Content and Dietary Exposure Assessment of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products from the Henan

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A total of 150 cow-milk-based dairy products, including sterilized, pasteurized, fermented, and modified milk were collected from 17 prefecture-level cities in Henan. The toxic elements were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and margin of exposure (MOE) were calculated for different age groups based on the average consumption rates. The mean concentrations of Cr, As, Cd, and Pb were 1.48 µg/kg, 0.25 µg/kg, 0.124 µg/kg, and 0.81 µg/kg, respectively, all below the maximum levels set by China, the CAC, and the European Union. No significant differences were found between domestic and imported products. The HI values were well below 1, indicating low health risks across all age groups. The THQ risk ranking was As > Cr > Pb > Cd. If assessed using the MOE, the potential exposures to toxic elements were arranged as Pb > Cd > As > Cr. The study concludes that the current levels of toxic elements in milk and dairy products from Henan pose no significant health risks to consumers. However, continuous monitoring is recommended, especially for lead exposure in children and adolescents, to ensure long-term consumer safety. Toxic elements Lead Health risks Estimated daily intake Hazard index Margin of exposure Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Milk and dairy products serve as a premier source of high-quality protein, readily absorbable calcium, and a spectrum of micronutrients, occupying a central position in global dietary patterns [ 1 ]. Their nutritional value lies not only in the balanced provision of macronutrients but also in a matrix of highly bioavailable, bioactive microconstituents that support human health [ 2 ]. The Chinese Dietary Guidelines recommend a daily intake of 300–500 g of milk and dairy products. However, current consumption averages only 20–30 g among Chinese adults and 60–80 g among children and adolescents, leaving a substantial gap from the recommended levels [ 3 ]. Given the extensive consumer base of dairy products, the quality and safety of milk and dairy products constitute a direct public health concern, as the presence of any contaminant may trigger large-scale health crises [ 4 ]. Systematic safety assessment of commercially available dairy categories, therefore, carries not only regional significance but also national-level epidemiological value. With 97.85 million permanent residents by 2024 (6.95% of China's total population), Henan represents one of the largest provincial dairy consumption markets [ 5 ], whose regulatory landscape partially reflects the actual supervision capacity in central-western China. Targeted screening of chemical contaminants and microbiological hazards across major product types, including sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk, and modified milk, has become a critical intervention for safeguarding population nutritional security [ 6 – 7 ]. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and hexavalent chromium (Cr VI) rank 1st, 2nd, 7th, and 17th, respectively, on the 2022 Substance Priority List, a ranking that mirrors their persisting threat to global food safety and public health [ 8 ]. Epidemiological and mechanistic evidence indicate that the combined toxicity of these metals can markedly differ from that of any single element, because co-exposure at individually sub-toxic doses may potentiate oxidative stress, disrupt metal transporters, and amplify organ-specific injury [ 9 – 11 ]. Children and adolescents constitute a uniquely susceptible sub-population. Their higher food intake per kilogram of body weight, immature blood-brain barrier, and elevated intestinal permeability jointly confer greater absorption rates and enhanced vulnerability to nephrotoxicity, neuro-developmental impairment, cardiovascular dysfunction, and carcinogenesis following chronic oral exposure [ 12 ]. While previous work has focused on contaminant residues in infant formula, systematic surveillance data for Pb, As, Cd, and Cr in the far higher-volume liquid milks (sterilized milk and pasteurized milk) and in other dairy matrices (fermented milk and modified milk) remain scarce. To safeguard public health, maximum levels (MLs) for these toxic elements have been established by international bodies and the Chinese government. For lead in milk and dairy products, China (2025) [ 13 ]has set the ML at 0.4 mg/kg, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (2024) [ 14 ] at 0.2 mg/kg, and the European Union (2023) [ 15 ] at 0.02 mg/kg. Consider the scarcity of comprehensive data on toxic-element contamination in Henan's retail dairy, this study aimed to (i) quantify As, Cd, Pb and Cr in commercially available sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk and modified milk in Henan, (ii) verify whether these samples comply with the prevailing legal limits, (iii) contrast toxic-element concentrations between domestic and imported brands, (iv) estimate the dietary exposure to these toxic elements through milk and dairy products consumed in Henan and to assess the associated potential health risks to the local population. Materials and methods Sampling A total of 150 cow-milk-based dairy products were collected from the 17 prefecture-level cities of Henan between January 2023 and January 2024. These samples cover the principal dairy product categories available in Henan, sterilized milk (n = 61), pasteurized milk (n = 29), fermented milk (n = 38), and modified milk (n = 22). All pasteurized, fermented, and modified milk samples were of domestic origin. A total of 61 sterilized milk samples were collected, comprising 32 samples of domestic origin and 29 imported samples. The imported items originated from seven countries, Australia, Germany, New Zealand, France, Belarus, Ireland, and Austria. Products were purchased from supermarkets and retail chains, transported to the laboratory within six hours, and stored at − 20°C before analysis [ 16 ]. Sample Analysis Following the microwave-assisted digestion protocol described by Su et al. [ 17 ], samples were digested with dilute nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Briefly, 0.5 g of the sample in a polyfluoroalkoxy digestion vessel was added 1 mL deionized water (Milli-Q, Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA), 5 mL nitric acid (65%, Suprapur, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), and 2 mL hydrogen peroxide (30%, Suprapur, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). After overnight pre-digestion at room temperature, the mixture was digested in a microwave-assisted reaction system (CEM MARS 6, Charlotte, NC, USA) according to the programme shown in Table 1 . Once cooled, the digest was diluted to 25 mL with deionized water and analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Agilent 7700 Series ICP-MS, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) after filtration through a 0.22-µm membrane. Standard five-point calibrations were developed for each of the toxic elements. The correlation coefficients were > 0.9999, and the limits of detection for Pb, As, Cr, and Cd in milk and dairy products were 0.2, 0.5, 2.0, and 0.1 µg/kg [ 18 – 19 ], respectively. Table 1 Microwave-assisted digestion procedure Temperature (◦C) Gradient temperature time (min) Holding time (min) 90 10 5 140 10 10 190 10 20 Risk Assessment The risk of toxic elements across different age groups (3–6 years, 7–19 years, 20–59 years, and 60–69 years) was assessed by calculating the estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and margin of exposure (MOE). The ethics committee of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences approved all experimental procedures for this study. Exposure Assessment Exposure to toxic elements in different age groups was assessed using the average content of harmful elements in the tested dairy products and the recommended average consumption of milk and dairy products in China [ 3 ], according to Eq. (1) [ 20 ]. We compared the EDI obtained in this study with the reference dose (RfD). The RfD serves as a reference point for gauging the potential effects of the chemical at other doses. Typically, doses below the RfD are unlikely to be associated with adverse health risks and are therefore of less regulatory concern [ 21 ]. EDI = C × DI/BW (1) Where C is the toxic element content in milk and dairy products (µg/kg), DI is the daily intake of milk and dairy products (kg), and BW is body weight (kg). Target Hazard Quotient The chronic risk posed by toxic elements was expressed as the THQ, a metric used to evaluate non-carcinogenic risk [ 22 ]. A THQ < 1 indicates that consumers are unlikely to experience adverse health effects, whereas a THQ ≥ 1 suggests a potential health risk. The THQ was calculated using Eq. (2). THQ = EDI/RfD (2) where RfD is the oral reference dose (mg/kg/d), based on 3 × 10 − 4 , 4 × 10 − 3 , 3 × 10 − 3 , and 1× 10 − 3 for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd, respectively [ 23 – 27 ]. Health Risks of Multiple Toxic Elements In this study, the total THQ was also estimated, as people are typically exposed to multiple pollutants simultaneously, leading to combined health effects [ 24 ]. The overall potential chronic risk from exposure to various toxic elements was expressed as an HI, calculated using Eq. (3). HI < 1 indicated no risk for human health [ 21 , 28 ]. HI = THQ (3) Margin Of Exposure The MOE is defined as the ratio of the reference point (RP) for a compound to the estimated or measured level of human exposure to that compound [ 29 ]. The magnitude of MOE can be used to guide the risk priority for management purposes [ 29 – 30 ]. The MOE was calculated using Eq. (4). The benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL) is considered the most suitable reference point, as it represents the lower 95% confidence limit on the benchmark dose (BMD) and accounts for uncertainties in the data. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines MOE as the ratio of the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) or the BMDL for the critical effect to the theoretical, predicted, or estimated exposure dose or concentration [ 31 ]. Regarding As, based on epidemiological studies, JECFA identified a benchmark dose lower confidence limit for a 0.5% increased incidence of lung cancer (BMDL 0.5 ) of 3.0 µg/kg b.w./day [ 32 ]. For estimated daily exposure to Pb among infant and child consumers, a BMDL 01 of 0.5 µg/kg b.w./day for neurodevelopmental toxicity was used. For adults, a BMDL 10 dietary Pb intake value of 0.63 µg/kg b.w./day was derived for nephrotoxicity [ 33 – 34 ]. Similarly, the toxicity of hexavalent chromium (Cr IV) is more than that of trivalent chromium (Cr III). The BMDL 10 of 1 mg/kg b.w./day of Cr IV was used to estimate the risk of total Cr in raw milk [ 35 ]. The tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for cadmium (Cd) is 2.5 µg/kg body weight [ 36 ]. MOE = BMDL/EDI (4) Statistical analysis Data analysis was performed using SPSS (IBM, Endicott, NY, USA) version 20. Data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Differences in mineral element content among samples were analysed with an independent t-test. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results and Discussion Concentrations of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products A total of 150 milk and dairy products samples were collected in Henan and comprehensively analyzed for four toxic elements in sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk, and modified milk. The content of harmful elements in milk and dairy products was 1.48 µg/kg Cr (0.13–5.13 µg/kg), 0.25 µg/kg As (0.07–0.57 µg/kg), 0.124 µg/kg Cd (0.01–0.46 µg/kg), and 0.81 µg/kg Pb (0.12–5.59 µg/kg; Tables 2 and 3 ). Table 2 Toxic element content (µg/kg) in different milk and dairy products from Henan Style N Cr As Cd Pb Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Sterilized milk 61 1.44 0.25–3.79 0.24 0.08–0.49 0.125 0.02–0.446 0.77 0.16–3.96 Pasteurized milk 29 1.36 0.13–3.60 0.21 0.07–0.44 0.113 0.01–0.39 0.68 0.12–3.54 Fermented milk 38 1.62 0.16–5.13 0.28 0.07–0.57 0.132 0.02–0.46 0.87 0.15–4.33 Modified milk 22 1.53 0.36–4.19 0.26 0.09–0.53 0.120 0.02–0.43 0.99 0.15–5.59 Total 150 1.48 0.13–5.13 0.25 0.07–0.57 0.124 0.01–0.46 0.81 0.12–5.59 Table 3 Toxic elements content (µg/kg) in domestic and imported sterilised milk Toxic elements Domestic (n = 32) Imported (n = 29) Mean ± SD Range Mean ± SD Range Cr 1.47 ± 0.84 0.25–3.79 1.42 ± 0.87 0.33–3.47 As 0.27 ± 0.12 0.10–0.49 0.23 ± 0.10 0.08–0.43 Cd 0.103 ± 0.105 0.020–0.430 0.150 ± 0.11 0.021–0.446 Pb 0.81 ± 0.64 0.23–3.96 0.74 ± 0.55 0.16–3.04 The Pb levels found in this study were below the MLs set by China (0.4 mg/kg)[ 13 ], the European Union (0.02 mg/kg) [ 15 ] and CAC (0.2 mg/kg) [ 14 ]. Furthermore, the Cr and As contents were below the MLs established by China [ 13 ]. These results indicate that the quality and safety of dairy products currently sold in the Chinese market remain generally stable and continue to improve [ 37 ]. Sterilized milk plays a significant role in daily dairy consumption, primarily due to its extended shelf life, achieved through thorough microbial inactivation while preserving the nutritional and sensory qualities of milk to the greatest extent [ 38 – 39 ]. In the 61 sterilized milk samples collected, the contents of Cr, As, Cd and Pb were 1.47 ± 0.84, 0.27 ± 0.12, 0.103 ± 0.105 and 0.81 ± 0.64 µg/kg, respectively, in the domestic samples and 1.42 ± 0.87, 0.23 ± 0.10, 0.150 ± 0.11 and 0.74 ± 0.55 µg/kg, respectively, in the imported samples. Even though there were no significant differences in the contents of toxic elements between the domestic and imported sterilized milk samples ( P > 0.05), Cd contents were slightly lower in domestic samples. The content of toxic elements in various milk and dairy products, as reported in other studies, is summarized in Table 4 . The Cr content in our study was in accordance with the Cr levels reported in China in 2017 (0.02–5.01 µg/kg) [ 40 ], Bangladesh (108.0–834.0 µg/kg) [ 41 ], and China in 2020 (ND b –2.57 µg/kg) [ 42 ], but higher than the levels reported in China in 2016 (0.05–15.77 µg/kg) [ 43 ] and lower than in Egypt (104.4 µg/kg) [ 44 ]. As for As, the contents were within the range (0.0002–146.0 µg/kg) reported by other investigators [ 40 – 50 ]. The Cd contents were similar to those reported in Turkey (9.0–1051.0 µg/kg) [ 45 ], Poland (1.0–10.0 µg/kg) [ 46 ], China in 2016 (0.001–0.69 µg/kg) [ 43 ], Bangladesh (18.0–41.0 µg/kg) [ 41 ], and China in 2020 (0.06–0.21 µg/kg) [ 42 ]. The Pb contents were within the range (0.03–1100.0 µg/kg) reported by other investigators [ 40 – 50 ]. Table 4 Toxic elements content in different milk and dairy products from different countries Year Country N Toxic elements Mean (µg/kg) Range (µg/kg) Reference 2008 Turkey — a As — a 10.0–146.0 [ 45 ] Cd — a 9.0–1051.0 Pb — a 54.0–1100.0 2008 Poland — a Cd — a 1.0–10.0 [ 46 ] Pb — a 15.0–45.0 2016 China 997 As 0.31 ± 1.02 0.05–15.77 [ 43 ] Cd 0.05 ± 0.07 0.001–0.69 Pb 1.75 ± 3.73 0.14–38.61 2017 China 60 Cr 0.87 ± 1.02 0.02–5.01 [ 40 ] As 0.06 ± 0.20 0.0002–1.53 Cd 0.09 ± 0.006 0.01–0.27 Pb 1.22 ± 1.62 0.03–10.46 2017 Bangladesh 64 Cr 457.0 108.0–834.0 [ 41 ] As 43.0 5.0–89.0 Cd 27.0 18.0–41.0 Pb 13.0 7.0–20.0 2020 China 15 Cr 0.87 ± 0.61 ND b –2.57 [ 42 ] As 0.20 ± 0.05 0.12–0.27 Cd 0.13 ± 0.04 0.06–0.21 Pb 2.32 ± 0.78 ND b –3.31 2023 Pakistani 21 As — a 2.43–7.47 [ 47 ] Cd — a 32.8–51.6 Pb — a 38.2–48.6 2023 Egypt 200 Cr 104.4 — a [ 44 ] As 12.0 — a Cd 70.0 — a Pb 101.6 — a 2023 Italy 160 Cr 219.0 — a [ 48 ] Cd 104.0 — a 2024 Iran 132 Cd 2.34 ± 0.22 — a [ 49 ] Pb 92.64 ± 8.73 — a 2025 Switzerland 165 Cd — a 0.35–12.77 [ 50 ] Pb — a 10.3–21.6 2024 China 150 Cr 1.48 0.13–5.13 This study As 0.25 0.07–0.57 Cd 0.124 0.01–0.46 Pb 0.81 0.12–5.59 a Not mentioned in reference; b Not detected Risk Assessment of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products Although milk and dairy products are indispensable sources of high-quality protein and readily bioavailable minerals for the general population, children and adolescents remain a uniquely vulnerable subgroup. Their higher food intake per kilogram of body weight, immature blood–brain barrier, and greater intestinal permeability jointly confer higher absorption rates and prolonged systemic retention of toxic elements [ 9 , 11 – 12 , 51 ]. Once absorbed, As, Pb, Cd, and Cr(VI) accumulate in soft tissues and, for Pb and Cd, in bone, where long biological half-lives can extend exposure long after dietary intake ceases [ 52 – 54 ]. Epidemiological evidence suggests that even low-dose co-exposure to these metals can potentiate oxidative stress, disrupt essential metal transporters, and amplify nephrotoxic, neuro-developmental, and cardiovascular injury [ 9 , 11 , 55 ]. Because sterilized, pasteurized, fermented, and modified milks are consumed daily and often account for a significant share of children's energy and nutrient intake [ 3 ], any contaminant present becomes a continuous, dose-dependent risk factor. Therefore, the toxic elements in milk and dairy products, which may pose a risk to people, are highly significant. It is essential to ensure their quality and safety. We employed a human health risk assessment model to evaluate the potential risks associated with consuming milk and dairy products contaminated with these toxic elements in Henan. The model was suggested to calculate health risk requirements (EDI, THQ, and MOE) [ 41 , 56 ]. Assessing dietary exposure to toxic elements through milk and dairy products is crucial for understanding potential health risks associated with these products. This study calculated the EDI for As, Cd, Cr, and Pb for different age groups, considering two different intake rates (300 g/d and 500 g/d) to account for variations in body weight, in line with the recommendations of the Chinese Dietary Guidelines suggesting a daily intake of 300–500 g of milk and dairy products [ 3 ]. For males (Table S1), the EDI values were calculated based on the mean concentrations of toxic elements found in the samples, adjusted for the assumed daily intake rates. The results indicate that the EDI for Cr, As, Cd, and Pb across various age groups were consistently below the reference doses (RfD), suggesting a low risk of adverse health effects. Specifically, the EDI values for Cr ranged from 0.0062 to 0.0446 µg/kg body weight/day, Cd from 0.0005 to 0.0037 µg/kg body weight/day, and Pb from 0.0034 to 0.0244 µg/kg body weight/day. These values are significantly lower than the RfD values of 0.3, 4, 3, and 1 µg/kg b.w./day for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd [ 23 – 27 ], respectively. Similarly, the EDI for females ༈Table S1༉ was determined and compared against the RfD. The EDI values for Cr, As, Cd, and Pb were also found to be below the RfD, indicating a similar low risk profile as observed in males. The EDI values for Cr were between 0.0074 and 0.0465 µg/kg b.w./day, As from 0.0012 to 0.0079 µg/kg b.w./day, Cd from 0.0006 to 0.0039 µg/kg b.w./day and Pb from 0.0040 to 0.0255 µg/kg b.w./day. These findings are consistent with the male data, reinforcing the conclusion that the intake levels of these toxic elements through milk and dairy products are not likely to pose significant health risks. The THQ serves as a critical metric for assessing the potential health risks associated with the intake of toxic elements through milk and dairy products [ 22 ]. The THQ values, calculated by dividing the EDI by the RfD, provide insight into the level of risk posed by each toxic element [ 23 ]. For both male and female(Figure 1), the THQ values for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd were determined across different age groups. The results indicate that the THQ values for As ranged from 0.0035 to 0.0251 for males and from 0.0041 to 0.0262 for females. For Pb, the THQ values were between 0.0008 and 0.0061 for males and between 0.0010 and 0.0064 for females. Cr showed THQ values ranging from 0.0021 to 0.0149 for males and from 0.0025 to 0.0155 for females. Cd had THQ values ranging from 0.0005 to 0.0037 for males and from 0.0006 to 0.0039 for females. All THQs are far below 1, indicating that the current exposure levels of these heavy metals pose no significant non-carcinogenic health risk to the population. The HI, which is the sum of all THQ values, provides a comprehensive assessment of the combined risk from exposure to multiple toxic elements [ 21 , 28 ]. The HI values were calculated for each age group and are shown in Fig. 2. The HI values ranged from 0.0069 to 0.0498 for males and from 0.0082 to 0.0520 for females. Notably, the HI values were higher for females than for males, likely due to their lower body weight. Significantly, the HI values were inversely associated with age, indicating that younger age groups have a higher risk. However, all HI values were below the established safety threshold of 1, suggesting that the exposure to As, Pb, Cr, and Cd from milk and dairy products does not pose a significant health risk in China. The MOE-based risk characterization further complements the overall findings of our study, providing an additional perspective on the potential health risks associated with exposure to toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, and Pb) through milk and dairy products. MOE serves as a metric that quantifies the gap between actual chemical exposure and the health-based safety threshold; the higher the MOE value, the farther the exposure level is from the potentially harmful dose and the lower the associated risk [ 29 ]. MOE values for each toxic element across all age groups have been calculated and are presented in Table 5 . The potential poisonous element exposures are displayed as an arrangement of Pb > Cd > As > Cr. Although Cr is present at comparatively high concentrations, its MOE is orders of magnitude above those of the other metals, indicating a wide safety margin. In contrast, Pb shows the lowest acceptable margin of exposure in both children and adults. In adults, chronic low-level Pb exposure can impair central information processing and short-term verbal memory, induce psychiatric symptoms, and reduce manual dexterity. However, the neurotoxic impact is far more profound and enduring in the developing brain [ 58 ]. Because the blood–brain barrier is still immature, metal-ion transporters are highly active, and neuroplasticity is at its peak, even brief or low-dose Pb exposure during gestation or early childhood can cause irreversible neuro-developmental injury [ 59 – 60 ]. The risk to infants and toddlers is substantially greater than to adults, consequently. As and Cd fall into a moderate-risk category, with MOE values approaching or slightly below the threshold under higher intake scenarios. These findings underscore the need for continued surveillance and mitigation strategies, especially for toxic-element exposure in children and adolescents. Table 5 The Margin Of Exposure (MOE) of heavy metals for consumers aged 3 to 69 years after intake of milk and dairy products Exposure mean concentration (µg/kg) As Pb Cr Cd 0.25 0.81 1.48 0.124 Reference point BMDL 0.5 (WHO/JECFA) BMDL 01 (EFSA) (Children) BMDL 10 (EFSA) (Adult) BMDL 10 (EFSA) TWI (EFSA) 3 µg/kg b.w./day 0.5 µg/kg b.w./day 0.63 µg/kg b.w./day 1 mg/kg b.w./day (Cr IV) 2.5 µg/kg body weight Age Average Weight (kg) MOE c MOE children a 3 16.25 390–650 20–33 — 21959–36599 94–156 4 17.90 430–716 22–37 — 24189–40315 103–172 5 20.10 482–804 25–41 — 27162–45270 116–193 6 22.30 535–892 28–46 — 30135–50225 128–214 7 25.65 616–1026 32–53 — 34662–57770 148–246 8 28.75 690–1150 35–59 — 38851–64752 166–276 9 32.45 779–1298 40–67 — 43851–73086 187–312 10 36.35 872–1454 45–75 — 49122–81869 209–349 11 41.25 990–1650 51–85 — 55743–92905 238–396 12 45.55 1093–1822 56–94 — 61554–102590 262–437 13 50.00 1200–2000 62–103 — 67568–112613 288–480 14 53.30 1279–2132 66–110 — 72027–120045 307–512 15 55.55 1333–2222 69–114 — 75068–125113 320–533 16 57.10 1370–2284 70–117 — 77162–128604 329–548 17 58.15 1396–2326 72–120 — 78581–130968 335–558 MOE adult b 18 58.05 1393–2322 — 90–151 78446–130743 334–557 19 57.95 1391–2318 — 90–150 78311–130518 334–556 20–24 60.50 1452–2420 — 94–157 81757–136261 349–581 25–29 62.85 1508–2514 — 98–163 84932–141554 362–603 30–34 64.10 1538–2564 — 100–166 86622–144369 369–615 35–39 64.65 1552–2586 — 101–168 87365–145608 372–621 40–44 65.10 1562–2604 — 101–169 87973–146622 375–625 45–49 65.45 1571–2618 — 102–170 88446–147410 377–628 50–54 65.50 1572–2620 — 102–170 88514–147523 377–629 55–59 64.35 1544–2574 — 100–167 86959–144932 371–618 60–64 63.65 1528–2546 — 99–165 86014–143356 367–611 65–69 62.90 1510–2516 — 98–163 85000–141667 362–604 a Children's weight: according to The National Physical Fitness Monitoring Bulletin (2014) [ 57 ], the average value of weight-for-age for children b Adult weight: according to The National Physical Fitness Monitoring Bulletin (2014), the average value of weight-for-age for adult c MOE range: reference to The Chinese Dietary Guidelines recommend a daily intake of 300–500 g of milk and dairy products [ 3 ] Conclusions The analysis of cow-milk-based dairy products from Henan using ICP-MS revealed that the levels of As, Cr, Pb, and Cd were all below the MLs set by China, CAC, and the European Union. There was no significant difference in heavy metal content between imported brands and domestic counterparts. The estimated dietary exposure for children and adults (300–500 g/day) showed that the EDI of As, Cr, Pb, and Cd was far below the RfD. The THQ and HI for all four toxic elements were well below one across all age groups (3–69 years), indicating that the current consumption of milk and dairy products in Henan does not pose a significant non-carcinogenic health risk. However, Pb exposure levels were consistently the lowest, particularly among children and adolescents, underscoring the need for continued monitoring and preventive measures. Overall, this study confirmed that both domestic and imported dairy products sold in Henan meet the required standards. Nevertheless, continuous monitoring is still recommended, especially for lead exposure in infants and young children, as well as for other potential toxic elements, to support evidence-based dietary guidance and ensure long-term consumer safety. Declarations Ethics approval: Not applicable. Consent to participate: Not applicable. Consent to publish: Not applicable. Competing Interests: The authors report no conflict of interest. Funding: This study was supported by Henan Provincial Science and Technology Research Project (242102110064), 2024 Special Support Fund for High-Level Talents (30501696111), and 2026 Henan Provincial Effect Evaluation Project of Dairy Cow Milk Yield Improvement. Author Contribution Writing—original draft preparation, Chunyu Feng and Han Li; writing—review and editing, Chunyu Feng, Han Li and Yi Li; software, Chunyu Feng and Chuanyou Su; methodology, Chuanyou Su and Liyang Zhang; formal analysis, Chuanyou Su; validation, Yi Li; resources, Tong Fu; visualization and funding acquisition, Tong Fu; conceptualization, Chuanyou Su. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data Availability: None of the data were deposited in an official repository. The data that support the study findings and models are available from the authors upon reasonable request. References Sun Y, Ding Y, Liu B, Guo J, Su Y, Yang X, Man C, Zhang Y, Jiang Y (2024) Recent advances in the bovine β-casein gene mutants on functional characteristics and nutritional health of dairy products: Status, challenges, and prospects. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":266204,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2..jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8610502/v1/38cd6669303fde86c9c4a2ad.jpg"},{"id":102397118,"identity":"142e3199-4089-4488-a96e-cf3017ad3351","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 10:00:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1988109,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8610502/v1/f6ecacb4-e7a6-46b7-9afe-6e5e93eb75c5.pdf"},{"id":100684694,"identity":"0152bfc4-4a48-4754-976d-2f3e7c819d37","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-20 12:45:36","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":21470,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"TableS1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8610502/v1/9b86d5e00424a6845b03bc0e.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Content and Dietary Exposure Assessment of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products from the Henan","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMilk and dairy products serve as a premier source of high-quality protein, readily absorbable calcium, and a spectrum of micronutrients, occupying a central position in global dietary patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Their nutritional value lies not only in the balanced provision of macronutrients but also in a matrix of highly bioavailable, bioactive microconstituents that support human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The Chinese Dietary Guidelines recommend a daily intake of 300\u0026ndash;500 g of milk and dairy products. However, current consumption averages only 20\u0026ndash;30 g among Chinese adults and 60\u0026ndash;80 g among children and adolescents, leaving a substantial gap from the recommended levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the extensive consumer base of dairy products, the quality and safety of milk and dairy products constitute a direct public health concern, as the presence of any contaminant may trigger large-scale health crises [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Systematic safety assessment of commercially available dairy categories, therefore, carries not only regional significance but also national-level epidemiological value. With 97.85\u0026nbsp;million permanent residents by 2024 (6.95% of China's total population), Henan represents one of the largest provincial dairy consumption markets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], whose regulatory landscape partially reflects the actual supervision capacity in central-western China. Targeted screening of chemical contaminants and microbiological hazards across major product types, including sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk, and modified milk, has become a critical intervention for safeguarding population nutritional security [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and hexavalent chromium (Cr VI) rank 1st, 2nd, 7th, and 17th, respectively, on the 2022 Substance Priority List, a ranking that mirrors their persisting threat to global food safety and public health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Epidemiological and mechanistic evidence indicate that the combined toxicity of these metals can markedly differ from that of any single element, because co-exposure at individually sub-toxic doses may potentiate oxidative stress, disrupt metal transporters, and amplify organ-specific injury [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Children and adolescents constitute a uniquely susceptible sub-population. Their higher food intake per kilogram of body weight, immature blood-brain barrier, and elevated intestinal permeability jointly confer greater absorption rates and enhanced vulnerability to nephrotoxicity, neuro-developmental impairment, cardiovascular dysfunction, and carcinogenesis following chronic oral exposure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile previous work has focused on contaminant residues in infant formula, systematic surveillance data for Pb, As, Cd, and Cr in the far higher-volume liquid milks (sterilized milk and pasteurized milk) and in other dairy matrices (fermented milk and modified milk) remain scarce. To safeguard public health, maximum levels (MLs) for these toxic elements have been established by international bodies and the Chinese government. For lead in milk and dairy products, China (2025) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]has set the ML at 0.4 mg/kg, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (2024) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] at 0.2 mg/kg, and the European Union (2023) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] at 0.02 mg/kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsider the scarcity of comprehensive data on toxic-element contamination in Henan's retail dairy, this study aimed to (i) quantify As, Cd, Pb and Cr in commercially available sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk and modified milk in Henan, (ii) verify whether these samples comply with the prevailing legal limits, (iii) contrast toxic-element concentrations between domestic and imported brands, (iv) estimate the dietary exposure to these toxic elements through milk and dairy products consumed in Henan and to assess the associated potential health risks to the local population.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 150 cow-milk-based dairy products were collected from the 17 prefecture-level cities of Henan between January 2023 and January 2024. These samples cover the principal dairy product categories available in Henan, sterilized milk (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;61), pasteurized milk (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29), fermented milk (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38), and modified milk (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22). All pasteurized, fermented, and modified milk samples were of domestic origin. A total of 61 sterilized milk samples were collected, comprising 32 samples of domestic origin and 29 imported samples. The imported items originated from seven countries, Australia, Germany, New Zealand, France, Belarus, Ireland, and Austria. Products were purchased from supermarkets and retail chains, transported to the laboratory within six hours, and stored at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C before analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the microwave-assisted digestion protocol described by Su et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], samples were digested with dilute nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Briefly, 0.5 g of the sample in a polyfluoroalkoxy digestion vessel was added 1 mL deionized water (Milli-Q, Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA), 5 mL nitric acid (65%, Suprapur, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), and 2 mL hydrogen peroxide (30%, Suprapur, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). After overnight pre-digestion at room temperature, the mixture was digested in a microwave-assisted reaction system (CEM MARS 6, Charlotte, NC, USA) according to the programme shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Once cooled, the digest was diluted to 25 mL with deionized water and analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Agilent 7700 Series ICP-MS, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) after filtration through a 0.22-\u0026micro;m membrane. Standard five-point calibrations were developed for each of the toxic elements. The correlation coefficients were \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.9999, and the limits of detection for Pb, As, Cr, and Cd in milk and dairy products were 0.2, 0.5, 2.0, and 0.1 \u0026micro;g/kg [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrowave-assisted digestion procedure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature (◦C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGradient temperature time (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolding time (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRisk Assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe risk of toxic elements across different age groups (3\u0026ndash;6 years, 7\u0026ndash;19 years, 20\u0026ndash;59 years, and 60\u0026ndash;69 years) was assessed by calculating the estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and margin of exposure (MOE). The ethics committee of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences approved all experimental procedures for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExposure Assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExposure to toxic elements in different age groups was assessed using the average content of harmful elements in the tested dairy products and the recommended average consumption of milk and dairy products in China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], according to Eq.\u0026nbsp;(1) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. We compared the EDI obtained in this study with the reference dose (RfD). The RfD serves as a reference point for gauging the potential effects of the chemical at other doses. Typically, doses below the RfD are unlikely to be associated with adverse health risks and are therefore of less regulatory concern [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEDI = C × DI/BW (1)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere C is the toxic element content in milk and dairy products (\u0026micro;g/kg), DI is the daily intake of milk and dairy products (kg), and BW is body weight (kg).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTarget Hazard Quotient\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chronic risk posed by toxic elements was expressed as the THQ, a metric used to evaluate non-carcinogenic risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. A THQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 indicates that consumers are unlikely to experience adverse health effects, whereas a THQ\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;1 suggests a potential health risk. The THQ was calculated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(2).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTHQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;EDI/RfD (2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere RfD is the oral reference dose (mg/kg/d), based on 3 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e, 4 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, 3 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e, and 1\u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd, respectively [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25 CR26\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHealth Risks of Multiple Toxic Elements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the total THQ was also estimated, as people are typically exposed to multiple pollutants simultaneously, leading to combined health effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The overall potential chronic risk from exposure to various toxic elements was expressed as an HI, calculated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(3). HI\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 indicated no risk for human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHI = THQ (3)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMargin Of Exposure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe MOE is defined as the ratio of the reference point (RP) for a compound to the estimated or measured level of human exposure to that compound [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The magnitude of MOE can be used to guide the risk priority for management purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. The MOE was calculated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(4). The benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL) is considered the most suitable reference point, as it represents the lower 95% confidence limit on the benchmark dose (BMD) and accounts for uncertainties in the data. Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines MOE as the ratio of the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) or the BMDL for the critical effect to the theoretical, predicted, or estimated exposure dose or concentration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding As, based on epidemiological studies, JECFA identified a benchmark dose lower confidence limit for a 0.5% increased incidence of lung cancer (BMDL\u003csub\u003e0.5\u003c/sub\u003e) of 3.0 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. For estimated daily exposure to Pb among infant and child consumers, a BMDL\u003csub\u003e01\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.5 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day for neurodevelopmental toxicity was used. For adults, a BMDL\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e dietary Pb intake value of 0.63 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day was derived for nephrotoxicity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, the toxicity of hexavalent chromium (Cr IV) is more than that of trivalent chromium (Cr III). The BMDL\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e of 1 mg/kg b.w./day of Cr IV was used to estimate the risk of total Cr in raw milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for cadmium (Cd) is 2.5 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMOE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;BMDL/EDI (4)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis was performed using SPSS (IBM, Endicott, NY, USA) version 20. Data were expressed as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation (SD). Differences in mineral element content among samples were analysed with an independent t-test. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConcentrations of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 150 milk and dairy products samples were collected in Henan and comprehensively analyzed for four toxic elements in sterilized milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk, and modified milk. The content of harmful elements in milk and dairy products was 1.48 \u0026micro;g/kg Cr (0.13\u0026ndash;5.13 \u0026micro;g/kg), 0.25 \u0026micro;g/kg As (0.07\u0026ndash;0.57 \u0026micro;g/kg), 0.124 \u0026micro;g/kg Cd (0.01\u0026ndash;0.46 \u0026micro;g/kg), and 0.81 \u0026micro;g/kg Pb (0.12\u0026ndash;5.59 \u0026micro;g/kg; Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic element content (\u0026micro;g/kg) in different milk and dairy products from Henan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStyle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSterilized milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026ndash;3.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026ndash;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;0.446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026ndash;3.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePasteurized milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026ndash;3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026ndash;0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026ndash;3.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFermented milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026ndash;5.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026ndash;0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026ndash;4.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModified milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u0026ndash;4.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026ndash;0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026ndash;5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026ndash;5.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026ndash;0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026ndash;5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic elements content (\u0026micro;g/kg) in domestic and imported sterilised milk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic elements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomestic (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImported (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026ndash;3.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026ndash;3.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026ndash;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026ndash;0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020\u0026ndash;0.430\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.150\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u0026ndash;0.446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026ndash;3.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026ndash;3.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Pb levels found in this study were below the MLs set by China (0.4 mg/kg)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e], the European Union (0.02 mg/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] and CAC (0.2 mg/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the Cr and As contents were below the MLs established by China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. These results indicate that the quality and safety of dairy products currently sold in the Chinese market remain generally stable and continue to improve [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSterilized milk plays a significant role in daily dairy consumption, primarily due to its extended shelf life, achieved through thorough microbial inactivation while preserving the nutritional and sensory qualities of milk to the greatest extent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. In the 61 sterilized milk samples collected, the contents of Cr, As, Cd and Pb were 1.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84, 0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12, 0.103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.105 and 0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64 \u0026micro;g/kg, respectively, in the domestic samples and 1.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87, 0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10, 0.150\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 and 0.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55 \u0026micro;g/kg, respectively, in the imported samples. Even though there were no significant differences in the contents of toxic elements between the domestic and imported sterilized milk samples (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), Cd contents were slightly lower in domestic samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe content of toxic elements in various milk and dairy products, as reported in other studies, is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. The Cr content in our study was in accordance with the Cr levels reported in China in 2017 (0.02\u0026ndash;5.01 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], Bangladesh (108.0\u0026ndash;834.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], and China in 2020 (ND\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;2.57 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], but higher than the levels reported in China in 2016 (0.05\u0026ndash;15.77 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] and lower than in Egypt (104.4 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. As for As, the contents were within the range (0.0002\u0026ndash;146.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) reported by other investigators [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR41 CR42 CR43 CR44 CR45 CR46 CR47 CR48 CR49\" citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. The Cd contents were similar to those reported in Turkey (9.0\u0026ndash;1051.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], Poland (1.0\u0026ndash;10.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], China in 2016 (0.001\u0026ndash;0.69 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], Bangladesh (18.0\u0026ndash;41.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], and China in 2020 (0.06\u0026ndash;0.21 \u0026micro;g/kg) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The Pb contents were within the range (0.03\u0026ndash;1100.0 \u0026micro;g/kg) reported by other investigators [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR41 CR42 CR43 CR44 CR45 CR46 CR47 CR48 CR49\" citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic elements content in different milk and dairy products from different countries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxic elements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurkey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u0026ndash;146.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u0026ndash;1051.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.0\u0026ndash;1100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026ndash;10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u0026ndash;45.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026ndash;15.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u0026ndash;0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u0026ndash;38.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u0026ndash;5.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u0026ndash;1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u0026ndash;10.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBangladesh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e457.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.0\u0026ndash;834.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u0026ndash;89.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.0\u0026ndash;41.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0\u0026ndash;20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026ndash;0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026ndash;0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eND\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026ndash;3.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePakistani\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.43\u0026ndash;7.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.8\u0026ndash;51.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.2\u0026ndash;48.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEgypt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIran\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwitzerland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u0026ndash;12.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash; \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3\u0026ndash;21.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026ndash;5.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026ndash;0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u0026ndash;0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026ndash;5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Not mentioned in reference;\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Not detected\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRisk Assessment of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough milk and dairy products are indispensable sources of high-quality protein and readily bioavailable minerals for the general population, children and adolescents remain a uniquely vulnerable subgroup. Their higher food intake per kilogram of body weight, immature blood\u0026ndash;brain barrier, and greater intestinal permeability jointly confer higher absorption rates and prolonged systemic retention of toxic elements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Once absorbed, As, Pb, Cd, and Cr(VI) accumulate in soft tissues and, for Pb and Cd, in bone, where long biological half-lives can extend exposure long after dietary intake ceases [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR53\" citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Epidemiological evidence suggests that even low-dose co-exposure to these metals can potentiate oxidative stress, disrupt essential metal transporters, and amplify nephrotoxic, neuro-developmental, and cardiovascular injury [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. Because sterilized, pasteurized, fermented, and modified milks are consumed daily and often account for a significant share of children's energy and nutrient intake [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], any contaminant present becomes a continuous, dose-dependent risk factor. Therefore, the toxic elements in milk and dairy products, which may pose a risk to people, are highly significant. It is essential to ensure their quality and safety. We employed a human health risk assessment model to evaluate the potential risks associated with consuming milk and dairy products contaminated with these toxic elements in Henan. The model was suggested to calculate health risk requirements (EDI, THQ, and MOE) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessing dietary exposure to toxic elements through milk and dairy products is crucial for understanding potential health risks associated with these products. This study calculated the EDI for As, Cd, Cr, and Pb for different age groups, considering two different intake rates (300 g/d and 500 g/d) to account for variations in body weight, in line with the recommendations of the Chinese Dietary Guidelines suggesting a daily intake of 300\u0026ndash;500 g of milk and dairy products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. For males (Table S1), the EDI values were calculated based on the mean concentrations of toxic elements found in the samples, adjusted for the assumed daily intake rates. The results indicate that the EDI for Cr, As, Cd, and Pb across various age groups were consistently below the reference doses (RfD), suggesting a low risk of adverse health effects. Specifically, the EDI values for Cr ranged from 0.0062 to 0.0446 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day, Cd from 0.0005 to 0.0037 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day, and Pb from 0.0034 to 0.0244 \u0026micro;g/kg body weight/day. These values are significantly lower than the RfD values of 0.3, 4, 3, and 1 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25 CR26\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], respectively. Similarly, the EDI for females ༈Table S1༉ was determined and compared against the RfD. The EDI values for Cr, As, Cd, and Pb were also found to be below the RfD, indicating a similar low risk profile as observed in males. The EDI values for Cr were between 0.0074 and 0.0465 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day, As from 0.0012 to 0.0079 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day, Cd from 0.0006 to 0.0039 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day and Pb from 0.0040 to 0.0255 \u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day. These findings are consistent with the male data, reinforcing the conclusion that the intake levels of these toxic elements through milk and dairy products are not likely to pose significant health risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe THQ serves as a critical metric for assessing the potential health risks associated with the intake of toxic elements through milk and dairy products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. The THQ values, calculated by dividing the EDI by the RfD, provide insight into the level of risk posed by each toxic element [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. For both male and female(Figure 1), the THQ values for As, Pb, Cr, and Cd were determined across different age groups. The results indicate that the THQ values for As ranged from 0.0035 to 0.0251 for males and from 0.0041 to 0.0262 for females. For Pb, the THQ values were between 0.0008 and 0.0061 for males and between 0.0010 and 0.0064 for females. Cr showed THQ values ranging from 0.0021 to 0.0149 for males and from 0.0025 to 0.0155 for females. Cd had THQ values ranging from 0.0005 to 0.0037 for males and from 0.0006 to 0.0039 for females. All THQs are far below 1, indicating that the current exposure levels of these heavy metals pose no significant non-carcinogenic health risk to the population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe HI, which is the sum of all THQ values, provides a comprehensive assessment of the combined risk from exposure to multiple toxic elements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The HI values were calculated for each age group and are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2. The HI values ranged from 0.0069 to 0.0498 for males and from 0.0082 to 0.0520 for females. Notably, the HI values were higher for females than for males, likely due to their lower body weight. Significantly, the HI values were inversely associated with age, indicating that younger age groups have a higher risk. However, all HI values were below the established safety threshold of 1, suggesting that the exposure to As, Pb, Cr, and Cd from milk and dairy products does not pose a significant health risk in China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe MOE-based risk characterization further complements the overall findings of our study, providing an additional perspective on the potential health risks associated with exposure to toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, and Pb) through milk and dairy products. MOE serves as a metric that quantifies the gap between actual chemical exposure and the health-based safety threshold; the higher the MOE value, the farther the exposure level is from the potentially harmful dose and the lower the associated risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. MOE values for each toxic element across all age groups have been calculated and are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The potential poisonous element exposures are displayed as an arrangement of Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cr. Although Cr is present at comparatively high concentrations, its MOE is orders of magnitude above those of the other metals, indicating a wide safety margin. In contrast, Pb shows the lowest acceptable margin of exposure in both children and adults. In adults, chronic low-level Pb exposure can impair central information processing and short-term verbal memory, induce psychiatric symptoms, and reduce manual dexterity. However, the neurotoxic impact is far more profound and enduring in the developing brain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Because the blood\u0026ndash;brain barrier is still immature, metal-ion transporters are highly active, and neuroplasticity is at its peak, even brief or low-dose Pb exposure during gestation or early childhood can cause irreversible neuro-developmental injury [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. The risk to infants and toddlers is substantially greater than to adults, consequently. As and Cd fall into a moderate-risk category, with MOE values approaching or slightly below the threshold under higher intake scenarios. These findings underscore the need for continued surveillance and mitigation strategies, especially for toxic-element exposure in children and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \n \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Margin Of Exposure (MOE) of heavy metals for consumers aged 3 to 69 years after intake of milk and dairy products\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure mean concentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u0026micro;g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMDL\u003csub\u003e0.5\u003c/sub\u003e (WHO/JECFA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMDL\u003csub\u003e01\u003c/sub\u003e (EFSA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Children)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMDL\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (EFSA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adult)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBMDL\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (EFSA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTWI (EFSA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;g/kg b.w./day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emg/kg b.w./day\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Cr IV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;g/kg body weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage Weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOE \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOE children \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e390\u0026ndash;650\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21959\u0026ndash;36599\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u0026ndash;156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e430\u0026ndash;716\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u0026ndash;37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24189\u0026ndash;40315\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u0026ndash;172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e482\u0026ndash;804\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27162\u0026ndash;45270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u0026ndash;193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e535\u0026ndash;892\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u0026ndash;46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30135\u0026ndash;50225\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128\u0026ndash;214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e616\u0026ndash;1026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u0026ndash;53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34662\u0026ndash;57770\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148\u0026ndash;246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e690\u0026ndash;1150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38851\u0026ndash;64752\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166\u0026ndash;276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55743\u0026ndash;92905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e238\u0026ndash;396\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1093\u0026ndash;1822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u0026ndash;94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61554\u0026ndash;102590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1279\u0026ndash;2132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u0026ndash;110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72027\u0026ndash;120045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e307\u0026ndash;512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78581\u0026ndash;130968\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u0026ndash;558\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOE adult \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1393\u0026ndash;2322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u0026ndash;151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78446\u0026ndash;130743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e334\u0026ndash;557\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1391\u0026ndash;2318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u0026ndash;150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78311\u0026ndash;130518\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e334\u0026ndash;556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1452\u0026ndash;2420\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u0026ndash;157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81757\u0026ndash;136261\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e349\u0026ndash;581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1508\u0026ndash;2514\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u0026ndash;163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84932\u0026ndash;141554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e362\u0026ndash;603\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1538\u0026ndash;2564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86622\u0026ndash;144369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e369\u0026ndash;615\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1552\u0026ndash;2586\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u0026ndash;168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87365\u0026ndash;145608\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e372\u0026ndash;621\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1562\u0026ndash;2604\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u0026ndash;169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87973\u0026ndash;146622\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e375\u0026ndash;625\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1571\u0026ndash;2618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102\u0026ndash;170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88446\u0026ndash;147410\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e377\u0026ndash;628\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1572\u0026ndash;2620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102\u0026ndash;170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88514\u0026ndash;147523\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e377\u0026ndash;629\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u0026ndash;59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1544\u0026ndash;2574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86959\u0026ndash;144932\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e371\u0026ndash;618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1528\u0026ndash;2546\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u0026ndash;165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86014\u0026ndash;143356\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e367\u0026ndash;611\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u0026ndash;69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1510\u0026ndash;2516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u0026ndash;163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85000\u0026ndash;141667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e362\u0026ndash;604\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e Children's weight: according to The National Physical Fitness Monitoring Bulletin (2014) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], the average value of weight-for-age for children\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Adult weight: according to The National Physical Fitness Monitoring Bulletin (2014), the average value of weight-for-age for adult\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e MOE range: reference to The Chinese Dietary Guidelines recommend a daily intake of 300\u0026ndash;500 g of milk and dairy products [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of cow-milk-based dairy products from Henan using ICP-MS revealed that the levels of As, Cr, Pb, and Cd were all below the MLs set by China, CAC, and the European Union. There was no significant difference in heavy metal content between imported brands and domestic counterparts. The estimated dietary exposure for children and adults (300\u0026ndash;500 g/day) showed that the EDI of As, Cr, Pb, and Cd was far below the RfD. The THQ and HI for all four toxic elements were well below one across all age groups (3\u0026ndash;69 years), indicating that the current consumption of milk and dairy products in Henan does not pose a significant non-carcinogenic health risk. However, Pb exposure levels were consistently the lowest, particularly among children and adolescents, underscoring the need for continued monitoring and preventive measures. Overall, this study confirmed that both domestic and imported dairy products sold in Henan meet the required standards. Nevertheless, continuous monitoring is still recommended, especially for lead exposure in infants and young children, as well as for other potential toxic elements, to support evidence-based dietary guidance and ensure long-term consumer safety.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors report no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by Henan Provincial Science and Technology Research Project (242102110064), 2024 Special Support Fund for High-Level Talents (30501696111), and 2026 Henan Provincial Effect Evaluation Project of Dairy Cow Milk Yield Improvement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWriting\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, Chunyu Feng and Han Li; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, Chunyu Feng, Han Li and Yi Li; software, Chunyu Feng and Chuanyou Su; methodology, Chuanyou Su and Liyang Zhang; formal analysis, Chuanyou Su; validation, Yi Li; resources, Tong Fu; visualization and funding acquisition, Tong Fu; conceptualization, Chuanyou Su. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone of the data were deposited in an official repository. The data that support the study findings and models are available from the authors upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSun Y, Ding Y, Liu B, Guo J, Su Y, Yang X, Man C, Zhang Y, Jiang Y (2024) Recent advances in the bovine β-casein gene mutants on functional characteristics and nutritional health of dairy products: Status, challenges, and prospects. 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Arch Ind Hyg Toxicol 62(2):147\u0026ndash;153. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2478/10004-1254-62-2011-2070\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2478/10004-1254-62-2011-2070\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Toxic elements, Lead, Health risks, Estimated daily intake, Hazard index, Margin of exposure","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8610502/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8610502/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to investigate the concentrations of toxic elements, including chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb), in milk and dairy products from Henan and assess their potential health risks to the local population through dietary exposure. A total of 150 cow-milk-based dairy products, including sterilized, pasteurized, fermented, and modified milk were collected from 17 prefecture-level cities in Henan. The toxic elements were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and margin of exposure (MOE) were calculated for different age groups based on the average consumption rates. The mean concentrations of Cr, As, Cd, and Pb were 1.48 \u0026micro;g/kg, 0.25 \u0026micro;g/kg, 0.124 \u0026micro;g/kg, and 0.81 \u0026micro;g/kg, respectively, all below the maximum levels set by China, the CAC, and the European Union. No significant differences were found between domestic and imported products. The HI values were well below 1, indicating low health risks across all age groups. The THQ risk ranking was As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd. If assessed using the MOE, the potential exposures to toxic elements were arranged as Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cr. The study concludes that the current levels of toxic elements in milk and dairy products from Henan pose no significant health risks to consumers. However, continuous monitoring is recommended, especially for lead exposure in children and adolescents, to ensure long-term consumer safety.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Content and Dietary Exposure Assessment of Toxic Elements in Milk and Dairy Products from the Henan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-20 10:45:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8610502/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"322108a4-0a6a-4a99-a60f-b9e9583d7386","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 20th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-28T23:54:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-20 10:45:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8610502","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8610502","identity":"rs-8610502","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}