Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Hades Forest, Doba Wereda, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge

Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Hades Forest, Doba Wereda, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Hades Forest, Doba Wereda, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge Aynyirad Tewodros, Anteneh Desta, Kidane Gebremeskel This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8569382/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Medicinal plants have long held historical significance and are recognized for their essential role in both traditional and modern healthcare systems. In Ethiopia, where access to formal medical services is limited, traditional medicinal practices remain crucial. This study documents medicinal plant species, their traditional uses, and associated indigenous knowledge in Hades and the surrounding communities of Doba district, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, to support conservation planning and sustainable use. Methods Data were collected from 105 general informants selected via simple random sampling and 15 key informants selected via snowball sampling. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize demographic and plant-use data. In contrast, quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, informant consensus factor (ICF), relative frequency of citation (RFC), and fidelity level (FL), were employed to assess the cultural importance and consensus regarding medicinal plants. Results This study documented 49 medicinal plant species belonging to 31 families used to treat human ailments, with Asteraceae and Lamiaceae as the dominant families. Shrubs were the most common growth form, and leaves were the most frequently used plant part. Remedies were prepared mainly by crushing and pounding (59.1%) and were administered orally (70.6%). Vernonia amygdalina , Cissampelos mucronata , and Croton macrostachyus were the top-ranked species for treating intestinal parasites. Informant consensus was highest for reproductive/urinary (ICF = 0.97), gastrointestinal (ICF = 0.96), and dermatological disorders (ICF = 0.96). Twenty-one species achieved complete fidelity (FL = 100%), and Croton macrostachyus had the highest relative frequency of citation (78.3%), indicating its prominence in local ethnomedicine. Ethnomedicinal knowledge was transmitted primarily orally and was significantly greater among key informants (mean = 14.47) than general informants (mean = 7.25; p < 0.001), and among elders compared with middle-aged participants (p = 0.045). No significant differences were observed by gender (p = 0.758) or educational status (p = 0.57). Overgrazing, overharvesting, and weak intergenerational knowledge transfer were identified as the major threats to both plant resources and traditional knowledge. Conclusion The study highlights the vital role of medicinal plants in local healthcare in the study area and the cultural knowledge associated with their use. Conserving plant diversity and sustaining indigenous knowledge through community-based initiatives, public awareness, and sustainable harvesting practices are essential to ensure their continued availability and contribution to both biodiversity and local well-being. Indigenous knowledge Ethnomedicine Myrtus communis Hades Forest Medicinal plants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 BACKGROUND The use of medicinal plants has a long history and is widely recognized for its value in healthcare systems worldwide [ 23 ]. Since ancient times, these plants have served as effective and safe sources of medicine. Traditional medicinal plants are the primary means of treating diseases and combating infections globally [ 1 ]. Countries such as Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, India, Pakistan, and Japan have a long tradition of practicing traditional medicine. However, the extensive use of these therapeutic plants is especially prominent in developing and resource-poor nations [ 27 ]. Between 70% and 95% of people living in developing countries rely primarily on medicinal plants for their healthcare [ 21 ]. In Africa, the preference for medicinal plants over modern medicine is well documented [ 12 ]. Ethiopia is one of the most biodiversity-rich countries in the world, harboring approximately 6,027 species of vascular plants, including about 887 medicinal plants [ 4 ]. Ethnobotanical studies emphasize the important role of medicinal plants in primary healthcare in Ethiopia, where 80% of the human population and 90% of livestock depend on these plants [ 14 , 63 , 22 ]. This high reliance on medicinal plants is attributed to their cultural acceptance, availability, and affordability compared with modern medicine [ 20 ]. The utilization, management, and conservation of medicinal plants are inseparably linked to indigenous knowledge that has been developed and transmitted across generations. Such knowledge guides plant identification, harvesting methods, preparation techniques, dosage determination, and seasonal use in the treatment of human and livestock ailments [ 61 ]. Indigenous practices also play a key role in regulating sustainable harvesting and conserving plant resources within local communities. Despite their importance, both medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge are increasingly threatened in Ethiopia. Habitat destruction, deforestation for timber extraction, agricultural expansion, urbanization, and climate change have significantly reduced the availability of medicinal plant resources [ 24 , 39 , 5 , 14 ]. Concurrently, indigenous knowledge is eroding due to secrecy, cultural shifts, globalization, industrialization, increased access to modern healthcare, and declining interest among younger generations [ 1 , 62 , 45 ]. Oral transmission, weak intergenerational transfer, and limited documentation further exacerbate this loss, posing serious challenges to the sustainability of traditional healthcare systems. Hades and the surrounding area harbor a rich diversity of medicinal plants used by local communities; however, both the medicinal plant species and the indigenous knowledge associated with their identification, medicinal uses, and management remain largely undocumented. To address these gap therefore, the present study documents medicinal plant species and their associated indigenous knowledge, analyze the threats affecting these resources, and document conservation practices. METHODS Study design and study area This ethnobotanical cross-sectional study was conducted in Hades Forest and the surrounding rural communities in Doba District, West Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. This study aimed to document medicinal plant species and their traditional uses, identify the threats affecting these resources, and document existing conservation practices. Doba district lies 371 kilometers east of Addis Ababa and 45 kilometers from Chiro, the zonal capital. The area has an average elevation ranging from 1600 to 3100 m above sea level and covers approximately 618 hectares [ 15 ] (Fig. 1 ). Doba District has a total population of 213,715, of which 103,802 are men, and 109,913 are women [ 15 ]. The area has a tropical highland climate with a distinct rainy season from June to September. The annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 800 mm, and the mean annual temperature varies between 16°C and 18°C [ 13 ]. Vegetation varies with altitude. Lower and mid-altitudes are dominated by Podocarpus falcatus , and higher elevations are composed mainly of Juniperus procera , interspersed with Croton macrostachyus and other woody species, such as Mytenus species and Gymnosporia obscura [ 13 ]. Soils are composed of mixed textures of sand, clay, and silt [ 18 ]. 2.2 Sampling and Data Collection Methods A reconnaissance survey was conducted in February 2025 to obtain preliminary information on population characteristics, the distribution of medicinal plant resources, the locations of traditional healers, and knowledgeable elders in the study area. Based on this survey, three kebeles, Bekelecha Biftuu, Ifa Haqaa, and Tokuma Jaalalaa, were purposively selected from the 44 kebeles of Doba district based on the presence of traditional medicine practitioners, medicinal plant availability, natural vegetation density, and recommendations from knowledgeable elders. Ethnobotanical data were collected from a total of 120 informants (84 men, 36 women; 40 per kebele) using snowball sampling for knowledgeable individuals, including traditional healers and elders [ 11 ], and random selection for general informants. Prior to data collection, official permission was obtained from the Doba District Administrative Office. The participants were informed about the purpose of the study, and oral consent was obtained from each participant. Data collection was conducted from February to March 2025 in accordance with established ethnobotanical survey methods [ 10 ]. Multiple data collection techniques were employed, including semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and guided field walks. Semistructured interviews were used to gather information on respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, education, marital status, religion, occupation, and economic status), medicinal plant species used to treat human ailments, vernacular plant names, plant parts utilized, methods of preparation, routes of administration, additional uses, and local conservation practices. Community perceptions of threats to medicinal plants and their associated indigenous knowledge were assessed via a five-point Likert scale, in which respondents indicated their level of agreement with predefined statements describing major anthropogenic and environmental threats, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). A total of 30 informants participated in this assessment, comprising 15 purposively selected elders and 15 randomly selected community members. Group discussions and guided field walks were conducted with key informants to ensure accurate identification of medicinal plant species and to verify the information obtained during the interviews. Voucher samples were collected following standard herbarium procedures and deposited at the Haramaya University Herbarium. Plant identification was then performed through comparison with authenticated herbarium samples and further verified by existing descriptions from the relevant volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. 2.3 Data analysis The data were organized in Microsoft Excel (2010) and analyzed using R software (version 4.5.1). Descriptive statistics, percentages, and frequencies were used to summarize data related to medicinal plant species, plant parts used, preparation methods, administration routes, and ailment categories. Informant consensus factor was calculated to assess the agreement among the informants on medicinal plant use [ 31 ] using the following formula: \(\:\) \(\:ICF=\frac{Nur-Nt}{Nur-1}\) where Nur is the number of use reports from informants for a specific use category and Nt is the number of species used for that category. Fidelity level (FL) was computed to determine the relative importance of each medicinal plant species in treating specific ailments [ 17 ]. It was calculated via the following equation: $$\:FL\left(\%\right)=\raisebox{1ex}{$Ip$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$Iu$}\right.x\:100$$ where Ip is the number of informants who independently reported the use of a species for the same specific ailment and Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the species for any ailment. Preference ranking was conducted following [ 31 ] to evaluate the perceived efficacy of medicinal plants used to treat intestinal parasites. Nine key informants were randomly selected to rank eight medicinal plant species on the basis of their relative effectiveness. Each informant is assigned scores ranging from 1 (least effective) to 5 (most effective). The scores assigned to each species were summed, and the plants were ranked according to their total scores. Relative frequency of citation (RFC) was calculated to assess the local importance of each medicinal plant species [ 52 ]: $$\:RFC=\:\raisebox{1ex}{$FC$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$N$}\right.$$ where Fc is the number of informants citing a species and N is the total number of informants. Direct matrix ranking (DMR) was employed to evaluate the relative importance of multipurpose medicinal plants following [ 10 ]. From the total recorded medicinal plants, five tree species were purposely selected on the basis of their multiple uses. These species were assessed across six major use categories: soil erosion control, goat feed, timber, edible fruit, firewood, and fencing. Nine knowledgeable key informants scored the usefulness of each plant within each category via a five-point scale, where a score of 5 represented the highest level of use, and a score of 1 represented the lowest. To analyze differences in indigenous knowledge among informant groups, normality and homogeneity assumptions were tested via the Shapiro–Wilk test and Levene’s test, respectively [ 16 ]. To compare knowledge scores between key informants and general informants, a Welch two-sample t test was employed, as it accounts for unequal variances and sample sizes [ 59 ]. Knowledge differences between male and female informants were examined via an independent samples t test. Similarly, differences in medicinal plant knowledge between educational levels (nonliterate vs. literate) were analyzed via an independent samples t test. Differences among age groups were evaluated via one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test [ 27 , 57 ]. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS Demographic Status of the Informants A total of 120 informants participated in this study. A large proportion of the informants were male, with females making up a smaller share of the participants. Farming was the most dominant occupation. Most participants were above the age of 46 and were primarily engaged in farming. The majority were married and nonliterate. All the informants reported a monthly income above 5,000 ETB (Table 1 ). Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents Category Subcategory Count Percentage Occupation Farmer 46 38.30 Farmer and trader 7 5.80 Farmer and traditional healer 13 10.80 Farmer, Forest guardian 2 1.70 Housewife 6 5.00 Police 4 3.30 Student (college students) 14 11.70 Trader 5 4.20 Traditional healer 2 1.70 Gender Female (F) 36 30.00 Male (M) 84 70.00 Age > 46 69 57.50 25–35 18 15.00 36–45 33 27.50 Marital Status Married 111 92.5 Single 9 7.50 Education Status Nonliterate 90 75.00 Literate 30 25.00 Income (Monthly) > 5000 birr 120 100 Medicinal plant resources of the study area used for treating human ailment A total of 49 medicinal plant species belonging to 47 genera and 31 families were documented in the study area for the treatment of human ailments. Asteraceae was the most represented family, comprising five species, followed by Lamiaceae, with four species, and Rosaceae and Fabaceae, with three species each. Five families (Apocynaceae, Primulaceae, Solanaceae, Salicaceae, and Scrophulariaceae) were represented by two species each, whereas the remaining 14 families were represented by a single species (Table 2 ). Table 2 Medicinal plant resources of the study area used to treat human ailments Voucher No Botanical Name/Habit Family Vernacular Name Disease Treated PU PM & AM AT015 Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) C.N. Page/Tree Podocarpaceae Birbirsa Insect repellent, Heart Disease, Fever L, Sd Crushed and rubbed on skin; boiled with apple leaf and drunk with coffee; crushed and boiled to drink (Oral/Dermal) AT012 Aloe pubescens Reynolds/Succulent Herb Asphodelaceae Ret Diabetes, Gastric L Inner jelly like part extracted, mixed with Beso and eaten (Oral) Dandruff Sap Inner jelly like part extracted and applied to scalp (Topical) AT011 Alysicarpus rugosus (Wild.) Dandy/Herb Fabaceae Alii-hanqaa Gonorrhea, Cough B, L Dried, crushed, boiled with water and oil to drink (Oral) AT009 Asparagus africanus Lam./Climbing Shrub Asparagaceae Hiddii saree Menorrhagia, L Crushed, mixed with water, left overnight and drunk Tufa L pounded and wrapped on wound (Oral/Dermal) AT044 Astropanax abyssinicus (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Seem/Tree Araliaceae Gatama Skin irritation L Pounded and rubbed over affected area (Dermal) AT026 Bidens pilosa L./Herb Asteraceae Xiyyee Back pain, Stomach disorder, Headache L Boiled and drunk (Oral) AT020 Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston/Shrub Fabaceae Qajima Ascariasis R Crushed with leaves of Plectranthus ecklonii and drunk with water (Oral) AT032 Calpurnia aurea (Aiton) Benth./Shrub Fabaceae Ceekaa Jaundice, Detoxification L Crushed with leaves of Verbascum sinaiticum and Plectranthus ecklonii and drunk with water (Oral) AT017 Carissa spinarum L./Shrub Apocynaceae Agamsa Wound B Wrapped on the wound (Dermal) AT001 Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich./Perennial Climber Menispermaceae Bal-Toke Stomach ache, Cough, Diarrhea L Crushed and mixed with water to drink; (Oral) Snake bite R Pounded and applied to affected area (Dermal) AT045 Combretum molle G. Don/Shrub Combretaceae Maldhissa Fever, Constipation R Boiled and drunk (Oral) AT031 Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile/Tree Euphorbiaceae Bekenissaa Bloating, Hemorrhoids, Gonorrhea L, Sd, St, R Crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT008 Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich./Annual Climber Cucurbitaceae Hare goge Diarrhea, Kidney disease, Bloating, Gonorrhea L Crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT023 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf/Grass Poaceae Cita fura Evil spirit, Common cold Ap Burned to fumigate the patient (Inhalation) AT040 Datura stramonium L./Herb Solanaceae Qomaxeri Dhandacha (O) L Crushed and squeezed on scalp (Topical) Bloating B crushed and drunk with water (Oral) Toothache Sd held on aching tooth (Buccal) AT043 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb./Shrub Salicaceae Shimbirkoli Intestinal parasite L Pounded and drunk with water (Oral) AT038 Echinops kebericho Mesfin/Shrub Asteraceae Qabariicho Intestinal worms, Urine retention, Evil eye, Tonsillitis, Fever R Pounded, mixed with water and drunk; crushed with oil and drunk (Oral) AT030 Embelia schimperi Vatke./Shrub Primulaceae Hanquu Tapeworm F Dried, pounded and drunk with water (Oral) AT047 Ficus sur Forssk./Tree Moraceae Harbuu Jaundice, Anemia, L Crushed and drunk with water (Oral) Ringworms L Crushed and applied on the affected body part (Dermal) AT003 Foeniculum vulgare Mill./Perennial Herb Apiaceae Kemona Kidney disease, Vomiting, Urinary retention L, R Roasted, crushed and drunk with milk; crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT007 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel./Tree Rosaceae Heexoo Tapeworm, Back pain L, R, Sd Crushed, dried and consumed; root soaked and consumed (Oral) AT034 Hoffmannanthus abyssinicus /Shrub Asteraceae Muka adi Cataracts L Crushed and squeezed to extract liquid into eye (Ocular) AT028 Jasminum grandiflorum L./Shrub Oleaceae Bilu Tufa, Bleeding, Body swelling L Crushed and applied to affected body part (Dermal) AT027 Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl./Tree Cupressaceae Gatiraa habashaa Uterus problem, Sd, L Pounded and drunk with water (Oral) Toothache Sd Held by aching teeth (Buccal) AT046 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anderson/Shrub Acanthaceae Dhummuga Rabies L Dried with leaf of Phytolacca dodecandra , crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT018 Kalanchoe marmorata Baker/Shrub Crassulaceae Phiphii Ear disease L Heated and squeezed to extract liquid into ear canal (Otic) AT013 Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp. var./Shrub Verbenaceae Sukee Fungal skin infection, Body swelling L Roasted, powdered and mixed with butter or oil to apply (Dermal) AT049 Myrica salicifolia Hochst./Shrub Myricaceae Macheensso Dermatitis L Dried, crushed, mixed with water and applied (Dermal) AT021 Myrsine africana L./Shrub Primulaceae Qacuu Stomach ache, Back pain R Crushed, roasted, drunk with goat milk (Oral) AT036 Myrtus communis L./Shrub Myrtaceae Hades Stomach ache L Pounded and drunk with water (Oral) AT014 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth./Shrub Lamiaceae Anchebi Mich, Common cold L Rubbed by hand and squeezed into coffee to drink (Oral) AT025 Olea africana Mill./Tree Oleaceae Ejersa Headache, Common cold L, St Crushed and burned to fumigate the patient (Inhalation) AT048 Oncoba spinosa Forssk./Tree Salicaceae Garabagosh Dermatitis L Pounded and applied to affected area (Dermal) AT041 Osyris quadripartita Decne./Shrub Santalaceae Wato Evil eye L, R Dried, crushed, powdered, burned and smoke inhaled (Inhalation) AT022 Periploca linearifolia Quart. Dill. & A. Rich./Perennial Climber Apocynaceae Hidda aanaannoo Eye disease R Dried and burned for fumigation (Inhalation) AT037 Phytolacca dodecandra L’Hér./Shrub Phytolaccaceae Handoode Intestinal parasite Sd Pounded and drunk with water (Oral) Itching L crushed and used for washing(Dermal) AT035 Plantago media L./Herb Plantaginaceae Asandabo Hemorrhoid L Crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT033 Plectranthus ecklonii Gürke/Shrub Lamiaceae Muka ajawa Mich L Crushed and placed in cloth to squeeze into eye (Ocular) AT024 Premna schimperi Engl./Shrub Lamiaceae Urgessa Body swelling, Toothache L Crushed with leaves of Jasminum grandiflorum and Podocarpus falcatus and applied; chewed and held with affected teeth (Dermal/Buccal) AT042 Rosa abyssinica Lindl./Shrub Rosaceae Goraa Toothache, Wound R, L Chewed and held on teeth; dried, crushed and applied to wound (Buccal/Dermal) AT005 Rubus apetalus Poir./Shrub Rosaceae Gora gallo Digestive issues F, R, L Unprocessed eaten; dried, boiled, and drunk (Oral) AT002 Rumex abyssinicus Jacq./Herb Polygonaceae Meyemeqo Gofla (O), Cancer R Crushed and boiled to drink (Oral) AT004 Salvia merjamie Forssk./Herb Lamiaceae Muka aroo Spider poison L, R Pounded and applied to affected body part (Dermal) AT016 Scolopia theifolia Gilg./Tree Salicaceae Qillisaa Ascariasis R Crushed and drunk with water (Oral) AT010 Solanecio nandensis Oliv./Herb Asteraceae Jiniirsaas Spider poison Fungal skin infection L, Ap Crushed and applied on the affected body part (Dermal) Febrile illness L Crushed and mixed with water to drink (Oral) AT019 Verbascum schimperi Skan./Herb Scrophulariaceae Muka Loni Stomach ache L Crushed with Plectranthus ecklonii and apple leaf, mixed with water (Oral) AT039 Verbascum sinaiticum Benth./Herb Scrophulariaceae Gura hare Gonorrhea, Cancer R Crushed and drunk with water or coffee (Oral) AT029 Vernonia amygdalina Del./Shrub Asteraceae Ebicha Diarrhea, Intestinal parasite L Pounded and drunk with water (Oral) AT006 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal/Shrub Solanaceae Hide-budei Bloating, Evil eye, Heart problem, Diabetes R, L Pounded and drunk with water; dried, powdered, and eaten or drunk (Oral) L- leaf, R- root, B-bark, Sd-seed, St- stem, Ap-all part Growth Forms and Plant Parts Used Different growth forms of medicinal plants were recorded in the study area. Shrubs were the most dominant growth form, followed by herbs and trees, whereas climbers and grasses were the least represented (Fig. 2 ). Seven different plant parts were reported for use in remedy preparation. Leaves were the most frequently used plant part, followed by roots and seeds. Other parts, such as stems, bark, fruits, whole plants, and sap, were used less frequently (Fig. 3 ). Methods of Remedy Preparation and Additives The local communities in the study area employ various traditional methods for remedy preparation. Crushing and pounding were the most commonly used techniques, followed by fluid extraction and concoction. The less frequently used techniques were fumigation or burning, direct consumption, and infusion, whereas infusion and other minor methods (e.g., fermentation, poultry, soaking in oils, steaming, and sun-drying) are rarely used (Table 3 ). Table 3 Methods of remedy preparation for treating human and livestock ailments in the study area Preparation Methods Total Use Reports % Crushing and pounding 1,149 59.14 Fluid extraction 309 15.90 Concoction 290 14.93 Fumigation or burning 91 4.68 Direct consumption 91 4.68 Infusion 10 0.51 Other minor methods 3 0.15 Routes of Remedy Administration Medicinal plant remedies are administered through multiple routes. Oral administration was the most common route, followed by dermal, inhalation, buccal, topical, and ocular routes (Table 4 ). Table 4 Route of the administration of remedies for treating human ailments in the study area Administration No. of Preparations % Oral 1,373 70.64 Dermal 248 12.76 Inhalation 134 6.89 Buccal 103 5.30 Topical 58 2.98 Ocular 27 1.39 Dosage measurement Dosages in the study area were determined through various local measurement units. These included counts of leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers; finger lengths for roots and stem bark; pinches for powdered plant parts; and cups for decoctions and infusions. Preference Ranking of Medicinal Plants Preference ranking analysis revealed that Vernonia amygdalina was the most effective agent for treating intestinal parasites in humans. It was followed by Cissampelos mucronata and Croton macrostachyus , which were ranked second and third, respectively. The remaining plants, Myrtus communis , Echinops kebericho , and Phytolacca dodecandra , were perceived as less effective than the top-ranked plants (Table 5 ). Table 5 Preference ranking of the top medicinal plants for their effectiveness in treating intestinal parasites in humans in the study area No Plant name A B C D E F G H I Score Rank 1 Vernonia amygdalina 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 44 1 2 Cissampelos mucronata 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 5 4 35 2 3 Croton macrostachyus 5 3 4 3 3 5 3 3 4 33 3 4 Hagenia abyssinica 4 4 5 4 3 3 2 3 4 32 4 5 Verbascum sinaiticum 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 28 5 6 Myrtus communis 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 26 6 7 Echinops kebericho 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 20 7 8 Phytolacca dodecandra 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 17 8 Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) The ICF values for medicinal plant use across disease categories ranged from 0.83–0.97. The highest consensus was observed in the categories of reproductive/urinary, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and neurological disorders, with values ranging from 0.95 to 0.97 (Table 6 ). Table 6 ICF values of medicinal plants for treating human ailments in the study area Disease Category Nur Nt ICF Value Reproductive/Urinary Disorders 360 9 0.97 Gastrointestinal Disorders 479 19 0.96 Dermatological Disorders 382 17 0.96 Neurological & Head-related Disorders 220 10 0.95 Hepatic (Liver) Disorders 22 2 0.95 Cancer & Tumors 44 2 0.95 Musculoskeletal Disorders 61 3 0.95 Respiratory Disorders 157 9 0.94 Spiritual Disorders 120 4 0.93 Circulatory/Cardiovascular Disorders 34 4 0.91 Poisoning and Envenomation 54 6 0.89 Endocrine/Metabolic Disorders 7 2 0.83 Fidelity level (FL) Fidelity level values among the 49 medicinal plant species ranged from complete agreement (100%) to much lower levels of consensus. Twenty-one species achieved an FL of 100% (Table 7 ). Several other species had lower fidelity values, including Cissampelos mucronata (for cough, snake poison and toothache), Jasminum grandiflorum (body swelling), Echinops kebericho (evil eye), Bidens pilosa (headache), Afrocarpus falcatus (fever), Hagenia abyssinica (back pain), Foeniculum vulgare (vomiting), Aloe pubescens (gastric), Ocimum lamiifolium (common cold) and Withania somnifera (heartproblem). The complete FL values for all 49 species are presented in Additional Table 1 . Table 7 Fidelity level (FL) of the top five species for treating human ailments in the study area Species Disease Treated Np N FL (%) Astropanax abyssinicus Skin Irritation 6 6 100 Caesalpinia decapetala Ascariasis 12 12 100 Carissa spinarum Wound 26 26 100 Datura stramonium Psoriasis 23 23 100 Dovyalis abyssinica Intestinal parasite 6 6 100 Embelia schimperi Tapeworm 11 11 100 Hoffmannanthus abbotianus Cataracts 4 4 100 Justicia schimperian Rabies 6 6 100 Kalanchoe marmorata Ear disease 48 48 100 Myrica salicifolia Dermatitis 13 13 100 Myrtus communis Stomach ache 11 11 100 Oncoba spinosa Dermatitis 7 7 100 Plantago media Hemorrhoid 3 3 100 Plectranthus ecklonii Febrile illnesses 23 23 100 Rubus apetalus Digestive issues 96 96 100 Rumex nervosus Gofla (O)/Cancer 35 35 100 Salvia merjamie Spider poison 16 16 100 Scolopia theifolia Ascariasis 3 3 100 Verbascum sinaiticum Stomach ache 8 8 100 Periploca linearifolia Eye disease 4 4 100 Osyris quadrripartita Evil eye 13 13 100 Ocimum lamiifolium Febrile illnesses 64 71 90.14085 Rosa abyssinica Wound 9 10 90 Hagenia abyssinica Tapeworm 34 40 85 Aloe pubescens Dandruff 35 43 81.39535 Relative frequency of citation (RFC) Relative frequency of citation values in this study ranged from 0.25 to 0.78. Croton macrostachyus emerged as the most culturally prominent species, with an RFC value of 78.33%, followed by Echinops kebericho, Withania somnifera, Bidens pilosa , and Cucumis ficifolius (Table 8 ). Several other species, including Myrtus communis, Embelia schimperi, Rosa abyssinica, Verbascum schimperi, Oncoba spinosa, Astropanax abyssinicus, Dovyalis abyssinica, Justicia schimperiana , and Hoffmannanthus abyssinicus, presented relatively low RFC values . The full list of RFC values for all 49 species is provided in Additional Table 2 . Table 8 Top five medicinal plant species with the highest relative frequency of citation Plant Species Nur RFC (%) Croton macrostachyus 94 78.33 Echinops kebericho 83 69.17 Withania somnifera 77 64.17 Bidens pilosa 75 62.50 Cucumis ficifolius 72 60.00 Additional Uses of Medicinal Plants According to the direct matrix results, Croton macrostachyus was the highest-ranked multipurpose medicinal plant, followed by Rubus apetalus , Carissa spinarum , Justicia schimperian , and Podocarpus falcatus (Table 9 ). Among the evaluated use categories, soil erosion control and firewood received the highest scores, whereas timber and edible fruit had lower overall scores. Table 9 Direct matrix ranking of five medicinal plants across multiple use categories Use categories Croton macrostachyus Rubus apetalus Carissa spinarum Justicia schimperian Podocarpus falcatus Total Rank Soil erosion 5 5 5 5 5 25 1st Goat feed 5 1 0 5 0 11 3rd Timber 4 0 0 0 5 9 4th Edible fruit 0 5 5 0 1 11 3rd Fence 5 5 5 5 3 23 2nd Firewood 5 5 5 5 5 25 1st Total 24 21 20 20 19 Rank 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd 4th Local Medicinal Knowledge in the Study Area Comparison of knowledge between key informants and general informants Welch’s two-sample t test revealed a statistically significant difference in ethnomedicinal knowledge between key and general informants. The mean knowledge score was 14.47 for the key informants and 7.25 for the general informants (Table 10 ). Table 10 Comparison of ethnic knowledge between key and general informants Characters Informant groups N Mean ± SD t value p value Knowledge Score Key informants 15 14.47 -8.16 < 0.001 General informants 105 7.25 * Significant at p < 0.05 Comparison of ethnic knowledge among different age groups One-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference in knowledge scores among the three age groups (F = 3.758, p = 0.026) (Table 11 ). Post hoc analysis via Tukey’s HSD revealed that the elderly group presented significantly greater knowledge than did the middle-aged group did, whereas no statistically significant differences were detected between the young adult group and the elderly group or between the young and middle-aged groups (Table 12 ). Table 11 One-way ANOVA summary of ethnomedicinal knowledge scores among different age groups. Source Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value p value Age Group 2 120.9 60.46 3.758 0.0262 Error 117 1882.4 16.09 * Significant at p < 0.05 Table 12 Tukey HSD post hoc comparison of ethnomedicinal knowledge among age groups Age Group N Mean ± SD Post hoc Comparison (Tukey HSD) Young adults (25– 35) 18 9.28 ± 4.88 vs. Elders: p = 0.27 (NS) vs. Middle-aged: t = -2.75, p = 0.056 (NS) Middle-aged (36– 45) 32 6.53 ± 2.88 vs. Elders: p = 0.045 (Significant) Comparison of Knowledge between Genders The independent t-test revealed no significant difference in ethnomedicinal knowledge between male and female informants (t = − 0.31, df = 118, p = 0.758) (Table 13 ). Table 13 Comparison of ethnic knowledge between genders in the study area Gender N Mean ± SD t df p value Significance Male 84 8.23 ± 4.47 -0.31 118 0.758 Not significant Female 36 7.97 ± 3.14 * Significant at p < 0.05 Comparison of knowledge between education levels A comparison of knowledge scores by education level revealed no significant difference between nonliterate and literate informants (t = − 0.58, P = 0.57) (Table 14 ). Table 14 Comparison of knowledge between education levels in the study area Educational Status N Mean MPK ± SD T value P value Nonliterate 90 8.01 ± 3.86 Literate 30 8.57 ± 4.80 −0.58 0.57 * Significant at p < 0.05 Threats to Medicinal Plants and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge Informants reported several threats to the survival of medicinal plants in the study area, including both human and environmental factors. Overgrazing and overharvesting were identified as the most serious threats, whereas threats such as lodging and landslides were reported to be the least serious (Table 15 ). In addition to threats to plant species, the informants highlighted risks to the continuity of indigenous knowledge. Weak intergenerational transmission was reported as the most serious threat limiting the transmission of indigenous knowledge in the study area, followed by secrecy among healers, lack of interest among youth, and modernization (Table 16 ). Table 15 5-Point Likert Scale Results for Threats to Medicinal Plants Threats Mean Score Priority Overgrazing 4.7 High Overharvesting 4.43 High Agricultural expansion 3.43 Medium Climate variability 3.5 Medium Soil erosion 2.73 Low Lack of funding 2.63 Low Low awareness 2.43 Low Lesser threats 1.73–2.23 Very Low Table 16 5-Point Likert scale results of threats to indigenous knowledge in the study area Factors affecting IK Transmission Mean Score Priority Weak transmission to younger generations 4.5 High Secrecy among healers limiting knowledge sharing 4.2 Medium lack of interest in younger generations 3.5 Medium Modernization reducing transmission 3 Medium DISCUSSION Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were the most prominent families in the study area, which is consistent with findings from other relevant studies in Ethiopia [ 2 , 23 , 5 ]. The widespread use of these plant families may be due to the presence of bioactive phytochemicals that increase therapeutic efficacy [ 41 , 42 ], ease of preparation, and accessibility, particularly from leaves and aerial parts. [ 50 ] also highlighted the importance of Asteraceae in traditional medicine, noting that species within these families often share similar phytochemical compositions that contribute to their medicinal value. These results highlight the potential cultural and therapeutic significance of key plant families and the importance of understanding and protecting these valuable botanical resources. Shrubs were the dominant growth form used for remedies, suggesting their prominent role in traditional healthcare practices. Similar preferences for shrubs have been reported in other ethnobotanical studies [ 54 , 32 , 39 ]. Their prominence is likely due to their greater accessibility, perennial growth habits, and relative resilience to environmental stresses such as drought and competition from invasive species. Unlike many herbaceous plants, shrubs could provide a more reliable and continuous source of traditional medicinal remedies throughout the year [ 7 ]. The contribution of herbs and trees further suggests that traditional medicinal practices in the area are influenced by the reliability and availability of local plant resources. In addition, leaves are the most frequently used plant parts for remedy preparation in the treatment of various human ailments. This preference reflects the use of plant parts that are abundant, easily harvested, and collected without causing permanent damage to the plant. This pattern aligns with other studies, which commonly report leaves as the dominant plant part used in traditional medicine, followed by roots [ 31 , 26 , 27 ]. Furthermore, the widespread use of leaves highlights their importance in traditional healthcare systems, driven by practical harvesting considerations and perceived therapeutic benefits. Although less frequently used, roots remain an important component of traditional remedies in the study area, as they persist in the soil year-round and contain stable, long-lasting medicinal compounds. These results highlight how traditional practices are shaped by both ecological availability and cultural knowledge, ensuring a sustainable and effective supply of medicinal resources throughout the year. Simple preparation techniques, particularly crushing and pounding, are predominantly used by traditional healers for remedy preparation, which indicates a reliance on simple and accessible techniques that do not require specialized equipment or complex procedures. Such methods facilitate the release of active compounds. Freshly harvested plant parts are typically crushed, whereas dried parts are usually pounded. These findings are consistent with previous ethnobotanical studies. For example, [ 31 ], [ 20 ], and [ 4 ] reported that crushing was the most frequently used method, accounting for 49 instances (29.87%), followed by pounding with 39 instances (23.78%). Informants also reported the use of additives such as water, oil, sugar, salt, milk, butter, honey, tea, and coffee to increase taste, reduce potential side effects (e.g., vomiting, diarrhea), and improve the overall effectiveness of the treatment. This practice provides a holistic understanding of treatment, in which palatability, patient compliance, and therapeutic outcomes are considered together. Similar practices have been reported among the Gamo people [ 62 ] and among communities in Yeki District [ 7 ], where herbalists routinely use additives to improve both nutritional value and palatability. This consistent pattern across different communities suggests that these simple physical preparation methods are widely recognized as effective ways to prepare remedies for immediate use. Oral administration was the most commonly reported route of remedy use, followed by dermal application, which was mainly employed for localized conditions, such as skin infections or wounds. These preferences likely reflect cultural familiarity, ease of use, and suitability for treating a wide range of ailments, suggesting that the community prioritizes practical effectiveness and culturally accepted methods when choosing routes of administration. Previous studies in Ethiopia have similarly reported the predominance of oral administration; for example, oral administration accounted for 52.2% of reported remedies in Dibatie District, followed by dermal and fumigation methods [ 3 ], whereas it accounted for 46.6% of reported remedies in Bita District [ 6 ]. These similarities highlight a well-established body of indigenous knowledge that guides the selection of appropriate and effective administration routes based on experience and cultural practice. Traditional healers in the study area reported that dosages are determined via flexible, context-specific methods, reflecting the reliance of traditional practitioners on experiential knowledge rather than standardized measurements. Quantities are adjusted considering patient-specific factors such as age, pregnancy, comorbidities, and the nature or severity of the ailment. This practice suggests a deep understanding of the therapeutic properties of plants and an individualized approach to treatment in the community. Comparable approaches have been documented in other Ethiopian ethnobotanical studies, where local healers also employ nonstandardized units and adjust dosages on the basis of patient-specific factors [ 7 , 37 ]. Such flexible dosing practices demonstrate the healer’s experience, knowledge, and careful observation of the patient, which helps ensure that the remedies are effective. Preference rankings for medicinal plants used to treat intestinal parasites revealed Vernonia amygdalina as the most effective species, receiving the highest rank, highlighting its significant role in the traditional management of this disease. Cissampelos mucronata and Croton macrostachyus were also frequently mentioned for their effectiveness. These preferences likely reflect healers’ empirical experience and the perceived reliability and efficacy of these plants. Similar findings have been reported by [ 5 ] and [ 50 ], who documented the traditional use of Vernonia amygdalina for the treatment of intestinal parasites. The high degree of consensus among healers emphasizes the cultural importance of these species and highlights their potential as priority candidates for future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations. The high ICF values in this study indicate that a limited number of medicinal plants are repeatedly cited by multiple informants for treating certain disease categories, suggesting consistent recognition of their therapeutic roles. This pattern has also been observed in other regions of the country [ 2 , 3 , 4 ], reflecting the accumulation of local knowledge and shared experience. In contrast, lower ICF values in some ailment categories may reflect less common diseases, complex or poorly defined symptoms, or variations in cultural beliefs and ecological conditions, leading to the use of multiple plant species and lower informant agreement [ 40 ]. Similarly, fidelity level analysis identified species that are particularly valued within the community’s traditional healthcare system. Species with the highest FL values, such as Astropanax abyssinicus , Caesalpinia decapetala, Carissa spinarum, Datura stramonium , Myrtus communis , and Plectranthus ecklonii , demonstrate consistent effectiveness, accessibility, and cultural familiarity. These findings align with previous ethnobotanical research showing community consensus for plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing, and helminth infections [ 30 , 56 , 53 ]. This pattern suggests the persistence of ethnomedicinal knowledge across generations. In contrast, species with lower FL values, such as Salvia merjamie and Withania somnifera , indicate more variable or generalized use among healers. Plants with broader therapeutic applications often show reduced FL because they are employed across multiple ailments rather than being dedicated to a single condition, reflecting a flexible and adaptive ethnomedicinal knowledge system. High relative citation frequencies indicate species that are widely recognized, commonly used, and deeply embedded in the cultural and medicinal traditions of the community. These plants often have long-standing reputations for effectiveness, encouraging repeated use across generations and reinforcing their importance in traditional healthcare systems. This pattern is consistent with other relevant studies in Ethiopia, which similarly reported that species with elevated RFC values are those most frequently consulted for diverse ailments and serve as key pillars of local healthcare practices [ 8 ]. Conversely, species with lower RFC values may indicate medicinal plants with more specialized, localized, or eroding uses, possibly due to the limited transmission of traditional knowledge or cultural shifts [ 9 ]. This ethnobotanical evidence underscores a dual imperative: to conserve widely used species that hold high cultural recognition and support local healthcare systems, and to document lesser-known medicinal plants that are at risk of disappearing owing to generational shifts, thereby preserving the full spectrum of ethnobotanical heritage for both human and animal health applications. The direct matrix ranking revealed that Croton macrostachyus has the widest range of nonmedicinal uses in the study area. This finding is consistent with [ 33 , 7 , 20 , 35 ], who also recognized Croton macrostachyus as a key multipurpose species valued for soil erosion control, goat feed, fencing, and firewood. The multipurpose value of these species may be attributed to their abundance, fast growth, and long-standing cultural familiarity, which facilitate their integration into daily household activities. These multifunctional roles contribute to local livelihoods and maintain ecosystem stability. However, extensive exploitation may compromise their availability and increase conservation risks, particularly for plants that rely on fuelwood, construction materials, and livestock feed. For example, species such as Croton macrostachyus , which is widely used for soil erosion control and firewood, also play a key role in maintaining ecosystem stability. The diverse applications of these plants highlight the need for integrated conservation approaches, including sustainable harvesting, community awareness, and the active participation of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, to safeguard these species for future generations. Without such measures, overharvesting could lead to biodiversity loss and weaken local healthcare systems that depend on medicinal plants [ 36 , 2 ]. Indigenous medicinal knowledge in the study area is transmitted primarily orally, mostly within families, with eldest sons often serving as the main custodians. The present findings correspond with earlier Ethiopian ethnobotanical reports [ 19 , 7 ], indicating that knowledge is transmitted mostly within families. There is a limited knowledge exchange among trusted neighbors and relatives, however, substantial information remains confidential, especially among traditional healers. This secrecy might be due to beliefs that disclosure diminishes medicinal efficacy or economic value, a trend that is consistent with reports from other studies [ 45 , 61 ]. The persistence of such confidential knowledge systems, coupled with increasing exposure to formal healthcare, education, religious shifts, and broader sociocultural modernization, appears to limit intergenerational knowledge transmission. Additionally, younger generations are reluctant to learn traditional medicinal practices, which could result in the loss of knowledge as elderly individuals age. This study demonstrated that key informants possess higher knowledge compared to general informants, which likely reflects their active and prolonged engagement with traditional medicinal practices and experiential learning. This highlights their role as critical custodians of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants, which can inform conservation, sustainable use, and knowledge preservation efforts [ 5 , 48 , 28 ]. Higher knowledge scores among the elderly suggest that ethnomedicinal knowledge develops through long-term interaction with medicinal plants and practical experience. This pattern is consistent with other studies reporting that elderly individuals hold significantly more ethnobotanical knowledge than other age groups do [ 26 , 50 , 25 ]. The relatively high level of knowledge among younger adults may reflect their active involvement in daily household healthcare, agricultural, and foraging activities, as well as their exposure to ethnomedicinal practices through family and community interactions. However, periods of high external responsibility may limit engagement and reduce knowledge acquisition. The study also revealed that gender did not significantly influence knowledge, as indicated by comparable mean scores between males and females (8.23 vs. 7.97; Table 13 ). This finding aligns with previous ethnobotanical studies, which report similar ethnobotanical knowledge levels across genders [ 29 , 47 ], suggesting that men and women acquire medicinal plant knowledge through overlapping social roles and responsibilities, such as cultivation, collection, and household healthcare. In contrast, other studies have shown a significant difference in indigenous medicinal plant knowledge between men and women, where men possess more knowledge than women [ 55 , 43 , 58 ]. According to the present study, medicinal plant knowledge appears to be shared across the community regardless of formal education, as indicated by similar mean scores between nonliterate and literate informants (8.01 vs. 8.57; Table 14 ). This corresponds with [ 46 ], who also reported comparable knowledge levels among informants of different educational backgrounds. This could be attributed to the fact that medicinal plant knowledge is transmitted largely through informal, experiential, and socially embedded processes rather than through formal schooling. Individuals acquire this knowledge through daily interactions with family members, neighbors, and elders; participation in agricultural, grazing, and foraging activities; and engagement in cultural practices or rituals where medicinal plants are used. In addition, knowing how to identify, collect, and prepare medicinal plants often relies on observation, imitation, and repeated practice rather than written instructions, making formal education less influential. Informants identified both human and environmental factors as threats to medicinal plants. Overgrazing emerged as the most severe threat, reflecting intense livestock pressure on wild medicinal plant populations; overharvesting was similarly ranked as a high-priority threat, driven by increasing demand for medicinal plants in local markets; household use; and the construction of shelters, fences, and animal enclosures. Cissampelos mucronata and Myrtus communis were noted as particularly vulnerable, indicating that the use of multiple functions increases exploitation pressure. This aligns with previous studies, which reported that overexploitation for multiple uses contributes to the depletion of medicinal plants [ 3 , 34 , 48 ]. Agricultural expansion has emerged as another significant threat. Informants linked this issue to the growing pressure on land, as cultivation increases to meet food demands, which is consistent with reports by [ 5 ] and [ 49 ], who documented similar patterns of habitat loss due to agricultural development in various districts across Ethiopia. Climate variability poses additional long-term risks, emphasizing the need for integrated mitigation strategies. Low-ranking threats, including soil erosion, funding shortages, and low awareness, were perceived as indirect but compounding factors. Key informants emphasized that limited financial support restricts community-led conservation initiatives, and low awareness, particularly among youth and farmers, contributes to practices that endanger medicinal plants. These include the removal of medicinal species during land clearing and their misidentification as invasive or undesirable plants due to limited knowledge of their value. Fewer concerns, such as landslides, lodging, and plant diseases, have been noted but may become more serious under changing environmental conditions. These ecological pressures are compounded by threats to the continuity of indigenous knowledge. Weak intergenerational transmission, secrecy among traditional healers, low interest among youth, and modernization limit the continuity of ethnomedicinal knowledge. Similar trends have been observed in other Ethiopian communities, where younger generations show limited engagement with traditional medicinal practices, and elderly individuals often withhold knowledge to protect their value [ 45 , 61 ]. Together, these factors suggest that erosion of indigenous knowledge arises from a combination of social, cultural, and generational dynamics rather than a single cause. Conservation practices for medicinal plant resources and their associated indigenous knowledge were generally limited in the study area, reflecting broader patterns observed across Ethiopia [23, 7, 65, 48]. One likely reason may be that most medicinal plants in Ethiopia are harvested from wild natural vegetation rather than being cultivated or managed systematically [ 51 , 4 ]. Despite these constraints, some traditional healers and local community members have made efforts to preserve these resources through practices such as sustainable collection methods, controlled harvesting, replanting, and patrolling key harvesting sites in the study area. These local initiatives, although often small-scale and informal, represent important steps toward the in situ conservation of valuable traditional medicinal plant species and the retention of associated indigenous knowledge, highlighting the potential for community-led conservation efforts to complement broader ecological and cultural protection measures. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This ethnobotanical study documented medicinal plants used for treating human ailments in Bekelecha Biftuu, Ifa Haqaa, and Tokuma Jaalalaa, along with the associated indigenous knowledge. Shrubs and herbs were the most commonly utilized growth forms, and leaves were the dominant plant parts used in remedy preparation. Indigenous medicinal knowledge in the study area is transmitted mainly orally, often within families, with the eldest sons typically serving as custodians. However, secrecy among traditional healers, modernization, and religious changes have contributed to a decline in knowledge transfer, especially among youth. It has been reported that there are no standardized dosage measurements, and remedies are usually given with additives such as butter and honey to improve their effectiveness and acceptability. The quantitative indices (ICF, FL, and RFC) demonstrated strong agreement among the informants regarding the importance of certain medicinal species, suggesting their central role in local healthcare systems. Direct matrix ranking revealed that the five species assessed for multipurpose uses also serve nonmedicinal functions, increasing pressure on these species. These threats are compounded by major threats such as overharvesting, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and climate variability, whereas conservation efforts remain largely informal and limited. Statistical analyses revealed that age significantly influenced ethnomedicinal knowledge, with elderly individuals possessing greater expertise, whereas gender had no significant influence. The results of this study indicated that the sustainability of both plant resources and associated indigenous knowledge is at risk, underscoring the urgent need for documentation, implementation of conservation strategies, and promotion of intergenerational transmission. Integrating indigenous wisdom into formal education and healthcare systems can play a vital role in safeguarding this valuable biocultural heritage. Effective conservation requires coordinated action from local communities, government institutions, and development partners, and continued research and monitoring. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was conducted with the approval of the Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management Department, Haramaya University. Research in the study area was carried out after obtaining official permission from the Doba District Administrative Office. Participation of local informants in interviews and plant data collection was entirely voluntary, and informed consent was obtained. The information collected was used solely for academic purposes, including publication. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The authors declare that all other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary information files.. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding This research was supported by the African Center of Excellence for Climate-Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, Haramaya University Authors' contributions A.T conducted the research, including data collection, analysis, and manuscript writing. Co-authors reviewed and provided guidance on the manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors sincerely thank Tewodros Kabtamu for his assistance and support during the preparation of this manuscript. References Abdela G, Sultan M, Indigenous, Knowledge (2018) Major Threats and Conservation Practices of Medicinal Plants by Local Community in Heban Arsi District, Oromia, South Eastern Ethiopia Abebe H (2022) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people of Mojana Wadera Woreda, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. 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Econ Bot 62(1):24–39 Teklay T, Zelalem W, Zemede A (2015) Traditional medicinal plants used for eye diseases in Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Res Appl 13:65–78 Teshome J, Mulatu M (2018) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human diseases in Berbere District, Bale Zone of Oromia Regional State, southeast Ethiopia. Evidence-Based Complement Altern Med Article 8602945. 10.1155/2018/8602945 Tilinti B, Melka Y, Awas T (2021) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Hidabu Abote District, North Shewa Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Res Square Preprint. 10.21203/rs.3.rs-338768/v1 Tugume P, Kakudidi E, Buyinza M, Katende A, Namukobe J, Nanyingi M (2024) Diversity and use of medicinal plants for veterinary care in Uganda. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 20(1):12 Tukey JW (1949) Comparing individual means in the analysis of variance. Biometrics 5(2):99–114 Usman KA, Egigu MC, Sasikumar JM (2022) Ethnobotanical study on traditional medicinal plants used by Oromo ethnic people of Goro District, Bale Zone of Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Res Appl 24:8 Welch BL (1974) The generalization of Student's problem when several different population variances are involved. Biometrika 34(1–2):28–35 Woldearegay M, Regassa A (2023) Medicinal plants of Ethiopia: Conservation, traditional knowledge, and sustainable use. doi.org/10.59411/721y5z60 Yimam M, Yimer SM, Beressa TB (2022) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in Artuma Fursi District, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Trop Med Health 50:85. 10.1186/s41182-022-00438-z Zemede J, Mekuria T, Ochieng CO, Onjalalaina GE, Hu G (2024) Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by the local Gamo people in Boreda Abaya District, Gamo Zone, southern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 20:28. 10.1186/s13002-024-00666-z Zhou H, Zhang J, Kirbis BS, Mula Z, Zhang W, Kuang Y, Huang Q, Yin L (2023) Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Bulang people in Yunnan. China 19:38. 10.1186/s13002-023-00609-0 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Additionalfile1.xlsx Fidelity level (FL) of medicinal plant species for treating human ailments in the study area Additonalfile2.xlsx Relative frequency of citation (RFC) values of medicinal plant species in Hades Forest Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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10:29:09","extension":"html","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":253208,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/f25d17305c667b3bee1bbd18.html"},{"id":100133832,"identity":"b7068863-c385-4568-960b-f7cb08e0dfa3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 10:29:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46946,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation map of Hades and surrounding communities in Doba District, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/45395dc9a20962749d6baf9b.jpg"},{"id":100133841,"identity":"a348b450-940c-4bb6-82b1-5b8e611cf495","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 10:29:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":155583,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHabits of medicinal plants in the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/0588c95dbbd9d7f72d02f3e9.png"},{"id":100367468,"identity":"edad57f9-7eba-4aca-8632-b3a1cfae0fe6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:57:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65667,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlant parts used for treating human ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/87c2e89768741e7af58a2726.png"},{"id":100593906,"identity":"83060984-07b8-48bd-bb03-7e20649bb768","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 13:27:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2374384,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/b5dabb23-b24e-42be-88d5-e979ac13e01d.pdf"},{"id":100133842,"identity":"71989be5-175d-4d28-b77b-f41fa2c05f98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 10:29:09","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":13056,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFidelity level (FL) of medicinal plant species for treating human ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile1.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/8b2db30e2459d247dc326ac2.xlsx"},{"id":100133844,"identity":"f05eb100-0617-4751-bd44-941540e3d84f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 10:29:09","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":9973,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelative \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;frequency of citation (RFC) values of medicinal plant species in Hades Forest\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Additonalfile2.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8569382/v1/575adb952f22e741cfa26906.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Hades Forest, Doba Wereda, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"BACKGROUND","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe use of medicinal plants has a long history and is widely recognized for its value in healthcare systems worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Since ancient times, these plants have served as effective and safe sources of medicine. Traditional medicinal plants are the primary means of treating diseases and combating infections globally [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Countries such as Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, India, Pakistan, and Japan have a long tradition of practicing traditional medicine. However, the extensive use of these therapeutic plants is especially prominent in developing and resource-poor nations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Between 70% and 95% of people living in developing countries rely primarily on medicinal plants for their healthcare [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In Africa, the preference for medicinal plants over modern medicine is well documented [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia is one of the most biodiversity-rich countries in the world, harboring approximately 6,027 species of vascular plants, including about 887 medicinal plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Ethnobotanical studies emphasize the important role of medicinal plants in primary healthcare in Ethiopia, where 80% of the human population and 90% of livestock depend on these plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. This high reliance on medicinal plants is attributed to their cultural acceptance, availability, and affordability compared with modern medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The utilization, management, and conservation of medicinal plants are inseparably linked to indigenous knowledge that has been developed and transmitted across generations. Such knowledge guides plant identification, harvesting methods, preparation techniques, dosage determination, and seasonal use in the treatment of human and livestock ailments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Indigenous practices also play a key role in regulating sustainable harvesting and conserving plant resources within local communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite their importance, both medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge are increasingly threatened in Ethiopia. Habitat destruction, deforestation for timber extraction, agricultural expansion, urbanization, and climate change have significantly reduced the availability of medicinal plant resources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Concurrently, indigenous knowledge is eroding due to secrecy, cultural shifts, globalization, industrialization, increased access to modern healthcare, and declining interest among younger generations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Oral transmission, weak intergenerational transfer, and limited documentation further exacerbate this loss, posing serious challenges to the sustainability of traditional healthcare systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHades and the surrounding area harbor a rich diversity of medicinal plants used by local communities; however, both the medicinal plant species and the indigenous knowledge associated with their identification, medicinal uses, and management remain largely undocumented. To address these gap therefore, the present study documents medicinal plant species and their associated indigenous knowledge, analyze the threats affecting these resources, and document conservation practices.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design and study area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis ethnobotanical cross-sectional study was conducted in Hades Forest and the surrounding rural communities in Doba District, West Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. This study aimed to document medicinal plant species and their traditional uses, identify the threats affecting these resources, and document existing conservation practices. Doba district lies 371 kilometers east of Addis Ababa and 45 kilometers from Chiro, the zonal capital. The area has an average elevation ranging from 1600 to 3100 m above sea level and covers approximately 618 hectares [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoba District has a total population of 213,715, of which 103,802 are men, and 109,913 are women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The area has a tropical highland climate with a distinct rainy season from June to September. The annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 800 mm, and the mean annual temperature varies between 16\u0026deg;C and 18\u0026deg;C [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Vegetation varies with altitude. Lower and mid-altitudes are dominated by \u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e, and higher elevations are composed mainly of \u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e, interspersed \u003cem\u003ewith Croton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e and other woody species, such as \u003cem\u003eMytenus\u003c/em\u003e species and \u003cem\u003eGymnosporia obscura\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Soils are composed of mixed textures of sand, clay, and silt [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.2 Sampling and Data Collection Methods\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA reconnaissance survey was conducted in February 2025 to obtain preliminary information on population characteristics, the distribution of medicinal plant resources, the locations of traditional healers, and knowledgeable elders in the study area. Based on this survey, three kebeles, Bekelecha Biftuu, Ifa Haqaa, and Tokuma Jaalalaa, were purposively selected from the 44 kebeles of Doba district based on the presence of traditional medicine practitioners, medicinal plant availability, natural vegetation density, and recommendations from knowledgeable elders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical data were collected from a total of 120 informants (84 men, 36 women; 40 per kebele) using snowball sampling for knowledgeable individuals, including traditional healers and elders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and random selection for general informants. Prior to data collection, official permission was obtained from the Doba District Administrative Office. The participants were informed about the purpose of the study, and oral consent was obtained from each participant. Data collection was conducted from February to March 2025 in accordance with established ethnobotanical survey methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Multiple data collection techniques were employed, including semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and guided field walks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Semistructured interviews were used to gather information on respondents\u0026rsquo; sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, education, marital status, religion, occupation, and economic status), medicinal plant species used to treat human ailments, vernacular plant names, plant parts utilized, methods of preparation, routes of administration, additional uses, and local conservation practices. Community perceptions of threats to medicinal plants and their associated indigenous knowledge were assessed via a five-point Likert scale, in which respondents indicated their level of agreement with predefined statements describing major anthropogenic and environmental threats, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). A total of 30 informants participated in this assessment, comprising 15 purposively selected elders and 15 randomly selected community members. Group discussions and guided field walks were conducted with key informants to ensure accurate identification of medicinal plant species and to verify the information obtained during the interviews. Voucher samples were collected following standard herbarium procedures and deposited at the Haramaya University Herbarium. Plant identification was then performed through comparison with authenticated herbarium samples and further verified by existing descriptions from the relevant volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.3 Data analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were organized in Microsoft Excel (2010) and analyzed using R software (version 4.5.1). Descriptive statistics, percentages, and frequencies were used to summarize data related to medicinal plant species, plant parts used, preparation methods, administration routes, and ailment categories.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInformant consensus factor was\u003c/b\u003e calculated to assess the agreement among the informants on medicinal plant use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:ICF=\\frac{Nur-Nt}{Nur-1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eNur\u003c/em\u003e is the number of use reports from informants for a specific use category and \u003cem\u003eNt\u003c/em\u003e is the number of species used for that category.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFidelity level (FL)\u003c/b\u003e was computed to determine the relative importance of each medicinal plant species in treating specific ailments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. It was calculated via the following equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:FL\\left(\\%\\right)=\\raisebox{1ex}{$Ip$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$Iu$}\\right.x\\:100$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eIp\u003c/em\u003e is the number of informants who independently reported the use of a species for the same specific ailment and \u003cem\u003eIu\u003c/em\u003e is the total number of informants who mentioned the species for any ailment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePreference ranking\u003c/b\u003e was conducted following [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] to evaluate the perceived efficacy of medicinal plants used to treat intestinal parasites. Nine key informants were randomly selected to rank eight medicinal plant species on the basis of their relative effectiveness. Each informant is assigned scores ranging from 1 (least effective) to 5 (most effective). The scores assigned to each species were summed, and the plants were ranked according to their total scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRelative frequency of citation (RFC)\u003c/b\u003e was calculated to assess the local importance of each medicinal plant species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:RFC=\\:\\raisebox{1ex}{$FC$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$N$}\\right.$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eFc\u003c/em\u003e is the number of informants citing a species and \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e is the total number of informants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDirect matrix ranking (DMR)\u003c/b\u003e was employed to evaluate the relative importance of multipurpose medicinal plants following [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. From the total recorded medicinal plants, five tree species were purposely selected on the basis of their multiple uses. These species were assessed across six major use categories: soil erosion control, goat feed, timber, edible fruit, firewood, and fencing. Nine knowledgeable key informants scored the usefulness of each plant within each category via a five-point scale, where a score of 5 represented the highest level of use, and a score of 1 represented the lowest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo analyze differences in indigenous knowledge among informant groups, normality and homogeneity assumptions were tested via the Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test and Levene\u0026rsquo;s test, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. To compare knowledge scores between key informants and general informants, a Welch two-sample t test was employed, as it accounts for unequal variances and sample sizes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Knowledge differences between male and female informants were examined via an independent samples t test. Similarly, differences in medicinal plant knowledge between educational levels (nonliterate vs. literate) were analyzed via an independent samples t test. Differences among age groups were evaluated via one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD post hoc test [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographic Status of the Informants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 120 informants participated in this study. A large proportion of the informants were male, with females making up a smaller share of the participants. Farming was the most dominant occupation. Most participants were above the age of 46 and were primarily engaged in farming. The majority were married and nonliterate. All the informants reported a monthly income above 5,000 ETB (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubcategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCount\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer and trader\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer and traditional healer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer, Forest guardian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousewife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent (college students)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrader\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional healer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale (F)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale (M)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25–35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36–45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncome (Monthly)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 5000 birr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMedicinal plant resources of the study area used for treating human ailment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 49 medicinal plant species belonging to 47 genera and 31 families were documented in the study area for the treatment of human ailments. Asteraceae was the most represented family, comprising five species, followed by Lamiaceae, with four species, and Rosaceae and Fabaceae, with three species each. Five families (Apocynaceae, Primulaceae, Solanaceae, Salicaceae, and Scrophulariaceae) were represented by two species each, whereas the remaining 14 families were represented by a single species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal plant resources of the study area used to treat human ailments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVoucher\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBotanical Name/Habit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVernacular Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisease Treated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePM \u0026amp; AM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAfrocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e (Thunb.) C.N. Page/Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePodocarpaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirbirsa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsect repellent, Heart Disease, Fever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Sd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and rubbed on skin; boiled with apple leaf and drunk with coffee; crushed and boiled to drink (Oral/Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe pubescens\u003c/em\u003e Reynolds/Succulent Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsphodelaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiabetes, Gastric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner jelly like part extracted, mixed with Beso and eaten (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDandruff\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner jelly like part extracted and applied to scalp (Topical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlysicarpus rugosus\u003c/em\u003e (Wild.) Dandy/Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlii-hanqaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGonorrhea, Cough\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried, crushed, boiled with water and oil to drink (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsparagus africanus\u003c/em\u003e Lam./Climbing Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsparagaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHiddii saree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMenorrhagia,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed, mixed with water, left overnight and drunk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTufa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epounded and wrapped on wound (Oral/Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAstropanax abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Seem/Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGatama\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkin irritation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and rubbed over affected area (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBidens pilosa\u003c/em\u003e L./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXiyyee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBack pain, Stomach disorder, Headache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoiled and drunk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia decapetala\u003c/em\u003e (Roth) Alston/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQajima\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscariasis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed with leaves of Plectranthus ecklonii and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e (Aiton) Benth./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCeekaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJaundice, Detoxification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed with leaves of Verbascum sinaiticum and Plectranthus ecklonii and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e L./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgamsa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWound\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWrapped on the wound (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e A. Rich./Perennial Climber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMenispermaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBal-Toke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache, Cough, Diarrhea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and mixed with water to drink; (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnake bite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and applied to affected area (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCombretum molle\u003c/em\u003e G. Don/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCombretaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaldhissa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFever, Constipation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoiled and drunk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex Delile/Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBekenissaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBloating, Hemorrhoids, Gonorrhea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Sd, St, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucumis ficifolius\u003c/em\u003e A. Rich./Annual Climber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucurbitaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHare goge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiarrhea, Kidney disease, Bloating, Gonorrhea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCymbopogon citratus\u003c/em\u003e (DC.) Stapf/Grass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCita fura\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvil spirit, Common cold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurned to fumigate the patient (Inhalation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDatura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e L./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQomaxeri\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhandacha (O)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and squeezed on scalp (Topical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBloating\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToothache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eheld on aching tooth (Buccal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDovyalis abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (A. Rich.) Warb./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShimbirkoli\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal parasite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho\u003c/em\u003e Mesfin/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQabariicho\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal worms, Urine retention, Evil eye, Tonsillitis, Fever\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded, mixed with water and drunk; crushed with oil and drunk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Vatke./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHanquu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTapeworm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried, pounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFicus sur\u003c/em\u003e Forssk./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarbuu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJaundice, Anemia,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRingworms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and applied on the affected body part (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFoeniculum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e Mill./Perennial Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKemona\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKidney disease, Vomiting, Urinary retention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoasted, crushed and drunk with milk; crushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (Bruce) J.F. Gmel./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeexoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTapeworm, Back pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R, Sd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed, dried and consumed; root soaked and consumed (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHoffmannanthus abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuka adi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCataracts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and squeezed to extract liquid into eye (Ocular)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJasminum grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e L./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOleaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBilu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTufa, Bleeding, Body swelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and applied to affected body part (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex Endl./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCupressaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGatiraa habashaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUterus problem,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSd, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToothache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeld by aching teeth (Buccal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJusticia schimperiana\u003c/em\u003e (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anderson/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcanthaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhummuga\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried with leaf of \u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e, crushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKalanchoe marmorata\u003c/em\u003e Baker/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrassulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhiphii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEar disease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeated and squeezed to extract liquid into ear canal (Otic)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLippia adoensis\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex Walp. var./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSukee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFungal skin infection, Body swelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoasted, powdered and mixed with butter or oil to apply (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrica salicifolia\u003c/em\u003e Hochst./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyricaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacheensso\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried, crushed, mixed with water and applied (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrsine africana\u003c/em\u003e L./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQacuu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache, Back pain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed, roasted, drunk with goat milk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e L./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHades\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex Benth./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnchebi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMich, Common cold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRubbed by hand and squeezed into coffee to drink (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOlea africana\u003c/em\u003e Mill./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOleaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEjersa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeadache, Common cold\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, St\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and burned to fumigate the patient (Inhalation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOncoba spinosa\u003c/em\u003e Forssk./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarabagosh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and applied to affected area (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsyris quadripartita\u003c/em\u003e Decne./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSantalaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWato\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvil eye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried, crushed, powdered, burned and smoke inhaled (Inhalation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePeriploca linearifolia\u003c/em\u003e Quart. Dill. \u0026amp; A. Rich./Perennial Climber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHidda aanaannoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEye disease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried and burned for fumigation (Inhalation)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e L’Hér./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytolaccaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHandoode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal parasite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecrushed and used for washing(Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlantago media\u003c/em\u003e L./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantaginaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsandabo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemorrhoid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlectranthus ecklonii\u003c/em\u003e Gürke/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuka ajawa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMich\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and placed in cloth to squeeze into eye (Ocular)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePremna schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Engl./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrgessa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody swelling, Toothache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed with leaves of Jasminum grandiflorum and Podocarpus falcatus and applied; chewed and held with affected teeth (Dermal/Buccal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e Lindl./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoraa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToothache, Wound\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChewed and held on teeth; dried, crushed and applied to wound (Buccal/Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus apetalus\u003c/em\u003e Poir./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGora gallo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigestive issues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF, R, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnprocessed eaten; dried, boiled, and drunk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e Jacq./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeyemeqo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGofla (O), Cancer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and boiled to drink (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia merjamie\u003c/em\u003e Forssk./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuka aroo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpider poison\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and applied to affected body part (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eScolopia theifolia\u003c/em\u003e Gilg./Tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQillisaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscariasis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanecio nandensis\u003c/em\u003e Oliv./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiniirsaas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpider poison Fungal skin infection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Ap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and applied on the affected body part (Dermal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebrile illness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and mixed with water to drink (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerbascum schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Skan./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScrophulariaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuka Loni\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed with Plectranthus ecklonii and apple leaf, mixed with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerbascum sinaiticum\u003c/em\u003e Benth./Herb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScrophulariaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGura hare\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGonorrhea, Cancer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed and drunk with water or coffee (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e Del./Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEbicha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiarrhea, Intestinal parasite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Dunal/Shrub\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHide-budei\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBloating, Evil eye, Heart problem, Diabetes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePounded and drunk with water; dried, powdered, and eaten or drunk (Oral)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL- leaf, R- root, B-bark, Sd-seed, St- stem, Ap-all part\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGrowth Forms and Plant Parts Used\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDifferent growth forms of medicinal plants were recorded in the study area. Shrubs were the most dominant growth form, followed by herbs and trees, whereas climbers and grasses were the least represented (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Seven different plant parts were reported for use in remedy preparation. Leaves were the most frequently used plant part, followed by roots and seeds. Other parts, such as stems, bark, fruits, whole plants, and sap, were used less frequently (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMethods of Remedy Preparation and Additives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe local communities in the study area employ various traditional methods for remedy preparation. Crushing and pounding were the most commonly used techniques, followed by fluid extraction and concoction. The less frequently used techniques were fumigation or burning, direct consumption, and infusion, whereas infusion and other minor methods (e.g., fermentation, poultry, soaking in oils, steaming, and sun-drying) are rarely used (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethods of remedy preparation for treating human and livestock ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreparation Methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Use Reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushing and pounding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFluid extraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e309\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcoction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFumigation or burning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther minor methods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRoutes of Remedy Administration\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedicinal plant remedies are administered through multiple routes. Oral administration was the most common route, followed by dermal, inhalation, buccal, topical, and ocular routes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoute of the administration of remedies for treating human ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdministration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of Preparations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOral\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e248\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInhalation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuccal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTopical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOcular\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDosage measurement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDosages in the study area were determined through various local measurement units. These included counts of leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers; finger lengths for roots and stem bark; pinches for powdered plant parts; and cups for decoctions and infusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreference Ranking of Medicinal Plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreference ranking analysis revealed that \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e was the most effective agent for treating intestinal parasites in humans. It was followed by \u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, which were ranked second and third, respectively. The remaining plants, \u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e, were perceived as less effective than the top-ranked plants (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreference ranking of the top medicinal plants for their effectiveness in treating intestinal parasites in humans in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerbascum sinaiticum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInformant Consensus Factor (ICF)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ICF values for medicinal plant use across disease categories ranged from 0.83–0.97. The highest consensus was observed in the categories of reproductive/urinary, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and neurological disorders, with values ranging from 0.95 to 0.97 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICF values of medicinal plants for treating human ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisease Category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICF Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReproductive/Urinary Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatological Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurological \u0026amp; Head-related Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHepatic (Liver) Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancer \u0026amp; Tumors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMusculoskeletal Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespiratory Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpiritual Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCirculatory/Cardiovascular Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoisoning and Envenomation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEndocrine/Metabolic Disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFidelity level (FL)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFidelity level values among the 49 medicinal plant species ranged from complete agreement (100%) to much lower levels of consensus. Twenty-one species achieved an FL of 100% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Several other species had lower fidelity values, including \u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e (for cough, snake poison and toothache), \u003cem\u003eJasminum grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e (body swelling), \u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho\u003c/em\u003e (evil eye), \u003cem\u003eBidens pilosa\u003c/em\u003e (headache), Afrocarpus \u003cem\u003efalcatus\u003c/em\u003e (fever), \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (back pain), \u003cem\u003eFoeniculum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e (vomiting), Aloe \u003cem\u003epubescens\u003c/em\u003e (gastric), \u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e (common cold) and \u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e (heartproblem). The complete FL values for all 49 species are presented in Additional Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFidelity level (FL) of the top five species for treating human ailments in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisease Treated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFL (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAstropanax abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkin Irritation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia decapetala\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscariasis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWound\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDatura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsoriasis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDovyalis abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntestinal parasite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTapeworm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHoffmannanthus abbotianus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCataracts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJusticia schimperian\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRabies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKalanchoe marmorata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEar disease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrica salicifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOncoba spinosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlantago media\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemorrhoid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlectranthus ecklonii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebrile illnesses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus apetalus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigestive issues\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex nervosus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGofla (O)/Cancer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalvia merjamie\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpider poison\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eScolopia theifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscariasis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerbascum sinaiticum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStomach ache\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePeriploca linearifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEye disease\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOsyris quadrripartita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvil eye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebrile illnesses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.14085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRosa abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWound\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTapeworm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe pubescens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDandruff\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.39535\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRelative frequency of citation (RFC)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative frequency of citation values in this study ranged from 0.25 to 0.78. \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the most culturally prominent species, with an RFC value of 78.33%, followed by \u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho, Withania somnifera, Bidens pilosa\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCucumis ficifolius\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Several other species, including \u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis, Embelia schimperi, Rosa abyssinica, Verbascum schimperi, Oncoba spinosa, Astropanax abyssinicus, Dovyalis abyssinica, Justicia schimperiana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eHoffmannanthus abyssinicus, presented relatively low RFC values\u003c/em\u003e. The full list of RFC values for all 49 species is provided in Additional Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop five medicinal plant species with the highest relative frequency of citation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant Species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRFC (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEchinops kebericho\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBidens pilosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucumis ficifolius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAdditional Uses of Medicinal Plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the direct matrix results, \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e was the highest-ranked multipurpose medicinal plant, followed by \u003cem\u003eRubus apetalus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eJusticia schimperian\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Among the evaluated use categories, soil erosion control and firewood received the highest scores, whereas timber and edible fruit had lower overall scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect matrix ranking of five medicinal plants across multiple use categories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse categories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus apetalus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJusticia schimperian\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat feed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTimber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEdible fruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirewood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLocal Medicinal Knowledge in the Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison of knowledge between key informants and general informants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWelch’s two-sample t test revealed a statistically significant difference in ethnomedicinal knowledge between key and general informants. The mean knowledge score was 14.47 for the key informants and 7.25 for the general informants (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of ethnic knowledge between key and general informants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformant groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean ± SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKnowledge Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey informants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral informants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e* Significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison of ethnic knowledge among different age groups\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference in knowledge scores among the three age groups (F = 3.758, p = 0.026) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Post hoc analysis via Tukey’s HSD revealed that the elderly group presented significantly greater knowledge than did the middle-aged group did, whereas no statistically significant differences were detected between the young adult group and the elderly group or between the young and middle-aged groups (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA summary of ethnomedicinal knowledge scores among different age groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSum Sq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Sq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge Group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0262\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1882.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e* Significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab12\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 12\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTukey HSD post hoc comparison of ethnomedicinal knowledge among age groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge Group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean ± SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost hoc Comparison (Tukey HSD)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung adults (25– 35)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.28 ± 4.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evs. Elders: p = 0.27 (NS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003evs. Middle-aged: t = -2.75, p = 0.056 (NS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMiddle-aged (36– 45)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.53 ± 2.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003evs. Elders: p = 0.045 (Significant)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison of Knowledge between Genders\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe independent t-test revealed no significant difference in ethnomedicinal knowledge between male and female informants (t = − 0.31, df = 118, p = 0.758) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab13\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 13\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of ethnic knowledge between genders in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean ± SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.23 ± 4.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.758\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot significant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97 ± 3.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e* Significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison of knowledge between education levels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comparison of knowledge scores by education level revealed no significant difference between nonliterate and literate informants (t = − 0.58, P = 0.57) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab14\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 14\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of knowledge between education levels in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational Status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean MPK ± SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.01 ± 3.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.57 ± 4.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e−0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e* Significant at p \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThreats to Medicinal Plants and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformants reported several threats to the survival of medicinal plants in the study area, including both human and environmental factors. Overgrazing and overharvesting were identified as the most serious threats, whereas threats such as lodging and landslides were reported to be the least serious (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to threats to plant species, the informants highlighted risks to the continuity of indigenous knowledge. Weak intergenerational transmission was reported as the most serious threat limiting the transmission of indigenous knowledge in the study area, followed by secrecy among healers, lack of interest among youth, and modernization (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab15\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 15\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5-Point Likert Scale Results for Threats to Medicinal Plants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThreats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePriority\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvergrazing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverharvesting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural expansion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate variability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil erosion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLack of funding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow awareness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLesser threats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73–2.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery Low\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab16\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 16\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5-Point Likert scale results of threats to indigenous knowledge in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors affecting IK Transmission\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePriority\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeak transmission to younger generations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecrecy among healers limiting knowledge sharing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elack of interest in younger generations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModernization reducing transmission\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAsteraceae and Lamiaceae were the most prominent families in the study area, which is consistent with findings from other relevant studies in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The widespread use of these plant families may be due to the presence of bioactive phytochemicals that increase therapeutic efficacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], ease of preparation, and accessibility, particularly from leaves and aerial parts. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] also highlighted the importance of Asteraceae in traditional medicine, noting that species within these families often share similar phytochemical compositions that contribute to their medicinal value. These results highlight the potential cultural and therapeutic significance of key plant families and the importance of understanding and protecting these valuable botanical resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eShrubs were the dominant growth form used for remedies, suggesting their prominent role in traditional healthcare practices. Similar preferences for shrubs have been reported in other ethnobotanical studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Their prominence is likely due to their greater accessibility, perennial growth habits, and relative resilience to environmental stresses such as drought and competition from invasive species. Unlike many herbaceous plants, shrubs could provide a more reliable and continuous source of traditional medicinal remedies throughout the year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The contribution of herbs and trees further suggests that traditional medicinal practices in the area are influenced by the reliability and availability of local plant resources. In addition, leaves are the most frequently used plant parts for remedy preparation in the treatment of various human ailments. This preference reflects the use of plant parts that are abundant, easily harvested, and collected without causing permanent damage to the plant. This pattern aligns with other studies, which commonly report leaves as the dominant plant part used in traditional medicine, followed by roots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the widespread use of leaves highlights their importance in traditional healthcare systems, driven by practical harvesting considerations and perceived therapeutic benefits. Although less frequently used, roots remain an important component of traditional remedies in the study area, as they persist in the soil year-round and contain stable, long-lasting medicinal compounds. These results highlight how traditional practices are shaped by both ecological availability and cultural knowledge, ensuring a sustainable and effective supply of medicinal resources throughout the year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple preparation techniques, particularly crushing and pounding, are predominantly used by traditional healers for remedy preparation, which indicates a reliance on simple and accessible techniques that do not require specialized equipment or complex procedures. Such methods facilitate the release of active compounds. Freshly harvested plant parts are typically crushed, whereas dried parts are usually pounded. These findings are consistent with previous ethnobotanical studies. For example, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] reported that crushing was the most frequently used method, accounting for 49 instances (29.87%), followed by pounding with 39 instances (23.78%). Informants also reported the use of additives such as water, oil, sugar, salt, milk, butter, honey, tea, and coffee to increase taste, reduce potential side effects (e.g., vomiting, diarrhea), and improve the overall effectiveness of the treatment. This practice provides a holistic understanding of treatment, in which palatability, patient compliance, and therapeutic outcomes are considered together. Similar practices have been reported among the Gamo people [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e] and among communities in Yeki District [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], where herbalists routinely use additives to improve both nutritional value and palatability. This consistent pattern across different communities suggests that these simple physical preparation methods are widely recognized as effective ways to prepare remedies for immediate use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Oral administration was the most commonly reported route of remedy use, followed by dermal application, which was mainly employed for localized conditions, such as skin infections or wounds. These preferences likely reflect cultural familiarity, ease of use, and suitability for treating a wide range of ailments, suggesting that the community prioritizes practical effectiveness and culturally accepted methods when choosing routes of administration. Previous studies in Ethiopia have similarly reported the predominance of oral administration; for example, oral administration accounted for 52.2% of reported remedies in Dibatie District, followed by dermal and fumigation methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], whereas it accounted for 46.6% of reported remedies in Bita District [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. These similarities highlight a well-established body of indigenous knowledge that guides the selection of appropriate and effective administration routes based on experience and cultural practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraditional healers in the study area reported that dosages are determined via flexible, context-specific methods, reflecting the reliance of traditional practitioners on experiential knowledge rather than standardized measurements. Quantities are adjusted considering patient-specific factors such as age, pregnancy, comorbidities, and the nature or severity of the ailment. This practice suggests a deep understanding of the therapeutic properties of plants and an individualized approach to treatment in the community. Comparable approaches have been documented in other Ethiopian ethnobotanical studies, where local healers also employ nonstandardized units and adjust dosages on the basis of patient-specific factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Such flexible dosing practices demonstrate the healer’s experience, knowledge, and careful observation of the patient, which helps ensure that the remedies are effective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreference rankings for medicinal plants used to treat intestinal parasites revealed \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e as the most effective species, receiving the highest rank, highlighting its significant role in the traditional management of this disease. \u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e were also frequently mentioned for their effectiveness. These preferences likely reflect healers’ empirical experience and the perceived reliability and efficacy of these plants. Similar findings have been reported by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e], who documented the traditional use of \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e for the treatment of intestinal parasites. The high degree of consensus among healers emphasizes the cultural importance of these species and highlights their potential as priority candidates for future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe high ICF values in this study indicate that a limited number of medicinal plants are repeatedly cited by multiple informants for treating certain disease categories, suggesting consistent recognition of their therapeutic roles. This pattern has also been observed in other regions of the country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], reflecting the accumulation of local knowledge and shared experience. In contrast, lower ICF values in some ailment categories may reflect less common diseases, complex or poorly defined symptoms, or variations in cultural beliefs and ecological conditions, leading to the use of multiple plant species and lower informant agreement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, fidelity level analysis identified species that are particularly valued within the community’s traditional healthcare system. Species with the highest FL values, such as \u003cem\u003eAstropanax abyssinicus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCaesalpinia decapetala, Carissa spinarum, Datura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePlectranthus ecklonii\u003c/em\u003e, demonstrate consistent effectiveness, accessibility, and cultural familiarity. These findings align with previous ethnobotanical research showing community consensus for plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing, and helminth infections [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. This pattern suggests the persistence of ethnomedicinal knowledge across generations. In contrast, species with lower FL values, such as \u003cem\u003eSalvia merjamie\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e, indicate more variable or generalized use among healers. Plants with broader therapeutic applications often show reduced FL because they are employed across multiple ailments rather than being dedicated to a single condition, reflecting a flexible and adaptive ethnomedicinal knowledge system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh relative citation frequencies indicate species that are widely recognized, commonly used, and deeply embedded in the cultural and medicinal traditions of the community. These plants often have long-standing reputations for effectiveness, encouraging repeated use across generations and reinforcing their importance in traditional healthcare systems. This pattern is consistent with other relevant studies in Ethiopia, which similarly reported that species with elevated RFC values are those most frequently consulted for diverse ailments and serve as key pillars of local healthcare practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Conversely, species with lower RFC values may indicate medicinal plants with more specialized, localized, or eroding uses, possibly due to the limited transmission of traditional knowledge or cultural shifts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. This ethnobotanical evidence underscores a dual imperative: to conserve widely used species that hold high cultural recognition and support local healthcare systems, and to document lesser-known medicinal plants that are at risk of disappearing owing to generational shifts, thereby preserving the full spectrum of ethnobotanical heritage for both human and animal health applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe direct matrix ranking revealed that \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e has the widest range of nonmedicinal uses in the study area. This finding is consistent with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], who also recognized \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e as a key multipurpose species valued for soil erosion control, goat feed, fencing, and firewood. The multipurpose value of these species may be attributed to their abundance, fast growth, and long-standing cultural familiarity, which facilitate their integration into daily household activities. These multifunctional roles contribute to local livelihoods and maintain ecosystem stability. However, extensive exploitation may compromise their availability and increase conservation risks, particularly for plants that rely on fuelwood, construction materials, and livestock feed. For example, species such as \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, which is widely used for soil erosion control and firewood, also play a key role in maintaining ecosystem stability. The diverse applications of these plants highlight the need for integrated conservation approaches, including sustainable harvesting, community awareness, and the active participation of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, to safeguard these species for future generations. Without such measures, overharvesting could lead to biodiversity loss and weaken local healthcare systems that depend on medicinal plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndigenous medicinal knowledge in the study area is transmitted primarily orally, mostly within families, with eldest sons often serving as the main custodians. The present findings correspond with earlier Ethiopian ethnobotanical reports [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], indicating that knowledge is transmitted mostly within families. There is a limited knowledge exchange among trusted neighbors and relatives, however, substantial information remains confidential, especially among traditional healers. This secrecy might be due to beliefs that disclosure diminishes medicinal efficacy or economic value, a trend that is consistent with reports from other studies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. The persistence of such confidential knowledge systems, coupled with increasing exposure to formal healthcare, education, religious shifts, and broader sociocultural modernization, appears to limit intergenerational knowledge transmission. Additionally, younger generations are reluctant to learn traditional medicinal practices, which could result in the loss of knowledge as elderly individuals age.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrated that key informants possess higher knowledge compared to general informants, which likely reflects their active and prolonged engagement with traditional medicinal practices and experiential learning. This highlights their role as critical custodians of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants, which can inform conservation, sustainable use, and knowledge preservation efforts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Higher knowledge scores among the elderly suggest that ethnomedicinal knowledge develops through long-term interaction with medicinal plants and practical experience. This pattern is consistent with other studies reporting that elderly individuals hold significantly more ethnobotanical knowledge than other age groups do [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The relatively high level of knowledge among younger adults may reflect their active involvement in daily household healthcare, agricultural, and foraging activities, as well as their exposure to ethnomedicinal practices through family and community interactions. However, periods of high external responsibility may limit engagement and reduce knowledge acquisition. The study also revealed that gender did not significantly influence knowledge, as indicated by comparable mean scores between males and females (8.23 vs. 7.97; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). This finding aligns with previous ethnobotanical studies, which report similar ethnobotanical knowledge levels across genders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting that men and women acquire medicinal plant knowledge through overlapping social roles and responsibilities, such as cultivation, collection, and household healthcare. In contrast, other studies have shown a significant difference in indigenous medicinal plant knowledge between men and women, where men possess more knowledge than women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the present study, medicinal plant knowledge appears to be shared across the community regardless of formal education, as indicated by similar mean scores between nonliterate and literate informants (8.01 vs. 8.57; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). This corresponds with [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], who also reported comparable knowledge levels among informants of different educational backgrounds. This could be attributed to the fact that medicinal plant knowledge is transmitted largely through informal, experiential, and socially embedded processes rather than through formal schooling. Individuals acquire this knowledge through daily interactions with family members, neighbors, and elders; participation in agricultural, grazing, and foraging activities; and engagement in cultural practices or rituals where medicinal plants are used. In addition, knowing how to identify, collect, and prepare medicinal plants often relies on observation, imitation, and repeated practice rather than written instructions, making formal education less influential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformants identified both human and environmental factors as threats to medicinal plants. Overgrazing emerged as the most severe threat, reflecting intense livestock pressure on wild medicinal plant populations; overharvesting was similarly ranked as a high-priority threat, driven by increasing demand for medicinal plants in local markets; household use; and the construction of shelters, fences, and animal enclosures. \u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMyrtus communis\u003c/em\u003e were noted as particularly vulnerable, indicating that the use of multiple functions increases exploitation pressure. This aligns with previous studies, which reported that overexploitation for multiple uses contributes to the depletion of medicinal plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Agricultural expansion has emerged as another significant threat. Informants linked this issue to the growing pressure on land, as cultivation increases to meet food demands, which is consistent with reports by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], who documented similar patterns of habitat loss due to agricultural development in various districts across Ethiopia. Climate variability poses additional long-term risks, emphasizing the need for integrated mitigation strategies. Low-ranking threats, including soil erosion, funding shortages, and low awareness, were perceived as indirect but compounding factors. Key informants emphasized that limited financial support restricts community-led conservation initiatives, and low awareness, particularly among youth and farmers, contributes to practices that endanger medicinal plants. These include the removal of medicinal species during land clearing and their misidentification as invasive or undesirable plants due to limited knowledge of their value. Fewer concerns, such as landslides, lodging, and plant diseases, have been noted but may become more serious under changing environmental conditions. These ecological pressures are compounded by threats to the continuity of indigenous knowledge. Weak intergenerational transmission, secrecy among traditional healers, low interest among youth, and modernization limit the continuity of ethnomedicinal knowledge. Similar trends have been observed in other Ethiopian communities, where younger generations show limited engagement with traditional medicinal practices, and elderly individuals often withhold knowledge to protect their value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Together, these factors suggest that erosion of indigenous knowledge arises from a combination of social, cultural, and generational dynamics rather than a single cause.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConservation practices for medicinal plant resources and their associated indigenous knowledge were generally limited in the study area, reflecting broader patterns observed across Ethiopia [23, 7, 65, 48]. One likely reason may be that most medicinal plants in Ethiopia are harvested from wild natural vegetation rather than being cultivated or managed systematically [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite these constraints, some traditional healers and local community members have made efforts to preserve these resources through practices such as sustainable collection methods, controlled harvesting, replanting, and patrolling key harvesting sites in the study area. These local initiatives, although often small-scale and informal, represent important steps toward the in situ conservation of valuable traditional medicinal plant species and the retention of associated indigenous knowledge, highlighting the potential for community-led conservation efforts to complement broader ecological and cultural protection measures.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis ethnobotanical study documented medicinal plants used for treating human ailments in Bekelecha Biftuu, Ifa Haqaa, and Tokuma Jaalalaa, along with the associated indigenous knowledge. Shrubs and herbs were the most commonly utilized growth forms, and leaves were the dominant plant parts used in remedy preparation. Indigenous medicinal knowledge in the study area is transmitted mainly orally, often within families, with the eldest sons typically serving as custodians. However, secrecy among traditional healers, modernization, and religious changes have contributed to a decline in knowledge transfer, especially among youth. It has been reported that there are no standardized dosage measurements, and remedies are usually given with additives such as butter and honey to improve their effectiveness and acceptability. The quantitative indices (ICF, FL, and RFC) demonstrated strong agreement among the informants regarding the importance of certain medicinal species, suggesting their central role in local healthcare systems. Direct matrix ranking revealed that the five species assessed for multipurpose uses also serve nonmedicinal functions, increasing pressure on these species. These threats are compounded by major threats such as overharvesting, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, and climate variability, whereas conservation efforts remain largely informal and limited. Statistical analyses revealed that age significantly influenced ethnomedicinal knowledge, with elderly individuals possessing greater expertise, whereas gender had no significant influence. The results of this study indicated that the sustainability of both plant resources and associated indigenous knowledge is at risk, underscoring the urgent need for documentation, implementation of conservation strategies, and promotion of intergenerational transmission. Integrating indigenous wisdom into formal education and healthcare systems can play a vital role in safeguarding this valuable biocultural heritage. Effective conservation requires coordinated action from local communities, government institutions, and development partners, and continued research and monitoring.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis study was conducted with the approval of the Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management Department, Haramaya University. Research in the study area was carried out after obtaining official permission from the Doba District Administrative Office. Participation of local informants in interviews and plant data collection was entirely voluntary, and informed consent was obtained. The information collected was used solely for academic purposes, including publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare that all other data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary information files..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThis research was supported by the African Center of Excellence for Climate-Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, Haramaya University\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA.T conducted the research, including data collection, analysis, and manuscript writing. Co-authors reviewed and provided guidance on the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors sincerely thank Tewodros Kabtamu for his assistance and support during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdela G, Sultan M, Indigenous, Knowledge (2018) Major Threats and Conservation Practices of Medicinal Plants by Local Community in Heban Arsi District, Oromia, South Eastern Ethiopia\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbebe H (2022) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by local people of Mojana Wadera Woreda, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. 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J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 20:28. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s13002-024-00666-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s13002-024-00666-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhou H, Zhang J, Kirbis BS, Mula Z, Zhang W, Kuang Y, Huang Q, Yin L (2023) Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Bulang people in Yunnan. China 19:38. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s13002-023-00609-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s13002-023-00609-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Haramaya University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Indigenous knowledge, Ethnomedicine, Myrtus communis, Hades Forest, Medicinal plants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8569382/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8569382/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal plants have long held historical significance and are recognized for their essential role in both traditional and modern healthcare systems. In Ethiopia, where access to formal medical services is limited, traditional medicinal practices remain crucial. This study documents medicinal plant species, their traditional uses, and associated indigenous knowledge in Hades and the surrounding communities of Doba district, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, to support conservation planning and sustainable use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected from 105 general informants selected via simple random sampling and 15 key informants selected via snowball sampling. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize demographic and plant-use data. In contrast, quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, informant consensus factor (ICF), relative frequency of citation (RFC), and fidelity level (FL), were employed to assess the cultural importance and consensus regarding medicinal plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study documented 49 medicinal plant species belonging to 31 families used to treat human ailments, with Asteraceae and Lamiaceae as the dominant families. Shrubs were the most common growth form, and leaves were the most frequently used plant part. Remedies were prepared mainly by crushing and pounding (59.1%) and were administered orally (70.6%). \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e were the top-ranked species for treating intestinal parasites. Informant consensus was highest for reproductive/urinary (ICF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.97), gastrointestinal (ICF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.96), and dermatological disorders (ICF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.96). Twenty-one species achieved complete fidelity (FL\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100%), and \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e had the highest relative frequency of citation (78.3%), indicating its prominence in local ethnomedicine. Ethnomedicinal knowledge was transmitted primarily orally and was significantly greater among key informants (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.47) than general informants (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.25; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and among elders compared with middle-aged participants (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045). No significant differences were observed by gender (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.758) or educational status (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.57). Overgrazing, overharvesting, and weak intergenerational knowledge transfer were identified as the major threats to both plant resources and traditional knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study highlights the vital role of medicinal plants in local healthcare in the study area and the cultural knowledge associated with their use. Conserving plant diversity and sustaining indigenous knowledge through community-based initiatives, public awareness, and sustainable harvesting practices are essential to ensure their continued availability and contribution to both biodiversity and local well-being.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Hades Forest, Doba Wereda, West Hararghe, Ethiopia, and Their Associated Indigenous Knowledge","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-13 10:29:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8569382/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"053616a9-add1-4b32-be47-7df92d63d95e","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-13T10:29:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-13 10:29:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8569382","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8569382","identity":"rs-8569382","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}