Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivity Screening of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS)

Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivity Screening of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivity Screening of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) Modiri D Setlhoka, Koketso Motlhanka, Bakang K Kgasudi, Eunicah Atamelang, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Natural resources provide vital support to communities, and indigenous plants remain particularly important, as they are widely used for food, medicine, and cultural practices. In the quest to integrate these resources into modern applications, exploring their phytochemical composition is essential for both conservation and utilization. This study compared the phytochemical profiles, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of Tylosema esculentum , Myrothamnus flabellifolius , and Ozoroa paniculosa using water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone extracts. LC-MS profiling revealed M. flabellifolius as the most chemically diverse, with major flavonoids including quercetin 3-O-glucuronide and quercitrin. Acetone extracts of M. flabellifolius exhibited the highest DPPH scavenging activity (57.13%) and strongest antibacterial effects against E. coli , S. typhimurium , and S. aureus . The latter extracts displayed particularly demonstrated dose-dependent antimicrobial activity, with inhibition zones reaching up to 20.1 mm for E. coli and 16.9 mm for S. typhimurium . Solvent type significantly influenced the phytochemical content and bioactivity of the extracts, with 50% acetone generally outperforming water and 80% methanol. Overall, the indigenous plants of Botswana demonstrated considerable potential as sources of bioactive compounds for use as natural antimicrobial agents in food packaging and preservation. In particular, Myrothamnus flabellifolius exhibited the most diverse phytochemical profile and the strongest antimicrobial properties. These findings highlight the plant’s potential for development into natural antimicrobial products, warranting further investigation and application-focused research. antimicrobial assay antioxidant Ozoroa paniculosa Myrothamnus flabellifolius Tylosema esculentum Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Plants have gained significant attention in recent years due to their bioactive compounds, which are produced as secondary metabolites through various biosynthetic pathways, including the shikimic acid, malonic acid, mevalonic acid, and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways (Anmol et al. 2024 ; Cheikhyoussef et al. 2015 ). These metabolites are frequently associated with beneficial properties, such as antioxidants and antimicrobial activities (Takó et al. 2020 ; Al-Khayri et al. 2022 ). Consequently, numerous studies aimed to quantify phytochemical constituents and assess their biological properties across a variety of plant species (Al-Khayri et al. 2022 ; Cushnie and Lamb 2005 ; Zhang et al. 2025 ). In Botswana, indigenous plants have also been subjected to scientific scrutiny, with research focusing on species such as Morama ( Tylosema esculentum ) (Kobue-lekalake et al. 2022 ; Omotayo and Aremu 2021 ), Myrothamnus flabellifolius , and Ozoroa paniculosa (Kwape et al. 2016 ; Motlhanka and Mathapa 2012 ), which continue to be explored for their potential health benefits. Morama ( Tylosema esculentum ), a leguminous plant predominantly found in Namibia, South Africa, and Botswana, has been traditionally consumed by indigenous communities, including the San and Bakgalagadi, who gather it from the wild (Gwamba et al. 2025 ). This plant is reported to contain a variety of phytochemicals, classified into phenolic acids, flavonoids, and phytoestrogens (Omotayo and Aremu 2021 ; Chingwaru et al. 2011 ). Recent studies have quantified the flavonoid content of Morama, revealing a concentration of 0.00023 mg catechin equivalents per gram (CE/g) (Kobue-lekalake et al. 2022 ). While Morama exhibits a lower flavonoid concentration compared to other local plants such as mogose ( Bauhinia petersiana ) and kgengwe ( Citrulus lanatus ( Thunb .) Mansf .), its extracts have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium diphtheriae , and Candida albicans (Chingwaru et al. 2011 ). Similarly, Ozoroa paniculosa has been recognized for its potential antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Traditional healers in the Tswapong region of Botswana utilize its roots to address various reproductive health issues, including swollen uterus conditions (Motlhanka et al. 2008 ). The therapeutic applications of this plant are often linked to its content anacardic acid, which is believed to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. Motlhanka 2008 reported that water extracts of O. paniculosa displayed 90% free radical scavenging activity, suggesting its potential as an active ingredient in health products. Myrothamnus flabellifolius has also been the subject of phytochemical studies. However, investigations into its antimicrobial and antioxidant activities are limited. Despite this, local communities have utilized extracts from this plant to treat respiratory ailments and skin infections (Chukwuma et al. 2019 ). The efficacy of these applications may be attributed to compounds such as galloylquinic acid, known for its wound-healing properties and inhibitory effects on HIV reverse transcriptase and DNA polymerase (Kamng'ona et al. 2011). Furthermore, other phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as gallic acid, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, have been identified as contributors to its biological activities, with tannin content measured at 3.6%, predominantly as proanthocyanidins (Kwape et al. 2016 ). Cheikhyoussef et al. 2015 reported that ethanol extracts of M. flabellifolius yielded a total phenolic content of 372.42 ± 0.21 mg gallic acid equivalents per gram (GAE/g), comparable to methanol and water extracts. This study is the first to use Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) to directly compare the phytochemical composition of Tylosema esculentum , Myrothamnus flabellifolius , and Ozoroa paniculosa from Botswana. Therefore, the present study aims to comprehensively compare the phytochemical profiles, antioxidants, and antimicrobial properties of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius , and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts obtained with water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone. The current paper reports findings on phytochemical profiles and the bioactivity of the three Botswana plants. This research seeks to enhance the understanding of the potential benefits these plants may offer and to promote their utilization in the food industry and modern medicine. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Experimental Design The study employed a completely randomized block design, investigating three different plant species extracted for bioactive compounds using three solvents, being distilled water, 80% Methanol and a 50:50 acetone/water mixture. 2.2 Collection of Plant Materials Fresh, whole Myrothamnus flabellifolius plants and Ozoroa paniculosa leaves were collected from Kanye village, Southern District, Botswana (24°59′17.02″S, 25°20′34.87″E) on 30 May 2024. Tylosema esculentum seeds were obtained from Ghanzi District (20°27′0″S, 24°52′60″E) at the end of the rainy season (March–May 2024). Plant materials were transported to the laboratory on the same day for processing. Botanical identification was performed by a botanist at the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and specimens were authenticated through comparison with reference collections at the National Herbarium and Gallery, Gaborone. 2.3 Preparation of Extracts Plant extracts were prepared following method by Kopjar et al. 2009 with modifications. One gram of each dried plant sample was extracted using 10 mL of the respective solvent (distilled water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone/water) at 60 °C for 30 min in a water bath, followed by static maceration at 4 °C for 12 h in the refrigerator. After extraction period, the mixture was centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 mins to obtain the aqueous extract, which was subsequently used for phytochemical evaluation. This method was employed to conserve heat liable metabolites in various plant parts (Okoduwa et al. 2016). 2.4 Phytochemical Analysis 2.4.1 Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC) The TPC was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method as described by Singleton and Rossi 1965. A 100 µL aliquot of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was mixed with 500 µL of each plant extract and incubated in the dark for 15 mins. Following this, 2500 µL of saturated sodium carbonate (10.6 g/100 mL) was added, and the mixture was incubated for an additional 30 mins. The absorbance was then measured at 760 nm using a spectrophotometer. A calibration curve was established using gallic acid, with concentrations of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg GAE/g. The phenolic content was calculated based on the dry weight of the extracted plant material and expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g). The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R² value of 0.9725 (Fig. 1) . 2.4.2 Determination of Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) The total flavonoid content was assessed through a colorimetric assay involving aluminum chloride, as described by Ordonez et al. 2005. Each extract (1 mL) was combined with 1 mL of methanol, 0.5 mL of 1.2% aluminum chloride, 0.5 mL of 0.12 M potassium acetate, and 2.8 mL of distilled water. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes, after which the absorbance was measured at 415 nm. Results were expressed as mg of quercetin equivalents (QE) per gram of dry weight (mg QE /g). A calibration curve was established using quercetin standards with concentrations of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 mg QE /g. The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R² value of 0.9856 (Fig. 2). 2.4.4 Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC) (UPLC-HRMS) Analysis 2.4.4.1 Sample preparation for Metabolite Profiling Approximately 0.25 g of sample was weighed into a 15 ml falcon tube and extracted with 10 mL 50% methanol/1% formic acid in water with vortex mixing and sonication. After centrifugation, the supernatants were diluted 5x into 50% methanol/0.1% formic acid and transferred to glass vials for analysis. 2.4.4.2 UPLC-HRMS Instrumentation and Chromatographic Conditions Metabolite profiling was conducted using a Waters Acquity Ultra-performance Performance Liquid chromatography Chromatography (UPLC) system coupled to a Cyclic Quadrupole time-of-flight (qTOF) mass spectrometer (Waters, Milford, MA, USA). The column eluate was first passed through a Photodiode Array (PDA) detector before introduction into the mass spectrometer, allowing for the simultaneous collection of UV and MS data. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Waters HSS T3 column (2.1 × 150 mm, 1.7 µm particle size, a reversed phase C-18) maintained at 60 °C. The mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water (solvent A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (solvent B). The following linear gradient was applied at a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min: 0-1 min, 0% B; 1-12 min, 0-28% B; 12-12.83 min, 28-40% B; 12.83-14.33 min, 40-100% B; followed by a 2-minute re-equilibration at 0% B. The injection volume was 0.5 µL. The mass spectrometer was operated in electrospray ionization (ESI) negative mode. The source conditions were as follows: desolvation temperature at 275 °C, desolvation gas flow at 650 L/h, and a cone voltage of 15 V. Data were acquired in high-resolution mode from *m/z* 100 to 1500. For metabolite identification, data-independent acquisition (MSE mode) was employed, collecting alternating low-collision-energy (4 V) and high-collision-energy (ramped from 40–100 V) scans to obtain both precursor and fragmentation data. Leucine enkephalin was used as the lock mass for real-time mass correction, and the instrument was calibrated with sodium formate prior to analysis. 2.4.4.3 Data Processing and Metabolite Identification After data compression, centroiding, and lock mass correction, the data were processed using MS-DIAL and MS-FINDER software (RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science) for peak deconvolution, alignment and metabolite identification (Tsugawa et al. 2015; Lai et al. 2018). Compounds were quantified in a relative manner against a calibration curve established using a range of ellagic acid standards from 0.2 to 5 mg/L. 2.5 Antioxidant Activity 2.5.1 Determination of Radical Scavenging Activity (RSA) The RSA was evaluated using the DPPH method according to Brand-Williams et al. 1995. A 100 µL solution of DPPH was combined with 2.9 mL of ethanol. Subsequently, 500 µL of each plant extract was added, and the mixture was incubated in the dark at room temperature for 20 mins. Absorbance was measured at 517 nm, and DPPH scavenging activity was calculated using the formula: Where: A0 = Absorbance of the control solution (without the sample) A1 = Absorbance of the sample solution (with the sample) 2.5.2 Ferric Reducing/Antioxidant Power (FRAP) The FRAP assay was performed based on the method outlined by Bakour et al. 2019 . Freshly prepared FRAP reagent (3 mL) was warmed to 37 °C for 4 min., mixed with 40 µL of the plant extract and the absorbance was measured at 734 nm. The mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 20 minutes. A calibration curve was created using known concentrations of Fe²⁺, with concentrations of 0, 200, 400, 600, and 800 µM. Results were expressed as µM Fe²⁺. The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R² value of 0.9982 (Fig. 3). 2.6 Antimicrobial Activity Antibacterial activity was assessed using the disc diffusion method by Black & Black 2018 with slight modifications. After autoclaving Mueller Hinton agar at 121 °C for 15 mins, the agar was cooled and poured into petri dishes. Selected isolates of S. typhimurium , E. coli , and S. aureus were swabbed over the entire surface to inoculate the agar. Sterile Whatman No. 3 filter paper discs (4 mm diameter) were dipped in 20 µL of each plant extract and dried at room temperature for 1 hr. The discs were then placed on the surface of the inoculated agar. Control discs were prepared by saturating them in 20 µL of each solvent used for extraction, that is acetone, methanol and water for comparison. Gentamicin (CN10) was used as a positive control. The plates were refrigerated at 8 °C for 1 hr to allow diffusion of the extracts before incubation at 37 °C for 24 hrs. After incubation, the inhibition zones were measured in millimeters (mm) 2.7 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) The MIC of the selected plant extracts was assessed using the broth dilution method Abdulhamid et al. (2018). Various concentrations (10-50 mg/mL) of the extracts, known to have antimicrobial properties against the test bacteria, were prepared in test tubes containing Mueller Hinton Broth (MHB). Each tube was inoculated with the bacteria, and the samples were incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The MIC was determined by identifying the lowest concentration of the extract that exhibited no turbidity, indicating bacterial growth inhibition 2.8 Data Analysis Data obtained from this study were analyzed using ANOVA with statistical software SPSS. Results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Mean separation was performed using the least significant difference test (LSD), with significance determined at p < 0.05. 3. Results The results presented in this study include the phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity, are detailed in Tables 1, 2 as well as antimicrobial activity, outlined in Table 3. Additionally, Figures 1, 2 and 3, illustrate the relevant findings. The results are summarized as follows: 3.1 Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity Table 1 Total flavonoids, phenols, FRAP, and DPPH percentages of T. esculentum , M. flabellifolius, and O. paniculosa extracts. Extract Flavonoids ( mg QE/g ) Phenols ( mg GAE/g ) FRAP (µM) DPPH (%) MOR ac 19.91 ± 0.12 a 109.85 ± 0.30 c 2949.33 ± 12.45 c 39.79 ± 0.13 b MOR meth 24.18 ± 0.09 b 212.92 ± 0.20 a 3112.67 ± 10.77 b 21.34 ± 0.02 c MOR H2O 16.78 ± 0.15 d 150.92 ± 0.25 b 2026.00 ± 11.10 e N/A MRY ac 27.74 ± 0.20 f 137.05 ± 0.30 d 3296.00 ± 15.00 a 57.13 ± 0.14 a MRY meth 28.08 ± 0.10 f 207.99 ± 0.25 a 3259.33 ± 12.95 a 41.30 ± 0.05 b MRY H2O 27.49 ± 0.15 e 106.92 ± 0.20 c 2337.67 ± 10.30 d N/A ORZ ac 25.28 ± 0.12 e 194.12 ± 0.25 b 2766.00 ± 11.50 c 39.67 ± 0.11 b ORZ meth 25.80 ± 0.10 e 188.32 ± 0.30 b 1802.67 ± 10.00 f 39.40 ± 0.10 b ORZ H2O 17.09 ± 0.15 d 175.99 ± 0.20 b 1639.33 ± 11.50 g N/A Values with different superscripts within a column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Where: MOR ac - Tylosema esculentum extracted with 50% acetone; MOR meth - Tylosema esculentum extracted with 80% methanol; MOR H2O - Tylosema esculentum extracted with water; MRY ac – Myrothamnus flabellifolius 50 % acetone; MRY meth – Myrothamnus flabellifolius extracted with 80 % methanol; MRY H2O – Myrothamnus flabellifolius extracted with water; ORZ ac - Ozoroa. paniculosa extracted with 50% acetone; ORZ meth - Ozoroa. paniculosa extracted with 80% methanol; ORZ H2O - Ozoroa. paniculosa extracted with water. N/A means not analysed Table 2 Major phytochemical compounds detected using LC-MS from Botswana indigenous plants of T. esculentum, M. flabellifolius, and O. paniculosa . Feature ID Tentative Identification Avg Mz Avg Rt (min) Molecular Formula Plant Source (Relative Distribution %) 616 3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-5-(1-hydroxyethyl)-1,2-oxazole-4-carboxylic acid 311.123 4.867 C 11 H 11 NO 4 MOR (99.7%) 822 Theogallin 463.087 8.927 C 14 H 16 O 10 MRY (99.1%) 743 Lithospermoside 330.117 2.838 C 14 H 19 NO 8 MOR (99.9%) 743 Lithospermoside 330.117 4.535 C 14 H 19 NO 8 MOR (100%) 553 Dehydroabietic acid 301.216 13.96 C 20 H2 8 O 2 MRY (100%) 1453 6-{[5,7-dihydroxy-4-oxo-2-(3,4,5-trihydroxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-3-yl] oxy}-3,4,5-trihydroxyoxane-2-carboxylic acid 495.077 7.657 C 21 H 18 O 14 ORZ (95.2%) 1384 Quercetin 3-O-glucuronide 479.081 8.333 C 21 H 18 O 13 MRY (71.4%) 1223 Quercitrin 449.108 6.476 C 21 H 20 O 11 MRY (100%) 1943 Balanophotannin A;(+) Balanophotannin A 769.089 7.597 C 34 H 24 O 21 MRY (99.9%) 1740 Quercetin 3-(2-galloylglucoside) 617.113 8.061 C28H24O16 MRY (100%) 500 CNP0442054 (Aralkylamines) 289.140 11.98 C 13 H 16 N 6 O 2 MRY (100%) 499 CNP0442054 (Aralkylamines) 289.140 12.09 C 13 H 16 N 6 O 2 MRY (100%) 103 3,4-Methylenedioxybenzaldehyde 168.064 2.838 C 8 H 6 O 3 MOR (100%) 26 4-ethenylbenzene-1,2-diol 137.059 9.665 C 8 H 8 O 2 ORZ (99.9%) 665 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,6,7-tetrahydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one 319.045 7.740 C 15 H 10 O 8 ORZ (96.5%) 1826 Fucoxanthin 659.429 13.96 C 42 H 58 O 6 MRY (100%) 1371 Colensane and clerodane diterpenoids 475.266 12.49 C 29 H 42 O 3 MRY (100%) 1106 Colupox b 417.264 12.49 C 25 H 36 O 5 MRY (99.9%) 908 8-Hydroxy-3,4,9,10-tetramethoxypterocarpan 361.127 9.665 C 19 H 20 O 7 ORZ (100%) 876 2-methyl-1-(4-methylphenyl)-5-oxo-4-(thiophen-2-ylmethylidene)-3-pyrrolecarboxylic acid ethyl ester 354.116 6.739 C 20 H 19 NO 3 S MOR (100%) 657 Phytuberin 317.171 13.19 C 17 H 26 O 4 MRY (100%) 699 Tazarotenic acid 324.105 6.569 C 19 H 17 NO 2 S MOR (100%) 375 Nopalinic acid 263.125 11.18 C 10 H 18 N 2 O 6 MRY (100%) 104 3-Methoxyanthranilate 168.065 4.535 C 8 H 8 NO 3 - MOR (100%) 1633 Kaempferitrin 579.169 9.016 C 27 H 30 O 14 ORZ (99.9%) 154 5-Hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid 192.064 6.739 C 10 H 9 NO 3 MOR (100%) 822 Theogallin 345.082 4.501 C 14 H 16 O 10 MOR (97.4%) 1824 Sorocein B 659.226 2.838 C 40 H 34 O 9 MOR (100%) Results in Table 2 highlight major compounds tentatively identified from three indigenous plants of Botswana ( M. flabellifolius, O. paniculosa and T. esculentum ) through LC-MS technique . The identified compounds are presented with their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), retention time (RT), molecular formula and their plant source (relative distribution %). Notably data confirms M. flabellifolius (MRY) as the most diverse plant, with flavonoids identified as one of major classes detected, for instance quercetin 3-O-glucuronide (ID 1384) a nd quercitrin (ID 1223), were predominantly dectected from M. flabellifolius . Likewise, in O. paniculosa (ORZ) , kaempferitrin (ID 1633) was identified as major flavonoid. Other flavonoid compounds identified in this species include tetrahydroxy-chromen-one derivative (m/z 319.045) and an 8-Hydroxypterocarpan (m/z 361.127). In contrast, the phytochemical profile of T. esculentum (MOR) was less diverse and dominated by lithospermoside (m/z 330.117, IDs 743 & 744). Hydrolyzable tannins like theogallin were detected in both M. flabellifolius and T. esculentum . The UPLC-MS chromatographic profiles in Figure 4 demonstrate that Myrothamnus flabellifolius is the most phytochemically diverse plant, with multiple distinct peaks that correspond to a broad variety of secondary metabolites. Additionally, of all the plant material analyzed, the seed coat of the morama bean ( Tylosema esculentum ) bears the least diverse phytochemicals. 3.2 Antimicrobial Activity Fig 5 highlights M. flabellifolius extracts as the most effective against three bacterial species tested. For instance, The disc diffusion assay demonstrates that M. flabellifolius 50 % acetone extracts resulted in mean inhibition zone of 18.8 mm against S. aureus whereas the same solvent for T. esculentum extracts yielded inhibition zone of 10.8 mm against S. aureus . The effect of concentration was dose-dependent and clearly observable across all active extracts (Figure 6). For the most potent concentration (200 mg/mL) of each extract against S. typhimurium , S. aureus and E. coli , mean inhibition zones (mm) resulted in higher inbition zones. Compared to all other plant extract groups, gentamicin (0.01 mg/mL), which was used as a positive control, was significantly different (p<0.05). Table 3 Inhibition levels of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus on Myrothamnus flabellifolius , Tylosema esculentum and Ozoroa paniculosa plants extracts. Treatment Concentration (mg/mL) Microorganism Inhibition zone Statistical grouping CN10 Gentamicin 0.01 Escherichia coli 22.23 ± 0.40 A CN10 Gentamicin 0.01 Staphylococcus aureus 22.87 ± 0.53 A CN10 Gentamicin 0.01 Salmonella typhimurium 22.83 ± 0.43 A Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 200 Escherichia coli 19.97 ± 0.09 B Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 17.55 ± 0.12 C Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 17.17 ± 0.20 C Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 14.10 ± 0.10 D Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 14.48 ± 0.30 D Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 100 Escherichia coli 12.30 ± 0.23 E Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 200 Escherichia coli 12.60 ± 0.20 E Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 11.00 ± 0.35 F Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 10.57 ± 0.25 F Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 50 Staphylococcus aureus 11.00 ± 1.16 F Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 9.82 ± 0.10 G Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 9.47 ± 0.09 G Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 50 Salmonella typhimurium 10.57 ± 0.13 FG Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 50 Escherichia coli 10.23 ± 0.21 G Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 12.67 ± 0.18 D/E Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 10.80 ± 0.12 F Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 100 Escherichia coli 9.33 ± 0.33 G Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 25 Staphylococcus aureus 9.53 ± 0.76 G Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 10.37 ± 0.29 FG Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 200 Escherichia coli 10.37 ± 0.17 G Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 200 Escherichia coli 11.70 ± 0.06 F Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 9.87 ± 0.07 G Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 50 Staphylococcus aureus 7.60 ± 0.27 H Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 50 Escherichia coli 8.32 ± 0.15 H Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 50 Salmonella typhimurium 7.57 ± 0.29 H Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 11.23 ± 0.12 F Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 200 Escherichia coli 10.20 ± 0.23 G Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 10.07 ± 0.17 G Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 25 Salmonella typhimurium 8.90 ± 0.82 G/H Myrothamnus (50% Acetone) 25 Escherichia coli 9.67 ± 0.67 G Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 12.22 ± 0.39 D/E Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 8.67 ± 0.17 G/H Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 100 Escherichia coli 8.10 ± 0.27 H Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 10.77 ± 0.15 F Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 7.60 ± 0.06 H Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 100 Escherichia coli 7.47 ± 0.25 H Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 100 Escherichia coli 10.30 ± 0.24 FG Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 8.89 ± 0.06 GH Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 7.90 ± 0.06 H Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 200 Escherichia coli 9.00 ± 0.58 GH Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 200 Salmonella typhimurium 7.93 ± 0.67 H Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 200 Staphylococcus aureus 8.00 ± 0.00 H Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 50 Staphylococcus aureus 9.47 ± 0.09 G Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 50 Escherichia coli 9.57 ± 0.26 G Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 50 Salmonella typhimurium 6.27 ± 0.27 I Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 50 Staphylococcus aureus 8.30 ± 0.18 H Ozoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone) 50 Escherichia coli 7.27 ± 0.27 HI Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 50 Staphylococcus aureus 8.82 ± 0.10 GH Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 50 Salmonella typhimurium 6.40 ± 0.06 I Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 50 Escherichia coli 6.53 ± 0.22 I Myrothamnus (80% Methanol) 25 Staphylococcus aureus 6.70 ± 0.15 I Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 100 Staphylococcus aureus 6.93 ± 0.54 I Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 100 Salmonella typhimurium 6.33 ± 0.33 I Ozoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol) 100 Escherichia coli 6.80 ± 0.49 I Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 25 Staphylococcus aureus 7.73 ± 0.15 HI Tylosema esculentum (50% Acetone) 25 Escherichia coli 6.17 ± 0.17 I Tylosema esculentum (80% Methanol) 25 Staphylococcus aureus 7.17 ± 0.17 HI Different subscript letter means significantly different at p<0.05 4. Discussion The UPLC-MS metabolite profiling, while from a separate extraction, provides fundamental chemical rationale for the observed bioactivities. In this study, superior antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of M. flabellifolius extracts could be attributed to their rich and diverse phytochemical profile. The UPLC-MS analysis (Table 2 and Fig. 4 ) revealed that M. flabellifolius contained the most diverse group of bioactive compounds, including known antimicrobial flavonoids like quercetin 3-O-glucuronide and quercitrin, as well as terpenoids such as dehydroabietic acid (Kumar et al. 2023 ; Cushnie and Lamb 2005 ; Sinha et al. 2022 ). In a study conducted by Wang et al. 2018 quercitin at MICs 50X and 10X resulted in structural abnormalities such as cell lysis and uneven endochylema density leading to cell death in E. coli and S. aureus , respectively. Similarly, in this study other identified metabolites include colensane/clerodane diterpenoids (m/z 475.266), and phytuberin (m/z 317.171). The presence of these compounds is known for their antimicrobial and antifungal activities (Nguyen et al. 2021 ; Murthy et al. 2008), further supporting MRY extracts as an ideal antimicrobial agent. Evidently, this phytochemical profile corresponded to higher total flavonoids and phenolics from the extracts (Table 1 ). For instance, the highest flavonoid content was observed in M. flabellifolius extracted with 80% methanol (28.08 ± 0.10 mg QE/g), closely followed by M. flabellifolius 50% acetone extracts (27.74 ± 0.20 mg QE/g). (Table 1 ). Moreover, the same extracts showed potent antioxidant capacity (FRAP: 3296.00 µM; DPPH: 57.13%). The coexistence of substances with strong antioxidant activity and direct antimicrobial qualities points to the possibility of multi-target bioactivity which possibly cause disruption of microbial membranes and provide oxidative stress mitigation (Cushnie and Lamb 2005 lçin 2012; Motlhanka 2008 ; Sinha et al. 2022 ; Wu et al. 2024 ), leading to significant inhibition zones up to 19.97 mm for E. coli , 17.7 ± 0.4 mm for S. typhimurium , while 17.55 ± 0.3 mm was observed for S. aureus (Table 2 , Fig. 5 , Fig. 6 ). In addition, MIC of 25 mg/mL for M. flabellifolius (Acetone/Water 50%) extract against S. typhimurium , E. coli and S. aureus was observed (Fig. 7 ). Meanwhile, 80% methanol/water extracts of Myrothamnus also displayed relatively good antimicrobial activity although less than those of 50% acetone for the same plant (Fig. 7 ). On the other hand, the antimicrobial activity of O. paniculosa and Morama extracts was moderate, with the acetone/water extracts outperforming the methanol/water extracts. Moreover, in all the organisms tested, E. coli consistently showed the highest MIC values across all extracts, indicating greater resistance. This phenomenon is well documented, as outer membranes in gram negative bacteria like E. coli limits the penetration of many antimicrobial compounds, making them less susceptible to plant extracts (Dzotam and Kuete 2017 ; Fankam et al. 2011 ). Notably, the antimicrobial activity (Table 3 ) seems to improve with an increase in concentration from 25mg/mL to 200mg/mL across the plant extracts and bacteria. This potency, while less than the positive control gentamicin (MIC 0.01 mg/mL), which served as a benchmark for strong activity, suggests a robust, dose-dependent response antimicrobial effect. The effect of concentration is consistent with findings of previous studies, that demonstrated that many plant extracts exhibit enhanced antimicrobial activity with increasing concentration (Murthy et al. 2005 ; Nazzaro et al. 2013 ; Omotayo and Aremu, 2021 ). The positive control, CN10 Gentamicin, demonstrated the highest activity, with inhibition zones ranging from 22.0 mm to 22.8 mm for all tested pathogens, confirming its effectiveness as an antibiotic agent. On the other hand, Myrothamnus (80% methanol/water) and Morama (50% acetone/water) have higher MIC values, which suggests that their chemical components are less effective or that the extraction process influences the availability of the compound (Plaskova and Mlcek, 2023 ). Furthermore, these findings correlate with results by Matotoka and Masoko 2024 who reported that M. flabellifolius Welw . leaves possessed antibacterial properties with minimum inhibitory concentration greater 630 µg/mL for different bacterial strains tested. In contrast, the limited efficacy of T. esculentum (Morama) seed coat and O. paniculosa leaf extracts may be due to combination of less diverse phytochemical profile and extraction effiency. This is evidenced by their low antioxidant activity, for instance, O. paniculosa water extract had mean FRAP of 1639.33 µM (Table 1 ), and consistently weak antimicrobial performance, even at the highest concentration of 200 mg/mL (Fig. 6 ). However, while less diverse to M. flabellifolius extracts, O. paniculosa UPLC-HRMS results showed better phytochemical profile than T. esculentum extracts. For example, in Table 2 powerful bioactives such as 4-ethenylbenzene-1,2-diol, myricetin (2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,6,7-tetrahydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one) and kaempferitrin was tentatively identified in O. paniculosa . Myricetin has been shown to have strong antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 by blocking its primary protease (M pro inhibitors) and lowering pulmonary inflammation (Xiao et al. 2021 ), suggesting that its presence in O. paniculosa may have pharmacological significance. Notably, results in Table 1 demonstrates potency of Ozoroa paniculosa : For instance, T. esculentum extracted using 50% acetone recorded lower total phenolic content (109.85 ± 0.30 mg GAE/g) as compared to O paniculosa which recorded 194.12 ± 0.25 mg GAE/g. This support results in Table 3 reporting higher inhibitions zones as compared to T. esculentum seed coat extracts in which less metabolites were identified. T. esculentum extracts generally displayed limited microbial activity, particularly at lower concentrations, where no inhibition was observed in both 50% acetone and 80% methanol extracts at 25 mg/mL (Fig. 6 ). The best performance at 200 mg/ml yielded inhibition zones of 11.7 ± 0.06mm and 11.23 ± 0.12 mm against E. coli and S. aureus , respectively (Table 3 , Fig. 6 ). In contrast, O. paniculosa recorded mean inhibition zone of 10.37 ± 0.17 mm at 200 mg/mL for the same organisms using 50% acetone (Table 3 ), indicating only modest antimicrobial potential, possibly attributed to its lower concentrations of phytochemicals extracted through lower temperature extraction technique in this study. Critically, the lower temperature and cold extraction technique employed in this study, while gentle, has inherently lower extraction efficiency. This method likely failed to liberate a sufficient concentration of the antimicrobial constituents, particularly the less soluble compounds, from these already phytochemically sparse materials (Okoduwa et al. 2016 ). The limited activity of these extracts reinforces the idea that phytochemical richness and diversity are key drivers of potent antimicrobial action. The UPLC-HRMS profile of T. esculentum was dominated almost exclusively by lithospermoside (Table 2 , Fig. 4 ), indicating a lack of the synergistic compound diversity necessary for potent, broad-spectrum activity. The significant variation in bioactivity between extracts underscores the critical importance of solvent selection. Across all plants, the 50% acetone/water solvent consistently yielded more active extracts than 80% methanol/water. For example, the DPPH results indicated that M. flabellifolius extracted with 50% acetone extracts provided more effective radical scavenging capabilities, exemplified by a DPPH percentage of 57.13 compared to 41.30 for M. flabellifolius extracted with 80% methanol and 39.40% for O. paniculosa extracted with 80% methanol, respectively (Table 1 ). This antioxidant capacity could synergistically enhance the antimicrobial activity of the extracts, as oxidative stress is a critical factor influencing microbial survival and resistance (Motlhanka, 2008 ). Acetone/water is an effectively balanced solvent, capable of extracting a wider spectrum of medium polarity to polar compounds, including many antimicrobial flavonoids and phenolics (Khan et al. 2022 ; Bakour et al. 2019 ). The notably reduced efficacy of the 80% methanol extracts, particularly for O. paniculosa where it resulted in no observable activity, suggests it was less effective at solubilizing the specific active compounds, potentially missing key hydrophilic metabolites (Kumar et al. 2023 ; Nguyen et al. 2021 ). This confirms that solvent choice is not merely about yield but fundamentally shapes the bioactive profile of the final extract. Thus, the current study demonstrated that phytochemical richness, which is influenced by the extraction parameters as well as the intrinsic plant source, determines the strong antimicrobial activity of plant extracts. One promising option for the development of a natural antimicrobial agent is M. flabellifolius . To fully utilise its bioactive potential for use in natural medicine and food preservation, future research should concentrate on refining the extraction procedure, possibly using a technique like microwave-assisted extraction with 50% acetone. 5. Conclusion This work evaluated the phytochemical profiles, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of Tylosema esculentum , Myrothamnus flabellifolius , and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts. The findings demonstrate substantial bioactivity, with Myrothamnus flabellifolius exhibiting the highest phytochemical diversity and strongest antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. The significant variations in phytochemical content based on extraction methods highlight the importance of optimizing these protocols to maximize the yield of bioactive compounds. Further research is essential to elucidate the specific mechanisms of action, bioavailability, and potential applications of these extracts in food preservation and therapeutic formulations. Notably, Myrothamnus flabellifolius was identified as the most effective antimicrobial agent due to its rich phytochemicals content, indicating its potential as an active ingredient in food packaging and other food preservation strategies, as well as in the use of natural medicine. Overall, the findings of this study provide a compelling basis for the continued exploration of these extracts, emphasizing their valuable contributions to food safety and health applications. By optimizing extraction methods and investigating further applications, it will be possible unlock the full potential of these bioactive compounds. Declarations CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors declare no conflicts of interest in this manuscript. ETHICAL APPROVAL Not applicable Author Contribution M.D.S : Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing – original draft.K.M : Investigation, data curation, writing – review & editing.B.K.K : Investigation, Validation, writing – review & editing.E.A : Microbiological analysis, validation, visualization.G.M. : Formal analysis support, writing – review & editing.G.B : Critical revision of the manuscript, formal analysis support.M.H.D.M : Methodology guidance, writing – review & editing.M.G.B : Microbiolgical analysis, Visualization, writing – review & editing.F.T.T : Writing – review & editing.K.K.N : Validation, writing – review & editing. Acknowledgement The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Kefilwe Mmofhe for invaluable assistance in the acquisition and transportation of the plant samples. We also extend our appreciation to the Department of Food Science and Technology, BUAN for their support in providing the extraction reagents and bioactivity assays. The guidance and constructive feedback provided by colleagues and mentors throughout this study are also gratefully acknowledged. Data Availability All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article References Abdulhamid A, Dabai YU, Ismail MA (2018) Preliminary phytochemical screening and antibacterial properties of crude leaves extract and fractions of Acacia nilotica (Linn.). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 7:8–18. https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20185-11187 Al-Khayri JM, Sahana GR, Nagella P, Joseph BV, Alessa FM, Al-Mssallem MQ (2022) Flavonoids as potential anti-inflammatory molecules: a review. Molecules 27:2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092901 Anmol, Aggarwal G, Sharma M, Singh R, Shivani, Sharma U (2024) Plant-based natural product chemistry: an overview of the multistep journey involved in scientific validation of traditional knowledge. In: Rahman A-U (ed) Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. Elsevier, pp 327–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15589-5.00010-4 Aziman N, Jawaid M, Mutalib NAA, Yusof NL, Nadrah AH, Nazatul UK, Fraqueza R (2021) Antimicrobial potential of plastic films incorporated with sage extract on chicken meat. Foods 10:2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112812 Bakour M, Campos MG, Imtara H, Lyoussi B (2019) Antioxidant content and identification of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the pollen of fourteen plants using HPLC-DAD. Journal of Apicultural Research 59:35–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2019.1675336 Bakkali F, Averbeck S, Averbeck D, Idaomar M (2008) Biological effects of essential oils—a review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 46:446–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.106 Black JG, Black LJ (2018) Microbiology: principles and explorations, 10th edn. John Wiley & Sons Brand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berse C (1995) Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT–Food Science and Technology 28:25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5 Cheikhyoussef A, Summers RW, Kahaka G (2015) Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemical compounds in Namibian Myrothamnus flabellifolius . International Science and Technology Journal of Namibia 9:690–694 Chingwaru W, Duodu KG, van Zyl Y, Schoeman CJ, Majinda RR, Yeboah S et al (2011) Antibacterial and anticandidal activity of Tylosema esculentum (marama) extracts. South African Journal of Science 107:366. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v107i3/4.366 Chukwuma CI, Matsabisa MG, Rautenbach F, Rademan S, Oyedemi SO, Chaudhary SK, Javu M (2019) Evaluation of the nutritional composition of Myrothamnus flabellifolius herbal tea and its protective effect against oxidative hepatic cell injury. Journal of Food Biochemistry 43:e13026. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13026 Cushnie TPT, Lamb AJ (2005) Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 26:343–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002 Dzotam JK, Kuete V (2017) Antibacterial and antibiotic-modifying activity of methanol extracts from six Cameroonian food plants against multidrug-resistant enteric bacteria. BioMed Research International 2017:1583510. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1583510 Fankam AG, Kuete V, Voukeng IK, Kuiate JR, Pagès J-M (2011) Antibacterial activities of selected Cameroonian spices and their synergistic effects with antibiotics. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11:104. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-104 Gülçin İ (2012) Antioxidant activity of food constituents: an overview. Archives of Toxicology 86:345–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-011-0774-2 Gwamba J, Imathiu S, Kinyuru J, Onyango A, Motaung MV (2025) Distribution, traditional utilization, processing, and health benefits of morama bean. Journal of Ethnic Foods 12:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-024-00264-0 Kamng’ona A, Moore JP, Lindsey G, Brandt W (2011) Inhibition of HIV-1 and M-MLV reverse transcriptases by a major polyphenol from Myrothamnus flabellifolius . Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry 26:843–853. https://doi.org/10.3109/14756366.2011.566220 Khan M, Khan M, Al-Hamoud K, Adil SF, Shaik MR, Alkhathlan HZ (2022) Comprehensive phytochemical analysis of Artemisia judaica . Life 12:1885. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12111885 Kobue-Lekalake R, Matenanga O, Sekwati-Monang B, Tibe O, Bultosa G, Seifu E, Haki GD (2022) Indigenous and underutilized oil seeds of Botswana. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 13:4093. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.13(10) Kopjar M, Piližota V, Tiban N, Šubarić D, Babić J, Ačkar Đ, Sajdl M (2009) Strawberry jams: influence of different pectin on color and textural properties. Czech Journal of Food Sciences 27:20–28. https://doi.org/10.17221/95/2008-CJFS Kumar A, Nirmal P, Kumar M, Jose A, Tomer V, Oz E, Oz F (2023) Major phytochemicals: health benefits and extraction methods. Molecules 28:887. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020887 Kwape TE, Majinda RRT, Chaturvedi P (2016) Antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of Myrothamnus flabellifolius . Cogent Biology 2:1275403. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312025.2016.1275403 Lai Z, Tsugawa H, Wohlgemuth G, Mehta S, Mueller M, Zheng Y, Fiehn O (2018) Identifying metabolites by integrating metabolome databases. Nature Methods 15:53–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.4512 Matotoka MM, Masoko P (2024) Evaluation of antioxidant, cytotoxicity, antibacterial, anti-motility, and anti-biofilm effects of Myrothamnus flabellifolius . Plants 13:847. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13060847 Motlhanka DMT (2008) Free radical scavenging activity of selected medicinal plants of eastern Botswana. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 11:805–808. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2008.805.808 Motlhanka DMT, Mathapa G (2012) Antioxidant activities of crude extracts used by diabetic patients. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 6:5460–5463. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR10.005 Motlhanka DMT, Motlhanka P, Selebatso T (2008) Edible indigenous wild fruit plants of eastern Botswana. International Journal of Poultry Science 7:457–460 Murthy MM, Subramanyam M, Bindu MH, Annapurna J (2005) Antimicrobial activity of clerodane diterpenoids. Fitoterapia 76:336–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.02.005 Nguyen MV, Han JW, Dang QL, Ryu SM, Lee D, Kim H, Choi GJ (2021) Clerodane diterpenoids showing antifungal activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 69:8431–8441. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c02200 Nazzaro F, Fratianni F, De Martino L, Coppola R, De Feo V (2013) Effect of essential oils on pathogenic bacteria. Pharmaceutics 6:1451–1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph6121451 Okoduwa SIR, Umar IA, James DB, Inuwa HM, Habila JD (2016) Evaluation of extraction protocols for anti-diabetic phytochemicals. World Journal of Diabetes 7:605–614. https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v7.i20.605 Omotayo AO, Aremu AO (2021) Tylosema esculentum : food, nutrition, and sustainability. Food & Function 12:2389–2403. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0FO01937B Ordoñez AAL, Gomez JD, Vattuone MA, Isla MI (2006) Antioxidant activities of Sechium edule extracts. Food Chemistry 97:452–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.024 Plaskova A, Mlcek J (2023) Water or ethanol–water plant extracts rich in bioactives for food. Frontiers in Nutrition 10:1118761. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1118761 Singleton VL, Rossi JA (1965) Colorimetry of total phenolics. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 16:144–158 Sinha D, Mukherjee S, Chowdhury S (2022) Methods of extraction of phytochemicals. In: Singh A (ed) Isolation, Characterization, and Therapeutic Applications of Natural Bioactive Compounds. IGI Global, pp 250–279. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7337-5.ch010 Takó M, Kerekes EB, Zambrano C, Kotogán A, Papp T, Krisch J, Vágvölgyi C (2020) Plant phenolics and phenolic-enriched extracts as antimicrobial agents against food-contaminating microorganisms. Antioxidants 9:165. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020165 Tsugawa H, Cajka T, Kind T, Ma Y, Higgins B, Ikeda K, Arita M (2015) MS-DIAL for metabolome analysis. Nature Methods 12:523–526. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.3393 Wang S, Yao J, Zhou B, Yang J, Chaudry MT, Wang M, Yin W (2018) Bacteriostatic effect of quercetin. Journal of Food Protection 81:68–78. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-17-214 Wu SC, Liu F, Zhu K, Shen JZ (2019) Natural products targeting virulence factors in Staphylococcus aureus . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 67:13195–13211. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05221 Wu Y, Jiang L, Ran W, Zhong K, Zhao Y, Gao H (2024) Antimicrobial activities of natural flavonoids. Food Chemistry 460:140476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140476 Xiao T, Cui M, Zheng C, Wang M, Sun R, Gao D, Zhou H (2021) Myricetin inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication. Frontiers in Pharmacology 12:669642. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.669642 Zhang Q, Yue Y, Li X, Zhang C, Guo Y, Wang Z, Li J (2025) Advances in analytical techniques for bioactive compound quantification. Microchemical Journal 214:114119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2025.114119 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 06 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 27 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 25 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 06 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 23 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 23 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 22 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8671309","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":589014926,"identity":"5ea6fe30-3088-4e13-8d8d-209e575325a0","order_by":0,"name":"Modiri D Setlhoka","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIie3QsYrCQBCA4QkB00y0nSXKvcKKEA5U8iqGgDZinepICKyNcu36FpaWSkCbtY+dnZVgqYVwSXGVx+p1FvuXw34MswAm0xvWsK30OOCEwW72O0M9YdMs45f4swlKvUi42gkmVdyDYvwigSJMPFcQWovzlm4r+Ggk7pZ0wpJh0qmI7U2GbK6gLdf1oZbYFCZRRWre2CdXgLUE9AsdqZUkrwgy5bO7gOApQdykqVSEROiXR0H4lJCTZnCJCTlOom5LUCTz+uiqI0HunK4D/hVwZ785nEWv/z2d51xHHraWP/Kf9yaTyWT6sx8amERtnCoB6AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Modiri","middleName":"D","lastName":"Setlhoka","suffix":""},{"id":589014927,"identity":"b679e5de-f057-4230-8f2d-83d9ab3e34f2","order_by":1,"name":"Koketso Motlhanka","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Koketso","middleName":"","lastName":"Motlhanka","suffix":""},{"id":589014928,"identity":"d8736275-1393-4a3b-8bf8-64100629fa09","order_by":2,"name":"Bakang K Kgasudi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bakang","middleName":"K","lastName":"Kgasudi","suffix":""},{"id":589014929,"identity":"f19d4539-b7ee-4a77-91f2-ea69e0b6102a","order_by":3,"name":"Eunicah Atamelang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Health Sciences (IHS)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eunicah","middleName":"","lastName":"Atamelang","suffix":""},{"id":589014930,"identity":"651d6f6b-ec84-4ffc-bcd2-54f8b81bbcca","order_by":4,"name":"Goodwell Modise","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Botswana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Goodwell","middleName":"","lastName":"Modise","suffix":""},{"id":589014931,"identity":"71752234-5830-4fd4-9c52-000ebcb5e0e2","order_by":5,"name":"Geremew Bultosa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Geremew","middleName":"","lastName":"Bultosa","suffix":""},{"id":589014932,"identity":"b490cbb9-e07e-4103-8cc3-8b6c7eb39e06","order_by":6,"name":"Molebeledi H D Mareko","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Molebeledi","middleName":"H D","lastName":"Mareko","suffix":""},{"id":589014933,"identity":"2f108dd4-bb8a-4f06-99ba-05391dcbb03a","order_by":7,"name":"Mpho G Batlhophi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mpho","middleName":"G","lastName":"Batlhophi","suffix":""},{"id":589014934,"identity":"e2f99f85-8328-4764-9ada-e46393dc502e","order_by":8,"name":"Force T Thema","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Force","middleName":"T","lastName":"Thema","suffix":""},{"id":589014935,"identity":"a33b87ea-2b53-4a40-b326-18fe0ffc706b","order_by":9,"name":"Kereilemang K Nthoiwa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Fourth \u0026 Middle (PTY) Ltd","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kereilemang","middleName":"K","lastName":"Nthoiwa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-22 15:23:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102426876,"identity":"6f8b8c0b-2550-484d-8f06-067a9f0818ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:44","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGallic acid standard curve for the quantification of TPC\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/c7879151c02d7cd4019bd514.png"},{"id":102426906,"identity":"57d1dd6c-f51d-4804-908f-65e3cc90ad6b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:50","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56038,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCatechin standard curve for the quantification of TFC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/a9a23980cab99b0ca7ba101b.png"},{"id":102426877,"identity":"04c5a3e3-6a51-490f-95e4-a6b376ded735","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:44","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51808,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIron (II) standard curve for FRAP.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/4406afdceb94ca25aea498ea.png"},{"id":102426905,"identity":"d27d18f6-e52b-492a-9423-ce2252311ea9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:46","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76194,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC-MS)-chromatographic profiles of methanolic leaf extracts from \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e(a), \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e(b), and \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum \u003c/em\u003eseed coat\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e(c).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/3492c29f4a05d2ca9ce63654.png"},{"id":102426880,"identity":"9824ac2d-5fbd-49e2-ba8d-8be6dbceb352","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:44","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47761,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of mean inhibition zones (mm) produced by acetone/water and methanol/water extracts of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e against different bacterial species.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/4d575557639321db0d196a57.png"},{"id":102426878,"identity":"5c8715a1-e5be-492a-9a81-7490ab13b0e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":254221,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial activity of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracts against \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus \u003c/em\u003ebacterial species.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/a447f6fbd17e28919af984a7.png"},{"id":102426879,"identity":"739b64ab-ad41-45e5-9fda-ab9913969c8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 14:42:44","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57996,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMinimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC) levels of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003eextracts on \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/ddb54e12397e218a92117500.png"},{"id":103056320,"identity":"26845f74-5257-4774-86d5-4107bc42863d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 09:06:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2801719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8671309/v1/e2840448-42ce-4793-b64f-2ccc8403ef6d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivity Screening of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlants have gained significant attention in recent years due to their bioactive compounds, which are produced as secondary metabolites through various biosynthetic pathways, including the shikimic acid, malonic acid, mevalonic acid, and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways (Anmol et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Cheikhyoussef et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These metabolites are frequently associated with beneficial properties, such as antioxidants and antimicrobial activities (Tak\u0026oacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Khayri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, numerous studies aimed to quantify phytochemical constituents and assess their biological properties across a variety of plant species (Al-Khayri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Cushnie and Lamb \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Botswana, indigenous plants have also been subjected to scientific scrutiny, with research focusing on species such as \u003cem\u003eMorama\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e) (Kobue-lekalake et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Omotayo and Aremu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e (Kwape et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Motlhanka and Mathapa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), which continue to be explored for their potential health benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorama (\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e), a leguminous plant predominantly found in Namibia, South Africa, and Botswana, has been traditionally consumed by indigenous communities, including the San and Bakgalagadi, who gather it from the wild (Gwamba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This plant is reported to contain a variety of phytochemicals, classified into phenolic acids, flavonoids, and phytoestrogens (Omotayo and Aremu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Chingwaru et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies have quantified the flavonoid content of Morama, revealing a concentration of 0.00023 mg catechin equivalents per gram (CE/g) (Kobue-lekalake et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While Morama exhibits a lower flavonoid concentration compared to other local plants such as mogose (\u003cem\u003eBauhinia petersiana\u003c/em\u003e) and kgengwe (\u003cem\u003eCitrulus lanatus\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eThunb\u003c/em\u003e.) \u003cem\u003eMansf\u003c/em\u003e.), its extracts have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against strains such as methicillin-resistant \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium diphtheriae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e (Chingwaru et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e has been recognized for its potential antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Traditional healers in the \u003cem\u003eTswapong\u003c/em\u003e region of Botswana utilize its roots to address various reproductive health issues, including swollen uterus conditions (Motlhanka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The therapeutic applications of this plant are often linked to its content anacardic acid, which is believed to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. Motlhanka \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e reported that water extracts of \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e displayed 90% free radical scavenging activity, suggesting its potential as an active ingredient in health products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e has also been the subject of phytochemical studies. However, investigations into its antimicrobial and antioxidant activities are limited. Despite this, local communities have utilized extracts from this plant to treat respiratory ailments and skin infections (Chukwuma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The efficacy of these applications may be attributed to compounds such as galloylquinic acid, known for its wound-healing properties and inhibitory effects on HIV reverse transcriptase and DNA polymerase (Kamng'ona et al. 2011). Furthermore, other phytochemicals, including polyphenols such as gallic acid, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins, have been identified as contributors to its biological activities, with tannin content measured at 3.6%, predominantly as proanthocyanidins (Kwape et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Cheikhyoussef et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e reported that ethanol extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e yielded a total phenolic content of 372.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21 mg gallic acid equivalents per gram (GAE/g), comparable to methanol and water extracts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is the first to use Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography\u0026ndash;High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS) to directly compare the phytochemical composition of \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e from Botswana. Therefore, the present study aims to comprehensively compare the phytochemical profiles, antioxidants, and antimicrobial properties of \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracts obtained with water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone. The current paper reports findings on phytochemical profiles and the bioactivity of the three Botswana plants. This research seeks to enhance the understanding of the potential benefits these plants may offer and to promote their utilization in the food industry and modern medicine.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Experimental Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study employed a completely randomized block design, investigating three different plant species extracted for bioactive compounds using three solvents, being distilled water, 80% Methanol and a 50:50 acetone/water mixture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Collection of Plant Materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFresh, whole \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e plants and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e leaves were collected from Kanye village, Southern District, Botswana (24\u0026deg;59\u0026prime;17.02\u0026Prime;S, 25\u0026deg;20\u0026prime;34.87\u0026Prime;E) on 30 May 2024. \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e seeds were obtained from Ghanzi District (20\u0026deg;27\u0026prime;0\u0026Prime;S, 24\u0026deg;52\u0026prime;60\u0026Prime;E) at the end of the rainy season (March\u0026ndash;May 2024). Plant materials were transported to the laboratory on the same day for processing. Botanical identification was performed by a botanist at the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and specimens were authenticated through comparison with reference collections at the National Herbarium and Gallery, Gaborone.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Preparation of Extracts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlant extracts were prepared following method by Kopjar et al. 2009\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ewith modifications. One gram of each dried plant sample was extracted using 10 mL of the respective solvent (distilled water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone/water) at 60 \u0026deg;C for 30 min in a water bath, followed by static maceration at 4 \u0026deg;C for 12 h in the refrigerator. After extraction period, the mixture was centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 mins to obtain the aqueous extract, which was subsequently used for phytochemical evaluation. This method was employed to conserve heat liable metabolites in various plant parts (Okoduwa et al. 2016).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Phytochemical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.1 Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe TPC was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method as described by Singleton and Rossi 1965. A 100 \u0026micro;L aliquot of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was mixed with 500 \u0026micro;L of each plant extract and incubated in the dark for 15 mins. Following this, 2500 \u0026micro;L of saturated sodium carbonate (10.6 g/100 mL) was added, and the mixture was incubated for an additional 30 mins. The absorbance was then measured at 760 nm using a spectrophotometer. A calibration curve was established using gallic acid, with concentrations of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg GAE/g. The phenolic content was calculated based on the dry weight of the extracted plant material and expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry weight (mg GAE/g). The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R\u0026sup2; value of 0.9725 (Fig. 1)\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.2 Determination of Total Flavonoid Content (TFC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total flavonoid content was assessed through a colorimetric assay involving aluminum chloride, as described by Ordonez et al. 2005. Each extract (1 mL) was combined with 1 mL of methanol, 0.5 mL of 1.2% aluminum chloride, 0.5 mL of 0.12 M potassium acetate, and 2.8 mL of distilled water. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes, after which the absorbance was measured at 415 nm. Results were expressed as mg of quercetin equivalents (QE) per gram of dry weight (mg QE /g). A calibration curve was established using quercetin standards with concentrations of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 mg QE /g. The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R\u0026sup2; value of 0.9856 (Fig. 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.4 Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC) (UPLC-HRMS) Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.4.1 Sample preparation for Metabolite Profiling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproximately 0.25 g of sample was weighed into a 15 ml falcon tube and extracted with 10 mL 50% methanol/1% formic acid in water with vortex mixing and sonication. \u0026nbsp;After centrifugation, the supernatants were diluted 5x into 50% methanol/0.1% formic acid and transferred to glass vials for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.4.2 UPLC-HRMS Instrumentation and Chromatographic Conditions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMetabolite profiling was conducted using a Waters Acquity Ultra-performance Performance Liquid chromatography Chromatography (UPLC) system coupled to a Cyclic Quadrupole time-of-flight (qTOF) mass spectrometer (Waters, Milford, MA, USA). The column eluate was first passed through a Photodiode Array (PDA) detector before introduction into the mass spectrometer, allowing for the simultaneous collection of UV and MS data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChromatographic separation was achieved on a Waters HSS T3 column (2.1 \u0026times; 150 mm, 1.7 \u0026micro;m particle size, a reversed phase C-18) maintained at 60 \u0026deg;C. The mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water (solvent A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (solvent B). The following linear gradient was applied at a flow rate of 0.3 mL/min: 0-1 min, 0% B; 1-12 min, 0-28% B; 12-12.83 min, 28-40% B; 12.83-14.33 min, 40-100% B; followed by a 2-minute re-equilibration at 0% B. The injection volume was 0.5 \u0026micro;L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mass spectrometer was operated in electrospray ionization (ESI) negative mode. The source conditions were as follows: desolvation temperature at 275 \u0026deg;C, desolvation gas flow at 650 L/h, and a cone voltage of 15 V. Data were acquired in high-resolution mode from *m/z* 100 to 1500. For metabolite identification, data-independent acquisition (MSE mode) was employed, collecting alternating low-collision-energy (4 V) and high-collision-energy (ramped from 40\u0026ndash;100 V) scans to obtain both precursor and fragmentation data. Leucine enkephalin was used as the lock mass for real-time mass correction, and the instrument was calibrated with sodium formate prior to analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4.4.3 Data Processing and Metabolite Identification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter data compression, centroiding, and lock mass correction, the data were processed using MS-DIAL and MS-FINDER software (RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science) for peak deconvolution, alignment and metabolite identification (Tsugawa et al. 2015; Lai et al. 2018). Compounds were quantified in a relative manner against a calibration curve established using a range of ellagic acid standards from 0.2 to 5 mg/L.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5 Antioxidant Activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5.1 Determination of Radical Scavenging Activity (RSA)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe RSA was evaluated using the DPPH method according to Brand-Williams et al. 1995. A 100 \u0026micro;L solution of DPPH was combined with 2.9 mL of ethanol. Subsequently, 500 \u0026micro;L of each plant extract was added, and the mixture was incubated in the dark at room temperature for 20 mins. Absorbance was measured at 517 nm, and DPPH scavenging activity was calculated using the formula:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1770820391.png\" width=\"528\" height=\"54\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA0 = Absorbance of the control solution (without the sample)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA1 = Absorbance of the sample solution (with the sample)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5.2 Ferric Reducing/Antioxidant Power (FRAP)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe FRAP assay was performed based on the method outlined by Bakour et al. 2019 . Freshly prepared FRAP reagent (3 mL) was warmed to 37 \u0026deg;C for 4 min., mixed with 40 \u0026micro;L of the plant extract and the absorbance was measured at 734 nm. The mixture was incubated at 37 \u0026deg;C for 20 minutes. A calibration curve was created using known concentrations of Fe\u0026sup2;⁺, with concentrations of 0, 200, 400, 600, and 800 \u0026micro;M. Results were expressed as \u0026micro;M Fe\u0026sup2;⁺. The regression equation for the calibration curve had an R\u0026sup2; value of 0.9982 (Fig. 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.6 Antimicrobial Activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAntibacterial activity was assessed using the disc diffusion method by Black \u0026amp; Black 2018 with slight modifications. After autoclaving Mueller Hinton agar at 121 \u0026deg;C for 15 mins, the agar was cooled and poured into petri dishes. Selected isolates of \u003cem\u003eS.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003etyphimurium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e were swabbed over the entire surface to inoculate the agar. Sterile Whatman No. 3 filter paper discs (4 mm diameter) were dipped in 20 \u0026micro;L of each plant extract and dried at room temperature for 1 hr. The discs were then placed on the surface of the inoculated agar. Control discs were prepared by saturating them in 20 \u0026micro;L of each solvent used for extraction, that is acetone, methanol and water for comparison. Gentamicin (CN10) was used as a positive control. The plates were refrigerated at 8 \u0026deg;C for 1 hr to allow diffusion of the extracts before incubation at 37 \u0026deg;C for 24 hrs. After incubation, the inhibition zones were measured in millimeters (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.7 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe MIC of the selected plant extracts was assessed using the broth dilution method\u0026nbsp;Abdulhamid et al. (2018). Various concentrations (10-50 mg/mL) of the extracts, known to have antimicrobial properties against the test bacteria, were prepared in test tubes containing Mueller Hinton Broth (MHB). Each tube was inoculated with the bacteria, and the samples were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 h. The MIC was determined by identifying the lowest concentration of the extract that exhibited no turbidity, indicating bacterial growth inhibition\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.8 Data Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData obtained from this study were analyzed using ANOVA with statistical software SPSS. Results were expressed as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation. Mean separation was performed using the least significant difference test (LSD), with significance determined at p \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results presented in this study include the phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity, are detailed in Tables 1, 2 as well as antimicrobial activity, outlined in Table 3. Additionally, Figures 1, 2 and 3, illustrate the relevant findings. The results are summarized as follows:\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Phytochemical Content and Antioxidant Activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e Total flavonoids, phenols, FRAP, and DPPH percentages of \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eextracts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"605\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExtract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlavonoids (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emg QE/g\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhenols (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emg GAE/g\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFRAP (\u0026micro;M)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDPPH (%)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMOR\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.91 \u0026plusmn; 0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e109.85 \u0026plusmn; 0.30\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2949.33 \u0026plusmn; 12.45\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.79 \u0026plusmn; 0.13\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMOR\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.18 \u0026plusmn; 0.09\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e212.92 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3112.67 \u0026plusmn; 10.77\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.34 \u0026plusmn; 0.02\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMOR\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.78 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150.92 \u0026plusmn; 0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2026.00 \u0026plusmn; 11.10\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.74 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e137.05 \u0026plusmn; 0.30\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3296.00 \u0026plusmn; 15.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.13 \u0026plusmn; 0.14\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.08 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e207.99 \u0026plusmn; 0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3259.33 \u0026plusmn; 12.95\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.30 \u0026plusmn; 0.05\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.49 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e106.92 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2337.67 \u0026plusmn; 10.30\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORZ\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.28 \u0026plusmn; 0.12\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e194.12 \u0026plusmn; 0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2766.00 \u0026plusmn; 11.50\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.11\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORZ\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e188.32 \u0026plusmn; 0.30\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1802.67 \u0026plusmn; 10.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.40 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORZ\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.09 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e175.99 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1639.33 \u0026plusmn; 11.50\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues with different superscripts within a column indicate significant differences (p \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhere: MOR\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 50% acetone; \u003cstrong\u003eMOR\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80% methanol; \u003cstrong\u003eMOR\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracted with water; \u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003eac\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e 50 % acetone; \u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80 % methanol; \u003cstrong\u003eMRY\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracted with water; \u003cstrong\u003eORZ\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e -\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eOzoroa. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 50% acetone; \u003cstrong\u003eORZ\u003csub\u003emeth\u003c/sub\u003e -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOzoroa. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80% methanol;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;ORZ\u003csub\u003eH2O\u003c/sub\u003e -\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOzoroa. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracted with water.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;N/A\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003emeans not analysed \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e Major phytochemical compounds detected using LC-MS from Botswana indigenous plants of \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"601\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFeature ID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTentative Identification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvg Mz\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvg Rt (min)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMolecular Formula\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant Source (Relative Distribution %)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e616\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-5-(1-hydroxyethyl)-1,2-oxazole-4-carboxylic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e311.123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.867\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (99.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e822\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTheogallin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e463.087\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.927\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (99.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e743\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithospermoside\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e330.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (99.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e743\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithospermoside\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e330.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.535\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e553\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDehydroabietic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e301.216\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eH2\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1453\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6-{[5,7-dihydroxy-4-oxo-2-(3,4,5-trihydroxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-3-yl] oxy}-3,4,5-trihydroxyoxane-2-carboxylic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e495.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.657\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eORZ (95.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1384\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuercetin 3-O-glucuronide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e479.081\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.333\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (71.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1223\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuercitrin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e449.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.476\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1943\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBalanophotannin A;(+) Balanophotannin A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e769.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e34\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e21\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (99.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1740\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuercetin 3-(2-galloylglucoside)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e617.113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.061\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC28H24O16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCNP0442054 (Aralkylamines)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e289.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e499\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCNP0442054 (Aralkylamines)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e289.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e13\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e103\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,4-Methylenedioxybenzaldehyde\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e168.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-ethenylbenzene-1,2-diol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e137.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.665\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eORZ (99.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e665\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,6,7-tetrahydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e319.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.740\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e15\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eORZ (96.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1826\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFucoxanthin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e659.429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e42\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e58\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1371\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColensane and clerodane diterpenoids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e475.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e29\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e42\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1106\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColupox b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e417.264\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e25\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e36\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (99.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e908\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8-Hydroxy-3,4,9,10-tetramethoxypterocarpan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e361.127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.665\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e7\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eORZ (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e876\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-methyl-1-(4-methylphenyl)-5-oxo-4-(thiophen-2-ylmethylidene)-3-pyrrolecarboxylic acid ethyl ester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e657\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhytuberin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e317.171\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e17\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e26\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e699\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTazarotenic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e324.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.569\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e17\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e375\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNopalinic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e263.125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e18\u003c/sub\u003eN\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMRY (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e104\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-Methoxyanthranilate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e168.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.535\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1633\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKaempferitrin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e579.169\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e27\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e30\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eORZ (99.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e154\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5-Hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e192.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003eNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e822\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTheogallin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e345.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.501\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (97.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1824\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 191px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSorocein B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e659.226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e40\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e34\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMOR (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults in Table 2 highlight major compounds tentatively identified from three indigenous plants of Botswana (\u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius, O. paniculosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e) through\u0026nbsp;LC-MS\u0026nbsp;technique\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e The identified compounds are presented with their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), retention time (RT), molecular formula and their plant source (relative distribution %). Notably data confirms \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(MRY)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eas the most diverse plant, with flavonoids identified as one of major classes detected, for instance quercetin\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;3-O-glucuronide\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(ID 1384) \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003end \u003cstrong\u003equercitrin\u003c/strong\u003e (ID 1223), were predominantly dectected from \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. Likewise, in \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(ORZ)\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ekaempferitrin\u003c/strong\u003e (ID 1633) was identified as major flavonoid. Other flavonoid compounds identified in this species include tetrahydroxy-chromen-one derivative (m/z 319.045) and an 8-Hydroxypterocarpan (m/z 361.127). In contrast, the phytochemical profile of \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e (MOR) was less diverse and dominated by lithospermoside (m/z 330.117, IDs 743 \u0026amp; 744). Hydrolyzable tannins like theogallin were detected in both \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe UPLC-MS chromatographic profiles in Figure 4 demonstrate that \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e is the most phytochemically diverse plant, with multiple distinct peaks that correspond to a broad variety of secondary metabolites. \u0026nbsp;Additionally, of all the plant material analyzed, the seed coat of the morama bean (\u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e) bears the least diverse phytochemicals.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Antimicrobial Activity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig 5 highlights \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracts as the most effective against three bacterial species tested. For instance, The disc diffusion assay demonstrates that \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e50 % acetone extracts resulted in mean inhibition zone of 18.8 mm against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e whereas the same solvent for \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eextracts yielded inhibition zone of 10.8 mm against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of concentration was dose-dependent and clearly observable across all active extracts (Figure 6). For the most potent concentration (200 mg/mL) of each extract against \u003cem\u003eS. typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, mean inhibition zones (mm) resulted in higher inbition zones. Compared to all other plant extract groups, gentamicin (0.01 mg/mL), which was used as a positive control, was significantly different (p\u0026lt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eInhibition levels of \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e on \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e plants extracts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConcentration (mg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMicroorganism\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInhibition zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStatistical grouping\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCN10 Gentamicin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.23 \u0026plusmn; 0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eA\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCN10 Gentamicin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.87 \u0026plusmn; 0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eA\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCN10 Gentamicin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.83 \u0026plusmn; 0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eA\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.97 \u0026plusmn; 0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eB\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.55 \u0026plusmn; 0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eC\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.17 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eC\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.10 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eD\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.48 \u0026plusmn; 0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eD\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.30 \u0026plusmn; 0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eE\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.60 \u0026plusmn; 0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eE\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.00 \u0026plusmn; 0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.57 \u0026plusmn; 0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.00 \u0026plusmn; 1.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.82 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.47 \u0026plusmn; 0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.57 \u0026plusmn; 0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eFG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.23 \u0026plusmn; 0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eD/E\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.33 \u0026plusmn; 0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.53 \u0026plusmn; 0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.37 \u0026plusmn; 0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eFG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.37 \u0026plusmn; 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.70 \u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.87 \u0026plusmn; 0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.60 \u0026plusmn; 0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.32 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.57 \u0026plusmn; 0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.23 \u0026plusmn; 0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.20 \u0026plusmn; 0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.07 \u0026plusmn; 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.90 \u0026plusmn; 0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG/H\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.22 \u0026plusmn; 0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eD/E\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.67 \u0026plusmn; 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG/H\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.10 \u0026plusmn; 0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.77 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eF\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.60 \u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.47 \u0026plusmn; 0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.30 \u0026plusmn; 0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eFG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.89 \u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eGH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.90 \u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.00 \u0026plusmn; 0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eGH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.93 \u0026plusmn; 0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.00 \u0026plusmn; 0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.47 \u0026plusmn; 0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.57 \u0026plusmn; 0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eG\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.27 \u0026plusmn; 0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.30 \u0026plusmn; 0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.27 \u0026plusmn; 0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eHI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.82 \u0026plusmn; 0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eGH\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.40 \u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.53 \u0026plusmn; 0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMyrothamnus (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.70 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.93 \u0026plusmn; 0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.33 \u0026plusmn; 0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOzoroa paniculosa (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.80 \u0026plusmn; 0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.73 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eHI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (50% Acetone)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.17 \u0026plusmn; 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTylosema esculentum (80% Methanol)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.17 \u0026plusmn; 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eHI\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDifferent subscript letter means significantly different at p\u0026lt;0.05\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe UPLC-MS metabolite profiling, while from a separate extraction, provides fundamental chemical rationale for the observed bioactivities. In this study, superior antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracts could be attributed to their rich and diverse phytochemical profile. The UPLC-MS analysis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e contained the most diverse group of bioactive compounds, including known antimicrobial flavonoids like quercetin 3-O-glucuronide and quercitrin, as well as terpenoids such as dehydroabietic acid (Kumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Cushnie and Lamb \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Sinha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In a study conducted by Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e quercitin at MICs 50X and 10X resulted in structural abnormalities such as cell lysis and uneven endochylema density leading to cell death in \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, respectively. Similarly, in this study other identified metabolites include colensane/clerodane diterpenoids (m/z 475.266), and phytuberin (m/z 317.171). The presence of these compounds is known for their antimicrobial and antifungal activities (Nguyen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Murthy et al. 2008), further supporting MRY extracts as an ideal antimicrobial agent. Evidently, this phytochemical profile corresponded to higher total flavonoids and phenolics from the extracts (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, the highest flavonoid content was observed in \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80% methanol (28.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 mg QE/g), closely followed by \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e 50% acetone extracts (27.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20 mg QE/g). (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the same extracts showed potent antioxidant capacity (FRAP: 3296.00 \u0026micro;M; DPPH: 57.13%). The coexistence of substances with strong antioxidant activity and direct antimicrobial qualities points to the possibility of multi-target bioactivity which possibly cause disruption of microbial membranes and provide oxidative stress mitigation (Cushnie and Lamb \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003el\u0026ccedil;in 2012; Motlhanka \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Sinha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), leading to significant inhibition zones up to 19.97 mm for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, 17.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4 mm for \u003cem\u003eS. typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e, while 17.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3 mm was observed for \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, MIC of 25 mg/mL for \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e (Acetone/Water 50%) extract against \u003cem\u003eS. typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e was observed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, 80% methanol/water extracts of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus\u003c/em\u003e also displayed relatively good antimicrobial activity although less than those of 50% acetone for the same plant (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, the antimicrobial activity of \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e and Morama extracts was moderate, with the acetone/water extracts outperforming the methanol/water extracts. Moreover, in all the organisms tested, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e consistently showed the highest MIC values across all extracts, indicating greater resistance. This phenomenon is well documented, as outer membranes in gram negative bacteria like \u003cem\u003eE. coli limits\u003c/em\u003e the penetration of many antimicrobial compounds, making them less susceptible to plant extracts (Dzotam and Kuete \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Fankam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, the antimicrobial activity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) seems to improve with an increase in concentration from 25mg/mL to 200mg/mL across the plant extracts and bacteria. This potency, while less than the positive control gentamicin (MIC 0.01 mg/mL), which served as a benchmark for strong activity, suggests a robust, dose-dependent response antimicrobial effect. The effect of concentration is consistent with findings of previous studies, that demonstrated that many plant extracts exhibit enhanced antimicrobial activity with increasing concentration (Murthy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Nazzaro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Omotayo and Aremu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The positive control, CN10 Gentamicin, demonstrated the highest activity, with inhibition zones ranging from 22.0 mm to 22.8 mm for all tested pathogens, confirming its effectiveness as an antibiotic agent. On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus\u003c/em\u003e (80% methanol/water) and Morama (50% acetone/water) have higher MIC values, which suggests that their chemical components are less effective or that the extraction process influences the availability of the compound (Plaskova and Mlcek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, these findings correlate with results by Matotoka and Masoko \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e who reported that \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius Welw\u003c/em\u003e. leaves possessed antibacterial properties with minimum inhibitory concentration greater 630 \u0026micro;g/mL for different bacterial strains tested.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the limited efficacy of \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e (Morama) seed coat and \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e leaf extracts may be due to combination of less diverse phytochemical profile and extraction effiency. This is evidenced by their low antioxidant activity, for instance, \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e water extract had mean FRAP of 1639.33 \u0026micro;M (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), and consistently weak antimicrobial performance, even at the highest concentration of 200 mg/mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). However, while less diverse to \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracts, \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e UPLC-HRMS results showed better phytochemical profile than \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracts. For example, in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e powerful bioactives such as 4-ethenylbenzene-1,2-diol, myricetin (2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,6,7-tetrahydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one) and kaempferitrin was tentatively identified in \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e. Myricetin has been shown to have strong antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 by blocking its primary protease (M\u003csup\u003epro\u003c/sup\u003e inhibitors) and lowering pulmonary inflammation (Xiao et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that its presence in \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e may have pharmacological significance. Notably, results in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates potency of \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e: For instance, \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracted using 50% acetone recorded lower total phenolic content (109.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30 mg GAE/g) as compared to \u003cem\u003eO paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e which recorded 194.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25 mg GAE/g. This support results in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e reporting higher inhibitions zones as compared to \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e seed coat extracts in which less metabolites were identified. \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e extracts generally displayed limited microbial activity, particularly at lower concentrations, where no inhibition was observed in both 50% acetone and 80% methanol extracts at 25 mg/mL (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The best performance at 200 mg/ml yielded inhibition zones of 11.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06mm and 11.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12 mm against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e recorded mean inhibition zone of 10.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17 mm at 200 mg/mL for the same organisms using 50% acetone (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), indicating only modest antimicrobial potential, possibly attributed to its lower concentrations of phytochemicals extracted through lower temperature extraction technique in this study. Critically, the lower temperature and cold extraction technique employed in this study, while gentle, has inherently lower extraction efficiency. This method likely failed to liberate a sufficient concentration of the antimicrobial constituents, particularly the less soluble compounds, from these already phytochemically sparse materials (Okoduwa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The limited activity of these extracts reinforces the idea that phytochemical richness and diversity are key drivers of potent antimicrobial action. The UPLC-HRMS profile of \u003cem\u003eT. esculentum\u003c/em\u003e was dominated almost exclusively by lithospermoside (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), indicating a lack of the synergistic compound diversity necessary for potent, broad-spectrum activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant variation in bioactivity between extracts underscores the critical importance of solvent selection. Across all plants, the 50% acetone/water solvent consistently yielded more active extracts than 80% methanol/water. For example, the DPPH results indicated that \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 50% acetone extracts provided more effective radical scavenging capabilities, exemplified by a DPPH percentage of 57.13 compared to 41.30 for \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80% methanol and 39.40% for \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracted with 80% methanol, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This antioxidant capacity could synergistically enhance the antimicrobial activity of the extracts, as oxidative stress is a critical factor influencing microbial survival and resistance (Motlhanka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Acetone/water is an effectively balanced solvent, capable of extracting a wider spectrum of medium polarity to polar compounds, including many antimicrobial flavonoids and phenolics (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bakour et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The notably reduced efficacy of the 80% methanol extracts, particularly for \u003cem\u003eO. paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e where it resulted in no observable activity, suggests it was less effective at solubilizing the specific active compounds, potentially missing key hydrophilic metabolites (Kumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This confirms that solvent choice is not merely about yield but fundamentally shapes the bioactive profile of the final extract. Thus, the current study demonstrated that phytochemical richness, which is influenced by the extraction parameters as well as the intrinsic plant source, determines the strong antimicrobial activity of plant extracts. One promising option for the development of a natural antimicrobial agent is \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. To fully utilise its bioactive potential for use in natural medicine and food preservation, future research should concentrate on refining the extraction procedure, possibly using a technique like microwave-assisted extraction with 50% acetone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work evaluated the phytochemical profiles, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e extracts. The findings demonstrate substantial bioactivity, with \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e exhibiting the highest phytochemical diversity and strongest antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. The significant variations in phytochemical content based on extraction methods highlight the importance of optimizing these protocols to maximize the yield of bioactive compounds. Further research is essential to elucidate the specific mechanisms of action, bioavailability, and potential applications of these extracts in food preservation and therapeutic formulations. Notably, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e was identified as the most effective antimicrobial agent due to its rich phytochemicals content, indicating its potential as an active ingredient in food packaging and other food preservation strategies, as well as in the use of natural medicine. Overall, the findings of this study provide a compelling basis for the continued exploration of these extracts, emphasizing their valuable contributions to food safety and health applications. By optimizing extraction methods and investigating further applications, it will be possible unlock the full potential of these bioactive compounds.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eCONFLICTS OF INTEREST\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eETHICAL APPROVAL\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM.D.S : Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing \u0026ndash; original draft.K.M : Investigation, data curation, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.B.K.K : Investigation, Validation, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.E.A : Microbiological analysis, validation, visualization.G.M. : Formal analysis support, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.G.B : Critical revision of the manuscript, formal analysis support.M.H.D.M : Methodology guidance, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.M.G.B : Microbiolgical analysis, Visualization, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.F.T.T : Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.K.K.N : Validation, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Kefilwe Mmofhe for invaluable assistance in the acquisition and transportation of the plant samples. We also extend our appreciation to the Department of Food Science and Technology, BUAN for their support in providing the extraction reagents and bioactivity assays. The guidance and constructive feedback provided by colleagues and mentors throughout this study are also gratefully acknowledged.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdulhamid A, Dabai YU, Ismail MA (2018) Preliminary phytochemical screening and antibacterial properties of crude leaves extract and fractions of \u003cem\u003eAcacia nilotica\u003c/em\u003e (Linn.). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 7:8\u0026ndash;18. https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20185-11187 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Khayri JM, Sahana GR, Nagella P, Joseph BV, Alessa FM, Al-Mssallem MQ (2022) Flavonoids as potential anti-inflammatory molecules: a review. Molecules 27:2901. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092901\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnmol, Aggarwal G, Sharma M, Singh R, Shivani, Sharma U (2024) Plant-based natural product chemistry: an overview of the multistep journey involved in scientific validation of traditional knowledge. In: Rahman A-U (ed) Studies in Natural Products Chemistry. Elsevier, pp 327\u0026ndash;377. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-15589-5.00010-4 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAziman N, Jawaid M, Mutalib NAA, Yusof NL, Nadrah AH, Nazatul UK, Fraqueza R (2021) Antimicrobial potential of plastic films incorporated with sage extract on chicken meat. Foods 10:2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112812 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBakour M, Campos MG, Imtara H, Lyoussi B (2019) Antioxidant content and identification of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the pollen of fourteen plants using HPLC-DAD. Journal of Apicultural Research 59:35\u0026ndash;41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2019.1675336 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBakkali F, Averbeck S, Averbeck D, Idaomar M (2008) Biological effects of essential oils\u0026mdash;a review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 46:446\u0026ndash;475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.106 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlack JG, Black LJ (2018) Microbiology: principles and explorations, 10th edn. John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berse C (1995) Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT\u0026ndash;Food Science and Technology 28:25\u0026ndash;30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCheikhyoussef A, Summers RW, Kahaka G (2015) Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemical compounds in Namibian \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. International Science and Technology Journal of Namibia 9:690\u0026ndash;694\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChingwaru W, Duodu KG, van Zyl Y, Schoeman CJ, Majinda RR, Yeboah S et al (2011) Antibacterial and anticandidal activity of \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e (marama) extracts. South African Journal of Science 107:366. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v107i3/4.366 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChukwuma CI, Matsabisa MG, Rautenbach F, Rademan S, Oyedemi SO, Chaudhary SK, Javu M (2019) Evaluation of the nutritional composition of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e herbal tea and its protective effect against oxidative hepatic cell injury. Journal of Food Biochemistry 43:e13026. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13026 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCushnie TPT, Lamb AJ (2005) Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 26:343\u0026ndash;356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDzotam JK, Kuete V (2017) Antibacterial and antibiotic-modifying activity of methanol extracts from six Cameroonian food plants against multidrug-resistant enteric bacteria. BioMed Research International 2017:1583510. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1583510 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFankam AG, Kuete V, Voukeng IK, Kuiate JR, Pag\u0026egrave;s J-M (2011) Antibacterial activities of selected Cameroonian spices and their synergistic effects with antibiotics. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11:104. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-104 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eG\u0026uuml;l\u0026ccedil;in İ (2012) Antioxidant activity of food constituents: an overview. Archives of Toxicology 86:345\u0026ndash;391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-011-0774-2 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGwamba J, Imathiu S, Kinyuru J, Onyango A, Motaung MV (2025) Distribution, traditional utilization, processing, and health benefits of morama bean. Journal of Ethnic Foods 12:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-024-00264-0 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKamng\u0026rsquo;ona A, Moore JP, Lindsey G, Brandt W (2011) Inhibition of HIV-1 and M-MLV reverse transcriptases by a major polyphenol from \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry 26:843\u0026ndash;853. https://doi.org/10.3109/14756366.2011.566220 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan M, Khan M, Al-Hamoud K, Adil SF, Shaik MR, Alkhathlan HZ (2022) Comprehensive phytochemical analysis of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia judaica\u003c/em\u003e. Life 12:1885. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12111885 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKobue-Lekalake R, Matenanga O, Sekwati-Monang B, Tibe O, Bultosa G, Seifu E, Haki GD (2022) Indigenous and underutilized oil seeds of Botswana. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 13:4093. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.13(10) \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKopjar M, Piližota V, Tiban N, \u0026Scaron;ubarić D, Babić J, Ačkar Đ, Sajdl M (2009) Strawberry jams: influence of different pectin on color and textural properties. Czech Journal of Food Sciences 27:20\u0026ndash;28. https://doi.org/10.17221/95/2008-CJFS \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKumar A, Nirmal P, Kumar M, Jose A, Tomer V, Oz E, Oz F (2023) Major phytochemicals: health benefits and extraction methods. Molecules 28:887. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020887 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKwape TE, Majinda RRT, Chaturvedi P (2016) Antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. Cogent Biology 2:1275403. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312025.2016.1275403 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLai Z, Tsugawa H, Wohlgemuth G, Mehta S, Mueller M, Zheng Y, Fiehn O (2018) Identifying metabolites by integrating metabolome databases. Nature Methods 15:53\u0026ndash;56. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.4512 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMatotoka MM, Masoko P (2024) Evaluation of antioxidant, cytotoxicity, antibacterial, anti-motility, and anti-biofilm effects of \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e. Plants 13:847. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13060847 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMotlhanka DMT (2008) Free radical scavenging activity of selected medicinal plants of eastern Botswana. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 11:805\u0026ndash;808. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2008.805.808 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMotlhanka DMT, Mathapa G (2012) Antioxidant activities of crude extracts used by diabetic patients. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 6:5460\u0026ndash;5463. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR10.005 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMotlhanka DMT, Motlhanka P, Selebatso T (2008) Edible indigenous wild fruit plants of eastern Botswana. International Journal of Poultry Science 7:457\u0026ndash;460\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMurthy MM, Subramanyam M, Bindu MH, Annapurna J (2005) Antimicrobial activity of clerodane diterpenoids. Fitoterapia 76:336\u0026ndash;339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.02.005 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNguyen MV, Han JW, Dang QL, Ryu SM, Lee D, Kim H, Choi GJ (2021) Clerodane diterpenoids showing antifungal activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 69:8431\u0026ndash;8441. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c02200 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNazzaro F, Fratianni F, De Martino L, Coppola R, De Feo V (2013) Effect of essential oils on pathogenic bacteria. Pharmaceutics 6:1451\u0026ndash;1474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph6121451 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOkoduwa SIR, Umar IA, James DB, Inuwa HM, Habila JD (2016) Evaluation of extraction protocols for anti-diabetic phytochemicals. World Journal of Diabetes 7:605\u0026ndash;614. https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v7.i20.605 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOmotayo AO, Aremu AO (2021) \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e: food, nutrition, and sustainability. Food \u0026amp; Function 12:2389\u0026ndash;2403. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0FO01937B \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOrdo\u0026ntilde;ez AAL, Gomez JD, Vattuone MA, Isla MI (2006) Antioxidant activities of \u003cem\u003eSechium edule\u003c/em\u003e extracts. Food Chemistry 97:452\u0026ndash;458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.024 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePlaskova A, Mlcek J (2023) Water or ethanol\u0026ndash;water plant extracts rich in bioactives for food. Frontiers in Nutrition 10:1118761. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1118761\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingleton VL, Rossi JA (1965) Colorimetry of total phenolics. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 16:144\u0026ndash;158\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSinha D, Mukherjee S, Chowdhury S (2022) Methods of extraction of phytochemicals. In: Singh A (ed) Isolation, Characterization, and Therapeutic Applications of Natural Bioactive Compounds. IGI Global, pp 250\u0026ndash;279. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-7337-5.ch010 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTak\u0026oacute; M, Kerekes EB, Zambrano C, Kotog\u0026aacute;n A, Papp T, Krisch J, V\u0026aacute;gv\u0026ouml;lgyi C (2020) Plant phenolics and phenolic-enriched extracts as antimicrobial agents against food-contaminating microorganisms. Antioxidants 9:165. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9020165\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTsugawa H, Cajka T, Kind T, Ma Y, Higgins B, Ikeda K, Arita M (2015) MS-DIAL for metabolome analysis. Nature Methods 12:523\u0026ndash;526. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.3393 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang S, Yao J, Zhou B, Yang J, Chaudry MT, Wang M, Yin W (2018) Bacteriostatic effect of quercetin. Journal of Food Protection 81:68\u0026ndash;78. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-17-214 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu SC, Liu F, Zhu K, Shen JZ (2019) Natural products targeting virulence factors in \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 67:13195\u0026ndash;13211. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05221 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu Y, Jiang L, Ran W, Zhong K, Zhao Y, Gao H (2024) Antimicrobial activities of natural flavonoids. Food Chemistry 460:140476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140476 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eXiao T, Cui M, Zheng C, Wang M, Sun R, Gao D, Zhou H (2021) Myricetin inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication. Frontiers in Pharmacology 12:669642. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.669642 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang Q, Yue Y, Li X, Zhang C, Guo Y, Wang Z, Li J (2025) Advances in analytical techniques for bioactive compound quantification. Microchemical Journal 214:114119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2025.114119 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"chemical-papers","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chpa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Chemical Papers](http://link.springer.com/journal/11696)","snPcode":"11696","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/CHPA/default.aspx","title":"Chemical Papers","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"antimicrobial assay, antioxidant, Ozoroa paniculosa, Myrothamnus flabellifolius, Tylosema esculentum","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eNatural resources provide vital support to communities, and indigenous plants remain particularly important, as they are widely used for food, medicine, and cultural practices. In the quest to integrate these resources into modern applications, exploring their phytochemical composition is essential for both conservation and utilization. This study compared the phytochemical profiles, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of \u003cem\u003eTylosema esculentum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOzoroa paniculosa\u003c/em\u003e using water, 80% methanol, and 50% acetone extracts. LC-MS profiling revealed \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e as the most chemically diverse, with major flavonoids including quercetin 3-O-glucuronide and quercitrin. Acetone extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the highest DPPH scavenging activity (57.13%) and strongest antibacterial effects against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. The latter extracts displayed particularly demonstrated dose-dependent antimicrobial activity, with inhibition zones reaching up to 20.1 mm for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and 16.9 mm for \u003cem\u003eS. typhimurium\u003c/em\u003e. Solvent type significantly influenced the phytochemical content and bioactivity of the extracts, with 50% acetone generally outperforming water and 80% methanol. Overall, the indigenous plants of Botswana demonstrated considerable potential as sources of bioactive compounds for use as natural antimicrobial agents in food packaging and preservation. In particular, \u003cem\u003eMyrothamnus flabellifolius\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the most diverse phytochemical profile and the strongest antimicrobial properties. These findings highlight the plant\u0026rsquo;s potential for development into natural antimicrobial products, warranting further investigation and application-focused research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Metabolite Profiling and Bioactivity Screening of Tylosema esculentum, Myrothamnus flabellifolius and Ozoroa paniculosa extracts using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-11 14:42:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8671309/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-06T22:16:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-27T23:04:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-26T03:54:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"284329309352632098416208864229773892965","date":"2026-02-06T21:43:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"239466186617928483174849157586298152007","date":"2026-02-06T09:29:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-06T09:19:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-23T14:14:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-23T13:57:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Chemical Papers","date":"2026-01-22T14:56:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"chemical-papers","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chpa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Chemical Papers](http://link.springer.com/journal/11696)","snPcode":"11696","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/CHPA/default.aspx","title":"Chemical Papers","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"42866a9b-442b-4a86-ae3b-75c5b87bc49d","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-02T21:08:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-11 14:42:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8671309","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8671309","identity":"rs-8671309","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}