily and Aeolian islands have acted as a crossroads through the millennia. From the end of the eighth century BC, Greeks reached the east coast of Sicily and established overseas settlements and continued to arrive during the seventh century BC, spreading west along the south and north coasts and founding a number of settlements. Local communities began initiating contact with Greek incomers. The complexity and local variability of economic and cultural contacts between the diverse communities led to various degrees of interaction. Over the past decades, scholars have moved away from a model of Hellenisation towards a post-colonial approach resulting in a re-evaluation of the social dynamics between local and foreign people within the framework of cultural interactions (Dietler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Bhabha \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; van Dommelen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006a\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006b\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Liebmann \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Silliman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In Sicily, many local communities adopted and adapted Greek practices and their choices are reflected in the material culture. Burial costumes, in particular, offer a significant opportunity to investigate the way in which communities expressed their own cultural identity through the adoption or adaption of specific elements as well as ritual practices. Among the categories of material culture, textiles and clothing had a symbolic significance and played an important role in communicating various aspects and forms of social and personal identity (Wobst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Schneider \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Eicher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Roach-Higgins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Wagner-Hasel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; 2006; Harlow et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper focuses on two textile assemblages recovered in Sicily, from the cemeteries of Vassallaggi and Lipari respectively, where the textiles were used to wrap metal grave goods. These textiles were preserved in mineralised form through contact with metal objects in which metal corrosion produces form casts around fibres, keeping their external morphology and size almost intact (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese assemblages were analysed using a digital microscope to investigate both the qualitative (weave, twist and structure of the threads) and quantitative characteristics (thread count and diameter) of each find. This study was undertaken by G. Longhitano as part of her PhD project \u0026lsquo;Cultura tessile in Sicilia tra l\u0026rsquo;et\u0026agrave; del Ferro e quella Ellenistica: dall\u0026rsquo;analisi delle evidenze dirette ed indirette alla tradizione tessile\u0026rsquo; conducted at the University of Catania between 2019 and 2024. Moreover, samples from each textile remain were observed under a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to identify the raw material used in their production. This second microscopic investigation was carried out at the Optical and Electronic Microscopy CNR-ISPC Laboratory at Lecce and is part of the ARAKNE project PRIN2022-PNRR \u0026ldquo;The intertwining of Biodiversity and Culture of textile fibres heritage. Bioarchaeological investigation on flax and wool diversity loss; from a deep time perspective to strategies for conservation and promotion of Bio-cultural Heritage\u0026rdquo;. This is an ongoing project carried out at the Department of Cultural Heritage at the University of Salento aiming to investigate, from a diachronic perspective, the lost 'biodiversity' and eroded cultural heritage associated with two major textile fibres of plant and animal origin. Through the analysis of both ecofacts (such as flax remains and ovicaprine bones) and artefacts (including textiles), complemented by historical and ethnographic sources, the Arakne project applies an integrated approach. It spans from prehistory to the pre-Roman period, with a geographical focus on Sardinia and central-southern Italy, where evidence of textile fibres and flax remains is particularly abundant and well preserved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter briefly describing the archaeological contexts of Vassallaggi and Lipari necropolises, this paper presents the results of the microscopic investigation of textiles and fibres. This data is crucial to enhance our understanding of technical parameters. At the same time, the new information will be discussed and contextualised within the broader framework of south Italy and the wider Mediterranean scenario. Last but not least, this work demonstrates the potential of a detailed analysis of ancient textile remains from funerary contexts and the significance such analysis has in providing new insights into constructing identity within cultural contact contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Archaeological contexts","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 The classical necropolis at Vassallaggi\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe site of Vassallaggi is located in the modern province of Caltanissetta in central Sicily (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Situated in a strategic position between the southern coast and the inland, it had intense contacts with Greek settlers. Inhabited by local people, it became a fortified site of Akragas destroyed by Ducetius in 451 BC and reconquered by the Greeks the following year. During the fifth century BC the village assumed the appearance of a small Greek centre, with houses on terraces, streets laid out in a grid plan, and a sanctuary with a small temple decorated by painted antefixes of the Geloan-Akragan type. Shortly after its destruction, the city was reconstructed; houses and sanctuary were rebuilt, and the small temple received new decoration with molded antefixes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe southern necropolis documented the shift towards the adoption of Greek costume and social practices. The cemetery was in use between the second quarter and the end of the fifth century BC. Archaeological excavations carried out between 1956 and 1961 yielded 262 graves, some of which had been disturbed or partially despoiled (Orlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Pizzo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The tombs mainly consist of trench graves, sarcophagies and jar burials, following Greek rituals. The depositions mostly include pottery and personal objects, while dress ornaments are rare. Male graves are characterised by sets of vessels related to wine consumption, whereas goods in female burials primarily consist of perfume vessels, utilitarian items, and personal objects. Textiles were unearthed from male burials with the sole exception of a single female grave. All the recovered textiles were found on iron knives, which were commonly associated with both male and female graves (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The sex of the deceased has been inferred according to the grave goods. No osteological analysis has been conducted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 The Classical and Hellenistic necropolis at Lipari\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLipari is the largest of the Aeolian Islands, situated to the north of Sicily (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). According to different ancient authors\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e, the Greek settlement was founded at the end of the seventh or the beginning of sixth century BC. The island, known as Lip\u0026aacute;ra, remained a Greek settlement until the Roman conquest in 252\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;51 BC when it was destroyed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe site has been systematically investigated since 1950 by Luigi Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea and Madeleine Cavalier, whose research has been extensively published (Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea and Cavalier \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e; Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Over 2800 graves have been uncovered beneath the acropolis, an area now referred to as \u0026lsquo;the Castle\u0026rsquo;. These burials provide exceptional insights into many aspects of Greek and Roman Lipari, spanning a chronological framework of over a thousand years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth inhumation and cremation practices are attested; however, inhumation was the predominant burial tradition during the Greek period. With some exceptions, grave goods are generally modest, consisting primarily of pottery, while personal ornaments and objects, such as \u003cem\u003efibulae\u003c/em\u003e or pins, are rare. Metal artefacts are mainly represented by strigils, with occasional finds of knives and mirrors. Textiles were recovered on and inside two bronze urns containing cremated ashes and in contact with bronze strigils. No osteological analysis has been conducted, except for grave 437 (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of graves of Vassallaggi\u0026rsquo;s necropolis where textile remains were recovered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of burial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChronology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave goods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of the deceased\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esecond quarter of the 5th c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, lekythos and the iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earound 470 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, lekythoi, iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 197\u0026ndash;198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earound 450 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, lekythos, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 180.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earound 450 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epelike, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 177\u0026ndash;180.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esecond half of the 5th c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, alabastron, iron knife and a ceramic object\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 86\u0026ndash;87.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e440 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epelike, bronze strigil, iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 73.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e440\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;430 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, bronze strigil, alabastron, iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 123\u0026ndash;127.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earound 430 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBronze strigil and iron knife inside the krater; lekythoi and a vessel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePizzo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, 225\u0026ndash;231.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003earound 430 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evessels, lekythoi, bronze strigil and iron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePizzo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, 248\u0026ndash;251.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e440\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;420 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe,bronze strigil, and an iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePizzo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, 251\u0026ndash;254.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;420 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epelike, iron knife inside the krater and a bronze strigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 59.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;420 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elekythos, pelike, a iron knife inside the krater and a bronze strigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 59\u0026ndash;63.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;420 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epelike, lekythos, alabastron, bronze stud, iron knife and a bronze strigil inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 25\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;420 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife, oinochoe and alabastron inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 135.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e420\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;410 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elekythos, bronze strigil, pelike, alabastra, an iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 67.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5th c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, lekythoi, an iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 201\u0026ndash;203.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eend of the 5th c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoinochoe, alabastra, bronze strigil and an iron knife inside the krater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrlandini \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e, 173\u0026ndash;176.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of graves of Lipari\u0026rsquo;s necropolis where textile remains were recovered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of burial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChronology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave goods inside the graves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex of the deceased\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e312\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecremation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnd of the 5th /beginning of the 4th BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze hydria, bronze strigil and bronze olpe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea e Cavalier 1965, 114; Mastelloni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecremation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst half of 5th century BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze hydria, golden ring, olpe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea e Cavalier 1965, 156; Mastelloni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;335 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze strigil and iron orthopaedic tool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea e Cavalier 1965, 77.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;280 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003etwo lekanai, bronze ring and bronze strigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea e Cavalier 1965, 124.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;300 BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron strigil placed next to the deceased\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, 116\u0026ndash;117.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esmall amphora, patera, olphai, skyphoi, three iron knives and strigil, golden ring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, 602.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einhumation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnd of the 4th-beginning of the 3th c. BC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze strigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea e Cavalier 1965, 123.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe examined material comprises 27 fragments of textiles and single threads recovered from 25 objects (17 objects from Vassallaggi; eight objects from Lipari) (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The identification of the examined objects from both sites was based on the excavator\u0026rsquo;s documentation. However, in some cases, the textiles were no longer visible due to modern restorations. Moreover, a few textile remains were identified directly by the authors through meticulous visual examinations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of samples and related burials from the southern necropolis at Vassallaggi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurial object\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInv. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2285\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1925\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2460\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1672\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13335\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1595\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1585\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1858\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2317\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eiron knife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1676\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of samples and related burials from the Greek necropolis at Lipari\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurial object\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInv. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e312\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze hydria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e748\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebronze hydria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2331\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eorthopaedic tool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estrigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estrigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estrigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eknife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003estrigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe structural examination was carried out using a portable Dino-Lite digital microscope at different magnifications (x20, x50 magnifications). With the aim to determine the morphological characteristics of the fibre and acquire more detailed surface information for fibre identification, SEM observations were performed by SEM ZEISS EVO 15 equipped with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer (EDS) (Oxford Instruments Azteclive Lite Ultim Max) and with tungsten filament. SEM analysis was conducted using both secondary (SE) and backscattered electrons (BSE); the low-vacuum mode was used on samples without metallisation using the following conditions: Working Distance 10 mm, Accelerating Voltage 15\u0026ndash;20 kV, Variable Pressure 90 Pa, Scan speed 9 and cycle time 23 Secs. The fibres were examined longitudinally and, where possible, in cross section for morphological features (Catling and Grayson 1982; Margariti \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Houck \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Bergfjord and Holst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Margariti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Haugan and Holst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Rast-Eicher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Suomela et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Lukesova and Holst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Textiles at Vassallaggi: Structural Analysis and Fibre Identification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt Vassallaggi, textile remains or single yarns were identified on 17 iron knives recovered from an equal number of burials (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textiles show varying degrees of mineralisation, with the organic fibres being partially or completely replaced by metal. In some cases, analysis was hampered by the extreme deterioration of the fabrics while in others, conservation treatments obscured structural details (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll identified textiles are balanced tabby weaves, the simplest loom-based textile structure, characterised by an equal number of threads in both systems, ranging between 12 and 30 threads per cm. Similarly, yarn diameter is consistent across both systems, varying from 0.2 mm up to 1 mm. None of the textiles preserve edges (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textiles from Vassallaggi are all woven using medium-hard z-twisted warp and weft (the conventional way of indicating clockwise spin direction) threads. In three cases, the thread is composed of two spun singles of z-direction and then plied in an S direction (S2z). The twist in the singles is generally light to medium, although in some cases, no discernible twist is present (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the mineralisation process, fibre identification was challenging. SEM analysis revealed that all of them exhibit bundles of long fibres with visible dislocations or nodes, which are characteristic of plant fibres. Also, the presence of S-cracks suggests the S fibrillary orientation of the fibre (Bergfjord and Holst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, 1193; Suomela et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Lukesova and Holst \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Where measurable, fibre diameters range between 10 and 20 \u0026micro;, which is consistent with flax (Margariti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The fibres are generally well-separated and parallel, indicating careful combing prior to spinning (Rast-Eicher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 98) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile finds at Vassallaggi: structural parameters and fibre identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecount per\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecm in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewarp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread diameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ein warp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread twist in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewarp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibre characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4/0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/medium-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot analysed because of its extremely poor preservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14/14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ez (?)/z (?)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 14\u0026ndash;15\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;30/25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-hard z/medium-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-hard z/medium-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle yarns\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium S2z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 15\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;20/15\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium z/medium z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 6\u0026ndash;8 \u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 11\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo permission to analyse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9-1/0.9-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-light S2z/medium-light S2z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo permission to analyse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;20/15\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo permission to analyse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15/15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-light S2z/medium-light S2z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17/17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12/12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard-medium z/hard-medium z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 8\u0026ndash;11\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;25/20\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5-1/0.5-1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-hard z/medium-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 8\u0026ndash;10\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30/30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026ndash;0.5/0.2\u0026ndash;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emedium-hard z medium-hard z\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDislocations, longitudinal S-cracks, diameter 11\u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;5a-b\u003c/b\u003e SEMicrographs of fibres in Vassallaggi textile fragments: sample 4 (a) and 15 (b) (images: M. Masieri and G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi di Agrigento- Museo Archeologico Regionale \u0026lsquo;Pietro Griffo\u0026rsquo;. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Textiles at Lipari: Structural Analysis and Fibre Identification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt Lipari, remains of 10 different textile weaves were identified on eight objects from an equal number of burials (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Structural analysis and fibre identification were significantly affected by poor preservation and, in a few cases, by the conservation treatment that obscured organic material. The degree of mineralisation varies allowing textile structures to be clearly observed in some fragments, while in others they are nearly indiscernible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile remains were found on four strigils dated to the fourth-third centuries BC and on two funerary urns dated to the fifth-fourth centuries BC. Moreover, faint traces of textile were observed on a knife (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly noteworthy are the textiles recovered from a distinctive object in tomb 227, which will be discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile finds at Lipari: structural parameters and fibre identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeave\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecount per\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ecm in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewarp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread diameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ein warp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThread twist in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewarp/weft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibre characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRaw material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoutside the hydria: around the shoulders, rim and beneath the foot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnbalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;15/28\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ez/i (?)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved and presence of consolidant-possible presence of lumen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003einside the hydria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved and presence of consolidant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTextile 1\u003c/span\u003e: wrapped around the entire tool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeft-faced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10/more 40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026ndash;0.5/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard z/i\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrregular mosaic cuticle pattern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTextile 2\u003c/span\u003e: located on the edge of fragment 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnbalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved-fibrils visible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewool\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewrapped around the strigil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnbalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10/19\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6/0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard s/s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved- S fibrillar orientation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTextile 1\u003c/span\u003e: located next to the handle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard s/hard s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved and presence of consolidant- polygonal cross section shape, narrow lumen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eTextile 2\u003c/span\u003e: small fragments-located next to the pointed end\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBalanced tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2/0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ei/i\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved-fibrils visible and possible scales\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewool?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon one edge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnbalanced tabby ?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11/?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003es?/s?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esmall fragment on the blade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1/1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epoorly preserved\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eon the convex side\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasket tabby\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12/26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5/0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehard s/hard s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebundles, regular dislocations, S-cracks, 12.4\u0026ndash;20 \u0026micro;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elinen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll analysed textiles are tabby weaves, with both balanced and unbalanced variants present (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Balanced tabbies consist of 20 thread per cm. Unbalanced tabbies feature a significantly higher thread count in one system, often so tightly packed that the warp becomes invisible, making structural analysis challenging. None of the textiles preserve edges, except for one found in tomb 227 (sample 20), which will be discussed below. In weft-faced tabby, warp threads are significantly thicker than weft threads\u0026mdash;almost double in diameter. This is because the warp threads have to be solid enough to support the weight of the wefts without breaking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the textiles at Lipari is a basket weave (tomb 338, sample 27), which is a variation of plain weave, where the warp and weft yarns are used in parallel pairs (Barber \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e, 127) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textiles analysed have different yarn structures. With the exception of two z-twisted textiles, the majority are woven using s-twisted threads with a hard twist angle or no discernable twist at all (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost textiles were likely used to wrap bronze strigils and urns containing cremated remains. They are both balanced and unbalanced tabby. The textile from tomb 437 was found inside the urn 2331, while, traces of fabric were observed on the shoulders, rim and foot of urn 748 (tomb 312), indicating that it had been wrapped around the vessel (Mastelloni \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A fragment shows some whitish threads which might be dyed, although further analysis is needed to investigate this aspect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the analysed metal objects, one is particularly ambiguous. Recovered from tomb 227 and dated to the fourth century BC (Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea and Cavalier \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1965\u003c/span\u003e, 77), it has been interpreted as an orthopaedic tool due to its position in relation to pelvis bones (Langella and Langella \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). The object consists of a semicircular iron structure terminating in two discs, one of which features a ring suspended from a thicker one (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). According to Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea, similar rings were originally present on the other disc, possibly used to secure the tool to the body with a belt. Textiles cover the whole object, on both sides. Two different textiles were identified:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile 1 is a band approximately 4 cm wide, wrapping around fragments 2 and 3 entirely and it is best preserved on the handle of fragment 1 and the external part of the disc. The arrangement suggests that Textile 1 was wrapped multiple times around the object, with certain areas displaying multiple layers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9). The warp and weft structure is clearly visible in some areas where the weft threads clearly were going up and down the warp (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) showing distinct yarn diameters, resulting in a weft-faced tabby. On fragment 2, traces of a whitish/yellowish material similar to plaster are visible, which might have been used to prevent the wrapped textile from unravelling, although its function is not as clear.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTextile 2 is visible on the edge on both internal and external sides, and partially inside the discoid part on fragment 1. The rings, however, do not bear textile traces. This fabric may have entirely or partially wrapped the disc, beginning immediately after the rings. The weave is either warp- or weft-faced tabby. The visible threads are about 1 mm in diameter, and the weave is densely packed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). If we accept the interpretation of the object as an orthopaedic tool, Textile 1 may have served to prevent direct metal-to-body contact. However, the function of Textile 2 remains unclear\u0026mdash;it could represent either a shroud or an additional wrapping around the disc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the strigil from tomb 722 bears traces of two distinct fabrics differing in yarn diameter and raw material. While one textile likely served to wrap up the strigil (sample 23), the nature of the second (sample 24) remains uncertain and it may belong to the deceased\u0026rsquo;s garment or shroud.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;9\u003c/b\u003e close-up photograph of Textile 1 wrapped displaying multiple layers (left) (image: G. Longhitano, with the permission of Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e I.S. - Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie, Museo Luigi Bernab\u0026ograve; Brea - Lipari. This picture cannot be copied or used without permission)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the nature of the mineralisation, the fibre surface is not preserved, rendering fibre identification based on morphological observations not straightforward. Most analysed textiles (except for three) show bundles of long fibres with visible dislocations or nodes. Where measurable, fibre diameter ranges between 10 e 20 \u0026micro;, which could confirm the flax (Margariti et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Fibres are generally well separated and parallel suggesting they were thoroughly combed before spinning (Rast-Eicher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 98). In contrast, cuticular scales are present in both textiles found on the orthopaedic tool, indicating animal fibre. The irregular mosaic cuticle pattern suggests sheep\u0026rsquo;s wool. (Rast-Eicher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 11\u0026ndash;13). Animal fibres were also identified in Textile 2 from the strigil in tomb 722 (sample 24) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Textile culture in Sicily\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the analysis of the textiles from Vassallaggi and Lipari provides significant insights into textile production and consumption in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs documented for the Italian Peninsula, balanced tabby weaves were commonly used in funerary contexts as wrapping material for grave goods (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003ea). In addition to this widespread balanced type, a smaller group is represented by unbalanced tabby weaves, likely weft-faced tabby as it is certain for one sample. Tabby is also attested in one case in the less common variation of basket weave. This weave was well-attested from the Neolithic in Near East and Egypt (Barber \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e, 92; Andersson Strand and Nosch 2015), while to date no comparable examples have been recorded from the Classical and Hellenistic period in Italy. Notably, neither twill nor tablet weaves were identified in the analysed assemblage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe growing body of research of textile tools in Sicily allows us for a comparative approach, integrating textile evidence with loom weight analysis. A limited number of loom weights is known from the Archaic settlement of Vassallaggi (Militello et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) whereas a significantly larger assemble have been analysed from the Archaic-Classical context at Lipari (Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The potential loom set-ups inferred from these loom weights (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) fit with the warp thread counts observed in the mineralised textiles from Vassallaggi and Lipari, ranging mainly between 12 and 20\u0026ndash;25 threads/cm, with one instance reaching up to 40 threads/cm (). More broadly, the production of loom weights in Archaic-Classical Sicily appears to have been standardised, with the majority not exceeding 100 g. This suggests a consistent system of textile production, likely characterised by low-tension weaving techniques (Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalculations for potential loom set-ups: truncated loom weight, weight 90 g, thickness 3.6 cm (Vassallaggi). Calculations based on the CTR method (Andersson Strand et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWarp thread tension (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of warp threads per loom weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of warp threads per two loom weights\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreads per cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoptimal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoptimal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalculations for potential loom set-ups: truncated loom weight, weight 70 g, thickness 3.2 cm (Lipari). Calculations based on the CTR method (Andersson Strand et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWarp thread tension (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of warp threads per loom weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of warp threads per two loom weights\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreads per cm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eoptimal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eunlikely\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis type of fine-quality fabric production, characterised by a low warp thread count seems to fit into what has emerged in other areas of southern Italy during the Archaic period, such as at Cumae (Gleba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), Ripacandida, Chiaromonte, Ascoli Satriano (Gleba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and in Tomba Spina 418 at Paestum (Gleba and Meo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePossible evidence for textiles used for garments or shroud have been identified at both Vassallaggi and Lipari. Notably, a balanced tabby from tomb 722 at Lipari and traces of single yarns from tomb 49 at Vassallaggi may represent different types of textiles that came into occasional contact with metal objects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies of textiles at other sites in south Italy and Greece allow us to contextualise the data from Vassallaggi and Lipari within a broader geographical and cultural framework. It is well established that Greek textiles were predominantly represented by balanced and weft-faced tabbies (Spantidaki and Moulh\u0026eacute;rat 2012; Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003eb), while twill weave is not attested before the Roman period\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 55\u0026ndash;57; Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the textile tradition of the Italian mainland was technically, aesthetically and conceptually very different from that of Greece, even though the two countries shared similar technologies, such as the low-whorl drop spindle and the warp-weighted loom (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003ea, 1219).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentral Italian culture in the first millennium BC shares features with the Central European tradition. Twill- and tablet-weaving traditions appear well established and settled technologies spread throughout northern and central Tyrrhenian and southern Italy, possibly indicating an earlier development during the Bronze Age (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003ea, 1214. See also Gr\u0026ouml;mer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Gr\u0026ouml;mer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Tabby and warp-faced tabbies are commonly found, while weft-faced tabby is only present (with a few exceptions) in the central Adriatic region and southern Italy. Gleba (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003eb, 1220) has suggested that, during the establishment of Greek settlements in southern Italy, twill tradition was supplanted by the Greek weft-faced tabby, which was also the dominant weave type in the Roman period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven this broader context, an important question arises: what was the textile culture of Sicilian communities during this period? Does Sicily fit into the Italian peninsular tradition or the Greek one? The data from Vassallaggi offers valuable insights into the technical aspects of textile production and largely correspond to the Greek textile tradition of the same period. Greek textiles recovered from burial contexts are predominantly balanced tabbies in linen, woven with single z-twisted warp and weft threads, typically measuring between 0.2 and 0.3 mm in diameter, with thread counts ranging from 14 to 26 threads per cm (Spantidaki and Moulherat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The textiles from Vassallaggi, while similar, show slightly thicker threads and occasional use of plied yarns. This difference in thread diameter may be indicative of variations in weaving expertise among indigenous communities. For the Hellenistic period, the evidence from Lipari suggests a continuation of balanced tabby production using thicker threads, while the characteristics of the weft-faced tabbies align with those found in Greece (Spantidaki and Moulherat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on textile production in the Italian Peninsula indicate that a tabby-based textile culture began spreading westward by the seventh century BC, likely as a result of direct or indirect contact with Greek populations. By the end of the first millennium BC, this tabby tradition had largely supplanted the earlier indigenous Italian twill tradition (Gleba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Textile culture of Sicily prior to the Greek arrival remains poorly understood, as no extant textiles are known from the earlier period. However, other aspects of textile culture in Bronze and Iron Age Sicily\u0026mdash;such as textile tool types and dress ornaments\u0026mdash;exhibit affinities with both Central Europe and the Italian Peninsula (Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Movements of people from the Italian Peninsula to Sicily during the Bronze and Iron Ages, well documented through ceramic and metal assemblages (Leighton \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, 216; Albanese Procelli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, 23), may have influenced local textile traditions. This data could suggest that, as in the Italian Peninsula, the arrival of Greek settlers in Sicily marked a significant transformation in the island\u0026rsquo;s textile culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Funerary Practices and the Construction of Identity in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe textiles analysed at Vassallaggi and Lipari are related to two distinct funerary practices. At Classical Lipari, textiles were used to wrap both the urns containing cremated remains and the ashes themselves. The use of textiles, particularly linen, to envelop cremated bones or the container that held them recalls a ritual described by Homer in relation to the burials of Hector and Patroklos (Iliad 34.796 and 23.254; Stampolidis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e, 96). In both cases, following cremation, the ashes were wrapped in a shroud and placed inside the urn, which was subsequently buried beneath a burial mound. One of the earliest evidence is dated back to the 10th century BC at Lefkandi (Popham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e, 173; Margariti and Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and the practice persisted throughout the Classical and Hellenistic periods (Spantidaki and Moulherat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). From Greece, this custom is assumed to have been adopted by the elites throughout the Mediterranean during the Iron Age (B\u0026eacute;rard \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e, 28; d\u0026rsquo;Agostino \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e, 59\u0026ndash;60). In Italy, it was likely adopted by the native populations from Greeks, especially from Euboean people, and in some cases, it was modified for local needs (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, 138). The practice of wrapping urns appears to have been well-established in central and northern Italy as early as the ninth century BC. Traces of textiles found on the rims, shoulders, and bases of burial urns suggest that these vessels were entirely wrapped in cloth, sometimes secured with fibulae and adorned with accessories, as if they were dressed in garments (Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, 139\u0026ndash;141). Evidence of textiles found on the outside of the funerary urns is documented in Classical Greece as well. Demitra Andrianou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, 47\u0026ndash;48) has proposed that this practice had a decorative function, analogous to the painted textile ribbons (\u003cem\u003etainiai\u003c/em\u003e) often depicted on Greek tombstones.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother well-known practice was the wrapping objects buried along with the deceased. This tradition is widely documented in Etruscan contexts (D\u0026rsquo;Agostino \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Chiesa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), southern Italy (Chiesa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Gleba \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and in Hellenistic Greece (Spantidaki and Moulherat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, 199, table 7.7). The objects subject to this treatment were predominantly associated with male burials and included weapons, knives, strigils, spits, as well as utilitarian metal objects such as mirrors. In the Hellenistic necropolis of Lipari, textiles have been preserved only on one side of the strigils, the flatter surface, perhaps because the convex side did not allow for the fabric to adhere. In some instances, however, textile traces are visible along the edges, suggesting that the fabric was wrapped around the entire object, possibly in multiple layers. Whether this phenomenon carried a ritual significance in the funerary context or was simply a protective measure for valuable metal objects remains uncertain. The latter hypothesis is plausible, yet it is notable that other metal items, such as knives, appear to have been excluded from this practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt Vassallaggi, textiles were specifically used to wrap knives placed in male graves. It remains unclear whether this practice was widespread across all male burials or whether it was reserved for a particular social category. The knives were deposited inside a krater, the main ceramic vessel found in male graves, which was associated with symposium rituals and the communal consumption of meat. The symposium was a fundamental moment in the life of a male individual in Greek culture, symbolising equality among citizens and membership in the community (Vernant \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1962\u003c/span\u003e; D\u0026rsquo;Agostino \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Detienne and Vernant \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e; Durand \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). All extant textile remains used to wrap knives display significant homogeneity in terms of weave, density, structure, thread twist, thread diameter, and raw materials. A comparative analysis of textile traces found on a knife from a female grave (sample 5) suggests that only knives from male burials were wrapped in fabric, reinforcing the hypothesis that this practice held a specific ritual significance within the funerary context at Vassallaggi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe practice of wrapping the knives highlights the importance of the symposium practice and aligns with the broader adoption of Greek customs by the inhabitants of Vassallaggi, who appear to have embraced these traditions in a standardised manner. Adoption of Greek costumes at the site is also documented in other aspects of material culture such as pottery, burial types and grave goods (Pizzo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). A similar shift in the adoption of Greek customs is further reflected in the textile tool traditions of the site. Loom weights recovered from Vassallaggi closely resemble those found in Greek settlements in Sicily, such as Lipari and Himera, both in terms of shape, weight, and manufacturing techniques (Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, recent studies on dress ornaments worn by the deceased indicate that fibulae served as key markers of indigenous textile traditions (Longhitano \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Fibulae were the predominant accessory in the Archaic necropolis at Vassallaggi, yet they are conspicuously absent from the Classical-period graves, which instead exhibit Greek funerary customs. This shift suggests a deliberate choice on the part of the deceased to be buried according to Greek rites, both in terms of grave typology and associated burial goods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study represents the first systematic investigation of textile culture in ancient Sicily based on the analysis of extant textile remains. The detailed examination of textile assemblages from Vassallaggi and Lipari has yielded significant new insights:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of weave structures suggests that textile culture in these sites was primarily based on balanced and unbalanced tabbies, a pattern widely attested across southern Italy after the late eighth century BC. However, the current evidence is exclusively derived from funerary contexts, and further research is required to establish whether similar patterns existed in everyday life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe application of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) has enabled the identification of flax and wool as the primary raw materials. It appears that linen was predominantly used for wrapping burial goods, while wool was likely employed for garments or funerary clothing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study lays the groundwork for further research, and it is hoped that additional textile discoveries from other Sicilian sites will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of local textile traditions. In particular, a detailed examination of textiles from earlier contexts would be crucial in assessing the nature of textile culture prior to the arrival of the Greeks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the analysis of textiles in funerary contexts not only enhanced our understanding of local textile production but also provided valuable insights into the ways in which indigenous communities actively adopted Greek elements as markers of social and cultural identity. This study reaffirmed the significance of textile culture as a crucial lens for investigating identity construction in the ancient world.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eClassical authors and texts\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiodorus Siculus, \u003cem\u003eBibliothecae Historicae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEusebio, \u003cem\u003eChronica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHomer, \u003cem\u003eIliad\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eG.L. wrote the main manuscript text and prepared tables and figures.G.L and M.P. wrote the 'Introduction'.G.L. and M.M. wrote the 'materials and methods' paragraph.All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePermission to study and publish the material has been given by the director of the Parco Archeologico delle Isole Eolie Arch. R. Vilardo to whom go our warmest thanks (prot. n. 1504, 4-10-2021; 10-05-2023; 17-05-2024; 620, 26-03-2025). We are grateful to Dr. M. C. Martinelli for helping with the work at the museum and sharing important references and information and unpublished photos. For studying and publishing the material from Vassallaggi, we thank the director of the Parco Archaeologico Valle dei Templi, dr. R. Sciarratta, dr. G. Avenia, dr. A. Mangione (prot. n. 2735 29/7/2022; n. 3012 18/7/2023 and n. 2025/2327) and the Director of the Parco Archeologico di Gela Arch. L. Gattuso (prot. n. 2286 15/6/2022 and n. 2474 24/4/2024). G.L. sincerely thanks Prof. P. Militello for helping her in obtaining the permits and his support. Fibre identification was carried out with the support of the ARAKNE Project (Prot. P2022CXH73, P.I. Milena Primavera, Universit\u0026agrave; del Salento- Italy), funded by Italian Ministry of University and Research (M.U.R.https://www.mur.gov.it/it) and European Union through NextGenerationEU (PRIN2022-PNRR, National Recovery and Resilience Plan, Mission 4: Education and Research).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndersson Strand E, Frei KM, Gleba M, Mannering U, Nosch ML, Skals I (2010) Old textiles\u0026mdash;new approaches. Eur J Archaeol 13:149\u0026ndash;173. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1461957110365513\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1461957110365513\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndersson E, Nosch ML (eds) (2015) Tools, Textiles and Contexts. Investigating Textile Production in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age. Oxbow Books, Oxford\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndrianou D (2012) Eternal Comfort: Funerary Textiles in Late Classical and Hellenistic Greece. In: Carroll M, Wild JP (eds) Dressing the Dead in Classical Antiquity. Amberley Publishing, Stroud, pp 42\u0026ndash;61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlbanese Procelli RM (2003) Sicani, Siculi, Elimi: Forme di identit\u0026agrave;, modi di contatto e processi di trasformazione. Longanesi, Milano\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarber EJW (1991) Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Princeton University Press, Princeton\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eB\u0026eacute;rard C (1970) L\u0026rsquo;h\u0026eacute;r\u0026ocirc;on \u0026agrave; la Porte de l\u0026rsquo;ouest. Eretria III. \u0026Eacute;ditions Francke Beme, Berne\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBergfjord C, Holst B (2010) A procedure for identifying textile bast fibres using microscopy: Flax, nettle/ramie, hemp and jute. Ultramicroscopy 110(9):1192\u0026ndash;1197\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea L, Cavalier M (1965) Meligun\u0026igrave;s Lip\u0026agrave;ra II. La necropoli greca e romana nella contrada Diana. Palermo. Flaccovio Editore\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBernab\u0026ograve; Brea L, Cavalier M, Villard F (2001) Meligun\u0026igrave;s Lip\u0026agrave;ra XI. Gli scavi nella necropoli greca e romana di Lipari nell\u0026rsquo;area del terreno vescovile Parte I e Parte II. Palermo, Regione Siciliana\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhabha HK (2004) The Location of Culture. Routledge, London\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCatling D, Grayson G (1998) The Identification of Vegetable Fibers, London\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen HL, Jakes KA, Foreman DW (1998) Preservation of archaeological textiles through fibre mineralization. J Archaeol Sci 25:1015\u0026ndash;1021. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1997.0286\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1006/jasc.1997.0286\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChiesa F (1993) Aspetti dell\u0026rsquo;Orientalizzante recente in Campania. La Tomba 1 di Cales. Cisalpina, Milano\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ed\u0026rsquo;Agostino B (1977) Tombe \u0026lsquo;Principesche\u0026rsquo; da Pontecagnano. Monumenti Antichi. Serie Miscellanea 2:1. Academia Nazionale dei Lincei, Roma\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDetienne M, Vernant JP (1979) La cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec. Gallimard, Paris\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDietler M (1998) Consumption, agency, and cultural entanglement: theoretical implications of a Mediterranean colonial encounter. In: Cusick JG (ed) Studies in Culture Contact: Interaction, Culture Change and Archaeology. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 25. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp 288\u0026ndash;315\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDurand JL (1988) Sacrificare, dividere e ripartire. In: Grottanelli C, Parise NF (eds) Sacrificio e societ\u0026agrave; nel mondo antico. Laterza, Bari, pp 193\u0026ndash;202\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEicher JB (ed) (1995) Dress and Ethnicity: Change across Space and Time. Berg, Oxford and Washington D.C.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M (2008) Textile Production in Pre-Roman Italy. Oxbow Books, Oxford\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M (2014) Wrapped up for safe keeping: \u0026lsquo;wrapping\u0026rsquo; customs in Early Iron Age Europe. In: Douny L, Harris S (eds) Wrapping and Unwrapping Material Culture. Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives. Routledge, New York, pp 135\u0026ndash;146\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M (2017a) Textiles in Pre-Roman Italy: from qualitative to quantitative approach. Origini 40:9\u0026ndash;28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M (2017b) Tracing textile cultures of Italy and Greece in the early first millennium BC. Antiquity 144:1205\u0026ndash;1222. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.144\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.15184/aqy.2017.144\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M, Meo F (2017) L\u0026rsquo;abbigliamento funerario. In: Niola M, Zuchtriegel G (eds) Action Painting. Rito \u0026amp; arte nelle tombe di Paestum. Editrice Politecnica, Napoli, pp 141\u0026ndash;191\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M, Menale I, Rescigno C (2017) Textiles and rituals in Cumaean cremation burials. In: Gleba M, Laurito R (eds) Contextualising Textile Production in Italy in the 1st Millennium BC. Origini 40. Gangemi Editore, Roma, pp 45\u0026ndash;63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M, Heitz C, Landenius Enegren H, Meo F (2018) At the crossroads of textile cultures: textile production and use at the south Italian archaic site of Ripacandida. J Mediterr Archaeol 31(1):27\u0026ndash;51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGleba M, Vanden Berghe I (n.d.) Textiles from Cumae Fondo Artiaco 104: structural and dye analyses. In: Babbi A, Cumae, Grave Art\u0026igrave;aco 104: performative identity and transculturality in the Middle-Tyrrhenian region at the end of the 8th c. BC. Jahrbuch des R\u0026ouml;misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums (Forthcoming)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGr\u0026ouml;mer K, Kern A, Reschreiter H, R\u0026ouml;sel-Mautendorfer H (eds) (2013) Textiles from Hallstatt: Weaving Culture in Bronze and Iron Age Salt Mines. Archaeolingua, Budapest\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGr\u0026ouml;mer K (2014) R\u0026ouml;mische Textilien in Noricum und Westpannonien im Kontext der arch\u0026auml;ologischen Gewebefunde 2000 v. Chr.\u0026ndash;500 n. Chr. in \u0026Ouml;sterreich. Austria Antiqua 5. Uni Press Graz, Graz\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHarlow M, Michel C, Quillien L (eds) (2020) Textiles and Gender in Antiquity. From the Orient to the Mediterranean. Bloomsbury Academic\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaugan E, Holst B (2013) Determining the Fibrillary Orientation of Bast Fibres with Polarized Light Microscopy: The Modified Herzog Test (Red Plate Test) Explained. J Microsc 252(2):159\u0026ndash;168. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1111/jmi.12079\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/jmi.12079\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHouck MM (2009) Identification of textile fibers. Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles, Elsevier\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKemp BJ, Vogelsang-Eastwood G (2001) The Ancient Textile Industry at Amarna. London\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLandenius Enegren H (2015) Loom weights in Archaic South Italy and Sicily: five case studies. Opuscula: Annual Swed Inst Athens Rome 8:123\u0026ndash;155\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLangella A, Langella M (2000) Un caso di archeo-ortopedia. In: Spigo U, Martinelli MC (eds) Nuovi studi di archeologia siciliana. pp 153\u0026ndash;156\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeighton R (1999) Sicily before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Duckworth, London\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiebmann M (2013) Parsing hybridity: archaeologies of amalgamation in seventeenth-century New Mexico. In J. Card (ed.), The Archaeology of Hybrid Material Culture. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 39: 25\u0026ndash;49. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLonghitano G (2021) Textile Activity and Cultural Identity in Sicily between the Late Bronze Age and the Archaic Period. Oxbow Books, Oxford\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLonghitano G (2024) Archeologia del tessuto in Sicilia tra l\u0026rsquo;et\u0026agrave; del Ferro e quella ellenistica: dall\u0026rsquo;analisi delle evidenze dirette ed indirette alla tradizione tessile. PhD Dissertation, Universit\u0026agrave; di Catania\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLukesova H, Holst B (2024) Identifying plant fibres in cultural heritage with optical and electron microscopy: how to present results and avoid pitfalls. Herit Sci 12:12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-023-01122-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s40494-023-01122-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMargariti C (2009) Exploring the Application of Instrumental Analysis for the conservation of Textiles Excavated in Greece. PhD Thesis, University of Southampton\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMargariti C, Protopapas S, Orphanou V (2011) Recent analyses of the excavated textile find from Grave 35 HTR73, Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, Greece. J Archaeol Sci. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMargariti C, Spantidaki S (2020) Revising the Hero of Lefkandi. In: Bustamante-\u0026Aacute;lvarez M, S\u0026aacute;nchez L\u0026oacute;pez EH, Jim\u0026eacute;nez \u0026Aacute;vila J (eds) Purpurae Vestes VII, Redefining ancient textile handcraft. Structures, tools and production processes. Granada, pp 401\u0026ndash;412\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMastelloni MA (2020) Hydriai di bronzo da Lipari. In: Spadea R, Lo Schiavo F, Lazzarini ML (eds) Tra Ionio e Tirreno: Orizzonti d\u0026rsquo;archeologia. Roma, pp 682\u0026ndash;695\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMilitello P, Messina T, Longhitano G (2015) Tra Indigeni e Greci: la filatura e la tessitura in area nissena. In: Panvini R, Congiu M (eds) Indigeni e Greci tra le valli dell'Himera e dell'Halykos. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi. Caltanissetta, Parruzzo, pp 64\u0026ndash;85\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOrlandini P (1971) Vassallaggi (S. Cataldo). Scavi 1961, I. La necropoli meridionale. Notizie Scavi Antichit\u0026agrave; Supplementi 9:9\u0026ndash;13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePizzo M (1999) Vassallaggi (S. Cataldo, Caltanissetta). La necropoli meridionale, scavi 1956. Notizie Scavi Antichit\u0026agrave; 207:207\u0026ndash;395\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePopham MR, Touloupi E, Sackett LH (1982) The Hero of Lefkandi. Antiquity 56:169\u0026ndash;174\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQuercia A, Foxhall L (2014) Temporality, materiality and women\u0026rsquo;s networks: the production and manufacture of loom weights in the Greek and indigenous communities of southern Italy. In: Rebay-Salisbury K, Brysbaert A, Foxhall L (eds) Knowledge Networks and Craft Traditions in the Ancient World: Material Crossovers. Studies in Archaeology, vol 13. Routledge, London, pp 62\u0026ndash;81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQuercia A (2018) Weaving during the Archaic period in south Italy: two key studies. In: Busana MS, Gleba M, Meo F, Tricomi AR (eds) Purpureae Vestes VI, Textiles and dyes in the Mediterranean economy and society. Libros Portico, Zaragoza, pp 145\u0026ndash;156\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRast-Eicher A (2016) Fibres: microscopy of archaeological textiles and furs. Archaeolingua, Budapest\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoach-Higgins ME, Eicher JB, Johnson KKP (eds) (1995) Dress and identity. Fairchild, New York\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchneider J (1987) The anthropology of cloth. Annual Rev Anthropoly 16:409\u0026ndash;448\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSilliman S (2015) A requiem for hybridity? The problem with Frankensteins, pur\u0026eacute;es, and mules. J Social Archaeol 15:277\u0026ndash;298. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/1469605315574791\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/1469605315574791\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpantidaki S (2016) Textile production in Classical Athens. Oxbow Books, Oxford\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpantidaki Y, Moulherat C (2012) Greece. In: Gleba M, Mannering U (eds) Textiles and textile production in Europe from prehistory to AD 400. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp 185\u0026ndash;200\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStampolidis N (1996) Reprisals: contributions to the study of customs of the geometric-archaic period. Publications of the University of Crete, Rethymno\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStaufer A (2012) Case study: the textiles from Verucchio, Italy. In: Gleba M, Mannering U (eds) Textiles and textile production in Europe from prehistory to AD 400. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp 242\u0026ndash;253\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuomela JA, Vajanto K, R\u0026auml;is\u0026auml;nen R (2017) Seeking nettle textiles \u0026ndash; utilizing a combination of microscopic methods for fibre identification. Stud Conserv. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/00393630.2017.1410956\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/00393630.2017.1410956\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dommelen P (2005) Colonial interactions and hybrid practices: Phoenician and Carthaginian settlement in the ancient Mediterranean. In: Stein G (ed) The archaeology of colonial encounters: comparative perspectives. School of Advanced Research, Santa Fe, pp 109\u0026ndash;141\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dommelen P (2006a) Colonial matters: material culture and postcolonial theory in colonial situations. In: Cusick JG (ed) Studies in culture contact: interaction, culture change, and archaeology. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp 267\u0026ndash;308\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dommelen P (2006b) The orientalizing phenomenon: hybridity and material culture in the western Mediterranean. In: Riva C, Vella N (eds) Debating orientalization: multidisciplinary approaches to change in the ancient Mediterranean. Equinox, London, pp 135\u0026ndash;152\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dommelen P (2011) Postcolonial archaeologies between discourse and practice. World Archaeol 43:1\u0026ndash;6. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2011.544883\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/00438243.2011.544883\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Dommelen P, Knapp AB (eds) (2010) Material connections in the ancient Mediterranean: mobility, materiality and Mediterranean identities. Routledge, London and New York\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVernant JP (1962) Les origines de la pens\u0026eacute;e grecque. PUF, Paris\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWagner-Hasel B (2000) Der Stoff der Gaben: Kultur und Politik des Schenkens und Tauschens in archaischen Griechenland. Campus, Frankfurt am Main\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWobst H (1977) Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In: Cleland CE (ed) For the director: research essays in honor of James B. Griffin. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp 317\u0026ndash;342\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e It was founded by Cnidians in 628 BC according to EUSEB. Chron., or in 580\u0026ndash;576 BC according to DIOD. SIC. 5, 9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e However, twill might have been known and used in Greece as depictions of twill occur in Archaic and Classical vase-paintings (Spantidaki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, 61).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Classical-Hellenistic Sicily, Textiles, Textile culture, Funerary practice, Cultural interaction","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eArchaeological textiles are rare in Sicily, except under specific environmental conditions, as the Sicilian climate is not conducive to the preservation of organic materials. Consequently, the study of textile culture in Sicily has primarily relied on the analysis of textile tools, which, in contrast, are both abundant and ubiquitous. This study presents the results of the analysis of textile remains recovered from the cemeteries of Vassallaggi (San Cataldo-Caltanissetta, Sicily) and Lipari (Aeolian islands, Sicily), located in central and northern Sicily, respectively. It offers the opportunity to examine the fifth-third century BC textile production at two sites on the island. The textiles have survived in a mineralised form as a result of direct contact with metal objects. The fabrics were mainly wrapped around grave goods ­ — including urns containing cremated remains, ashes themselves, and items such as strigils and knives. The practice of wrapping grave objects was a well-documented funerary custom in Italy and Greece from as early as the Iron Age. In Sicily, it was observed among certain Greek and local communities during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. All textile fragments were examined using a digital microscope to analyse fabric structures, including weave types and thread characteristics. Fibre types were then identified through the use of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The results allowed us to shed light on the textile culture in Classical and Hellenistic Sicily, placing it in the wider Mediterranean context. Moreover, the funerary practice of wrapping goods provided valuable insights into the role of textiles in cultural interaction contexts, as well as the ways in which local communities expressed their social and cultural affiliations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Unwrapping Textile Culture in Southern Italy: Evidence from Classical and Hellenistic Sicily","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-02 09:43:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6767090/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-02T07:49:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-02T07:00:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-19T07:39:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50653713431084244118388413289997883504","date":"2025-06-01T06:06:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"337601636702533245212703684985401116613","date":"2025-05-30T08:10:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-30T05:59:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-29T05:28:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-28T22:47:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","date":"2025-05-28T10:19:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"bb041137-d971-405d-86e2-2cded11c4f29","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-01T16:08:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6767090","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02297-1","journal":{"identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-26 15:58:15","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 26th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-02 09:43:32","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12520-025-02297-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-025-02297-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6767090","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6767090","identity":"rs-6767090","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}