Subsurface Architecture of the Tuina Prospect and Its Relationship to Fluid Migration in Mineral Deposit Formation

Subsurface Architecture of the Tuina Prospect and Its Relationship to Fluid Migration in Mineral Deposit Formation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Subsurface Architecture of the Tuina Prospect and Its Relationship to Fluid Migration in Mineral Deposit Formation Javiera Jaque-Reyes, Valentina Reyes-Wagner, Diana Comte, Matias Peña, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Tuina prospect is situated in northern Chile, approximately 50 km east of Calama in the Antofagasta Region. It lies within the Eocene-Oligocene metallogenic belt, which is home to world-class copper deposits, including Chuquicamata, El Abra, and Radomiro Tomic. To characterize the subsurface architecture, we deployed a temporary seismic network of 37 geophones and applied Local Seismic Tomography to derive seismic velocity models. The results show intermediate Vp/Vs values in the prospect area, suggesting a highly fractured environment consistent with surface geological data. Additionally, we identified a high Vp/Vs anomaly with a northwest orientation, reaching depths of up to 20 km and intersecting the anomaly associated with Tuina. We propose that this structure is not a simple lineament, as previously suggested, but rather a concealed fault system controlling the eastern boundary of the Eocene-Oligocene metallogenic belt. In this context, the so-called Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament represents a complex fault system playing a key role in the region’s structural evolution and mineralization. Based on this, we present a five-stage conceptual model explaining how fluid migration from subduction enables the formation of mineral prospects controlled by this fault system. The tomography results correlate with surface data, demonstrating the method’s effectiveness for geophysical exploration. Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geology Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geophysics Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction The real influence of crustal architecture in the emplacement of Cu Porphyry deposits is still a matter of discussion; its kinematic history and geometry are crucial to understanding the different stress fields linked to magmatic and hydrothermal fluids flow. Added to these, many of the Cu world-class deposits are below unconsolidated sediments, making the study of structural styles with surface information a difficult task, adding more clues to the search for Cu Porphyry deposits. Related to this problem, in recent decades, the mining industry has ventured into deeper mineral deposits 1 , leading to increased complexity in exploration. A significant challenge is the exploration of areas where potential deposits are under thick cover and have little surface expression 2 . In such contexts, the use of unconventional geophysical techniques becomes fundamental due to their ability to effectively explore the subsurface 3 while also being cost-effective and low-impact compared to traditional methods 4 . Local Earthquake Tomography (LET) is a passive, non-invasive geophysical method that uses local seismicity to image the subsurface structures through seismic wave velocities 5 , 6 . This technique has been widely used to study processes at different scales in subduction zones, such as fluid migration and partial melting 6 – 8 . More recently, studies have shown that LET is an effective method for studying deep-seated structures within porphyry-type deposits 4 , 9 , 10 . The models obtained by LET in these studies showed a strong agreement with the proposed porphyry formation models, highlighting the importance of geophysical studies in understanding subsurface geology. LET is performed by inverting the seismic body wave arrival times and hypocenters from a local seismic catalog. Body waves consist of primary (P) and secondary (S) phases that propagate through the Earth’s interior during an earthquake. P-waves, or compressional waves, are the fastest and are longitudinal waves that can propagate through both solid and liquid materials. In contrast, S-waves, or shear waves, are transverse waves and can only travel through solid materials. LET's main products are 3D seismic velocity models for P- and S-waves, and the ratio between them (Vp, Vs, and Vp/Vs, respectively). Seismic velocities depend on numerous factors such as mineralogical composition, fluid content, temperature, pressure, grain size, cementation, orientation with respect to bedding or foliation, and alteration 11 . Therefore, their interpretation is not unique. Particularly, within active convergent margins, Vp/Vs models can distinguish between different processes and structures in depth 4 , 12 . In addition, the inclusion of local geology aspects (structural, economic, and regional geology) is essential for the accurate interpretation of the seismic velocity models. This study applies LET to investigate the crustal structure around a greenfield prospect located in the southern central Andes in northern Chile. In this area, porphyry copper deposits are distributed in three arc-parallel metallogenic belts associated with magmatic activity in different epochs: Early Cretaceous, Paleocene to Early Eocene, and Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene 13 (Fig. 1 a). The Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene belt hosts the largest porphyry Cu deposits in Chile with the largest reserves of copper resources 14 , making it a focal point for mineral exploration. Large porphyry deposits in the middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt are emplaced along the Domeyko Fault System 19 (DFS). This is the case for the Chuquicamata district, located to the west of our study area (Fig. 1 b), which includes the world-class Chuquicamata and Radomiro Tomic deposits, among others 20 . Regionally, oblique lineaments have been proposed to play a fundamental role in the Cenozoic metallogenic belts 21 , 22 . Given the location of the study area, we are particularly interested in the Calama - Olacapato - El Toro (COT) lineament, a NW-SE strike-slip fault that is one of the most important active tectonic lineaments in the southern central Andes 22 , 23 . While in Argentina, this lineament can be traced with recognizable structures on the surface and is thought to control volcanic and geothermal systems23,24, in Chile, surface evidence of its trace is not clear due to the extent of covered areas. The focus of this work is to understand the relationship between the 3D seismic velocity models obtained with LET and the deposits in the Eocene-Oligocene belt. The analysis examines two main aspects: the position of magmatic arcs and local/regional scale structures. The study supports previous research suggesting that Paleozoic magmatic events played a significant role in the formation of the basement of the Domeyko Range and are closely related to the formation of porphyry copper deposits 19 , 24 . In addition, Cenozoic magmatic events, when intruding into the Paleozoic basement under certain conditions, have contributed to the formation of world-class deposits 14 , 19 , 25 . The analysis also considers north-south (NS) and obliquely oriented structures associated with Mesozoic basin deformation and Cenozoic deformation processes on both local and regional scales. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between magmatic events, structures, and deposit formation in Cenozoic metallogenic belts. Geological Context Upper Early Carboniferous to Mid-Permian magmatism developed in a compressive convergent margin environment characterized by normal to thickened continental crust during the Gondwana orogeny (Fig. 2 A). This magmatism was emplaced within an early-stage accretionary prism. The intrusions, comprising dioritic, tonalitic, and granodioritic magmas, form a continuous belt that extends from approximately 21°S to 40°S 26 . It includes the San Rafael event (ca. 284 Ma to 276 Ma), a compressional episode characterized by intense folding and thrusting 27 observed in the Argentine Frontal Cordillera 28 . Mid-Permian to Triassic magmatism occurred in an extensional convergent margin setting (Fig. 2 B), driven by slab rollback and the progressive thinning of the continental crust. Most of the magma was derived from melting of the lower continental crust, with reduced contributions from the upper crust and variable mantle influence 26 . The generalized extension along the southwestern margin of Pangea reactivated pre-existing zones of weakness, resulting in the formation of several NW-SE oriented basins 29 . Among these, the rift-related bimodal sequences of the Choiyoi Province stand out 30 . This province includes the Tuina Formation, which is characterized by a volcanic and sedimentary sequence composed mainly of andesitic lavas, rhyolites, and sandstones 16 . The Domeyko Basin developed during the Triassic as a rift-related basin (Fig. 2 C), characterized by the deposition of sedimentary and volcanic sequences during its syn-rift stage. The architecture of this stage was controlled by the interaction between major N-S faults and oblique NW-SE discontinuities, which generated asymmetric half-graben depocenters and structural highs within a left-lateral transtensional regime (pull-apart or releasing bend) 31 . These oblique discontinuities are interpreted as NW-SE continental-scale lineaments, suggesting that inherited basement weaknesses played a critical role in the segmentation and evolution of the Domeyko Basin 31 . The same Triassic basins remained active until the upper Early Cretaceous when they were reactivated and tectonically inverted 32 , 33 (Fig. 2 D), leading to the formation of positive relief in the Coastal Range around 105–107 Ma 32 . This uplifting process related to tectonic inversion continued to the East, allowing the formation of the initial relief in the Domeyko Range 34 , during the Late Cretaceous 35 , being the period of major shortening during the Eocene-Early Oligocene, correlating with the deformation of the Bolivian orocline 25 . The structure of the Domeyko Range is characterized by several north-south trending basement ridges parallel to the trench. These ridges are uplifted by high-angle reverse to oblique faults (Fig. 2 E). This north-south orientation of contemporaneous deposits suggests that the emplacement of Eocene-Oligocene intrusive complexes was controlled by a NS strike-slip fault system known as the West Fault System (WFS) within a transtensional regime 36 , 37 . The tectonostratigraphic history of the region is more consistent with the formation of a Late Eocene-Oligocene retroarc foreland basin in the Altiplano, followed by the development of the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene west- and east-trending thrust systems 38 (Fig. 2 F). High-resolution geochronological analyses, together with volume and spatial assessments conducted by Salisbury et al. 39 , allowed the identification of the onset and timing of magmatic activity within the APVC. Around 11 Ma, the earliest recorded activity is characterized by small-volume (280 km³) and widespread volcanic eruptions in northern Chile and Argentina. Results 3D velocity models Our preferred velocity models, shown in Figs. 4 , 5 , S4, and S5, are consistent with the features observed by Leon-Rios et al. 8 (Figure S5). The subducting slab, with depths between 80 km and 100 km in P3, shows low Vp/Vs values ( 1.80) predominate in the continental mantle (H3), and a high Vp (> 8.4 km/s) anomaly is observed at ~ 80 km depth, which is consistent with the continental mantle described by Leon-Rios et al. 8 . The transition from the crust to the mantle of the South American plate, i.e., the Moho discontinuity, is outlined by a Vp = 7.5 km/s, indicating a crustal thickness of ~ 40 km, consistent with other observations for the area 8 , 47 . At shallow depths (< 25 km, Figs. 4 and 5 ), Vp/Vs values vary from 1.66 to 1.89, with three main low Vp/Vs (< 1.73) anomalies (C, L1, L2). The first anomaly (C) overlaps with the known Chuquicamata porphyry copper deposit. The anomaly extends to depths down to 20 km, but due to the distribution of the seismic stations, the extent and shape of this anomaly are not well constrained on the surface. Similarly, we cannot resolve the full extent of the anomaly (L1), but it is clear from our model that this is a prominent feature that may extend even beyond our study area. The third anomaly (L2) extends to a depth of 20 km. This anomaly (L2) is probably associated with some Permo-Triassic formation due to its proximity to formations such as the Cas Fm. and Peine Fm. 15 but is covered by deposits and units of Miocene-Pleistocene volcanism in this area 15 , 16 , 18 . Another low Vp/Vs anomaly is observed northeast of the study area. However, there is no good model resolution in this area, particularly in depth (see Figures S2 and S3). In the center of our study area, a seismic anomaly (T) shows Vp/Vs values down to 1.73, slightly below the average Vp/Vs = 1.77 determined by the Wadati diagram. This feature coincides with the location of the Cerros de Tuina, where a large part of the Tuina Formation is located. This anomaly is smaller in size than the low Vp/Vs anomalies (C, L1, and L2) and cannot be observed at depths greater than 10 km (Fig. 4 ). Finally, the tomography model also shows high Vp/Vs (> 1.80) shallow anomalies (H1, H2) with a NW orientation, which are interrupted by the T anomaly (Figs. 4 and 5 ). The H1 and H2 anomalies can be observed up to 20 km depth. At the surface, the C, H1, and H2 anomalies present a NW direction. From the surface to 15 km depth, four of the five anomalies identified (C, L2, H1, and H2) maintain this orientation. Anomaly T interrupts the connection between H1 and H2 up to at least 10 km depth and has an oblique orientation (Fig. 5 ). Discussion At shallow depths (< 20 km), high Vp/Vs anomalies H1 and H2 (Figs. 4 and 5 ) may represent weak or highly fractured zones within a fault system 4 , 8 . Transcurrent structures have been reported in the literature 16 , 18 with consistent NW trends in depth. These characteristics suggest that anomalies H1 and H2 are associated with the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament (Fig. 6 ). However, given the kilometer scale extent (15–20 km) of the high Vp/Vs anomaly related to the fault system, we propose to rename it as the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro Fault System (SFCOT) rather than a simple lineament. Results from León-Ríos et al. 8 highlight a low Vp/Vs anomaly at the Chuquicamata porphyry (Figure S5) and a high Vp/Vs anomaly (> 1.80) to the east, associated with the continuity of H1 and H2, representing the SFCOT. LET studies conducted further north 48 show a high Vp/Vs anomaly oriented NW, suggesting the continuity of the SFCOT northward. These studies also indicate a slight change in direction where it interacts with an NS-oriented structure, the Western Fault, part of the DFS, reinforcing the concept of a fault system with directional variations along its influence zone. Low Vp/Vs anomalies C, L1, and L2 (Fig. 4 ) correspond to Paleozoic formations that form the Domeyko Range basement, with faults oriented NS to NW and NNE 15 , 17 , 25 . These values are associated with a higher concentration of economically significant minerals, such as sulfides in quartz, compared to the surrounding rock matrix 4 . Previous 3D models 9 have associated low Vp/Vs anomalies, low electrical resistivity, and low density domains with Cu-Mo deposits, indicating the presence of aqueous fluids in fractured zones, sulfide-rich stockworks, and substantial metallic veins. These low Vp/Vs anomalies can serve as greenfield exploration targets. At shallower depths, the anomaly T, characterized by moderate Vp/Vs values (~ 1.75) and low Vp values (~ 4 km/s; Figs. 5 and S4), is associated with an ancient magmatic arc 8 deformed under a transtensional regime 25 . This anomaly can be associated with the Tuina Formation in the Cerros de Tuina 16 , a Permo-Triassic continental volcano-sedimentary sequence 16 . The northwestern sector of the Cerros de Tuina, which is highly deformed and intersected by high-angle reverse faults, contains Eocene intrusions 16 , similar to nearby world-class deposits, such as Chuquicamata 14 , 25 , 49 . The observed moderate Vp/Vs corresponds to a deeply fractured Permo-Triassic basement. The Tuina Mining District lies in this area, where mineralization occurs as disseminations in sandstones and along hydrothermal manganese veins. Paleomagnetic studies conducted in the area have identified sinistral strike-slip faults during the Oligocene-Early Miocene in Chuquicamata 36 and dextral strike-slip faults in the Tuina Formation 50 , associated with a transpressional regime. Maksaev 51 also identifies this regime in NNE dextral structures within porphyry-type deposits. Randall et al. 52 and Astudillo et al. 36 recognized the presence of anomalous rotations attributed to the complex kinematic history of the Domeyko Fault System (DFS). However, this and previous studies 22 , 24 , 31 attribute these anomalies to the interaction between predominantly NS fault systems, such as the DFS, and oblique fault systems, such as the proposed SFCOT, which facilitated the emplacement of giant copper porphyry deposits. Figure 7 shows a 3D conceptual model of the subsurface architecture down to 120 km depth, from which magmatic reservoirs, intrusive bodies, and fluid displacement are inferred to have formed porphyry-type reservoirs within the study area. The presence of the subducted slab dipping eastward to a depth greater than 100 km is inferred by the intense seismic activity and the high anomaly values at greater depths (> 1.90). Values of Vp/Vs ~ 1.90–2.0 are consistent with hydrated mantle rocks 5 , 53 . The model proposes 5 stages, the first 3 following the model presented by Comte et al. 4 . In Stage 1, the release of oxidizing fluids from the subducting plate causes hydration of the mantle wedge, leading to partial melting of the mantle wedge and producing hydrated and oxidized basic arc magmas 4 , 54 . During Stage 2, pulses of basic magmas, observed as high Vp/Vs anomalies, rise and accumulate at the mantle-crust boundary (i.e., Moho). In this zone, reservoirs form at intermediate to shallow depths in the crust (~ 30–70 km) 54 . Stage 3 involves the differentiation of these basaltic magmas by fractional crystallization, a process that depends on crustal thickness and tectonic context 55 . At this point, magmatic reservoirs act as sources of copper mineralizing fluids that circulate in the mid to lower crust during the formation of porphyritic intrusions 56 . In Stage 4, the enriched magmas ascend to the upper crust and form magmatic chambers, the parent plutons for the porphyry copper formation 54 , 57 . The presence of SFCOT, a highly fractured medium, facilitates the mobilization of mineralizing fluids, which can be released through processes of decompression, degassing, metamorphism, and differentiation, leading to their exsolution 54 , 55 , 57 . The channeling of these fluids could be controlled by the intersection of fault systems, in this case the DFS and SFCOT, which create favorable structures for their accumulation 58 , 59 . Finally, Stage 5 is the formation of copper mineralized porphyries. In this stage, fluids enter into a brittle deformation regime that favors their transport through pores and fractures 9 . Mineralization develops around plug-like intrusions, where sulfide precipitation occurs through multiple hydrothermal alteration events, producing stockworks and breccia-like mineralized bodies. This stage is associated with low Vp/Vs anomalies, indicative of hydrothermally altered zones, which are accompanied by high Vp/Vs areas that act as fluid transport channels, favoring their channeling and precipitation. Summary Our analysis confirms that the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro (COT) is not only a lineament, as previously suggested, but an active fault system in its SE sector (Argentina), where activity has been recorded during the Quaternary 60 . This system shows continuity to the north, as identified by imaging high Vp/Vs anomalies with LET studies. The Calama-Olacapato-El Toro fault system also exhibits complex structural architecture, manifested in orientation variations, particularly at intersections with NS structures such as the West Fault part of the DFS. This suggests a strong influence on the tectonic dynamics and fluid migration in the region and, therefore, on the metallogenesis of northern Chile. The Tuina prospect is located within the area defined by the SFCOT, where it disrupts the high Vp/Vs anomaly over a 10 km stretch in the Cerros de Tuina. In this zone, Vp/Vs values indicate a highly fractured environment, facilitating the mobilization of mineralizing fluids. The proposed model consists of five stages, where the first three stages coincide with the conceptual model developed by Comte et al. 4 . The main differences between the last two stages lie in the channeling mechanisms of mineralizing fluids and the role played by geological structures for their accumulation and subsequent formation of porphyry-type deposits. In the model of Comte et al. 4 , magma and fluid migration are mainly controlled by magmatic reservoirs in the middle and lower crust, with fluid differentiation and exsolution processes leading to the formation of parent plutons in the upper crust. In contrast, in our model, the structural control of faults such as the SFD and SFCOT in the channeling of mineralizing fluids is emphasized, suggesting that the intersection of these fractured systems facilitates their accumulation. In the last stage, both models agree that mineralization occurs around plug-like intrusions through hydrothermal alteration events and precipitation of copper sulfides. However, our model highlights the coexistence of low and high Vp/Vs anomalies in mineralized zones, indicating that high Vp/Vs areas act as conduits for fluid transport, an aspect not explicitly addressed in the model of Comte et al. 4 , where migration through pores and fractures in the upper crust is prioritized. The results provided a deeper understanding of the region's tectonic and structural controls on mineralization, particularly concerning fluid movement. Future studies should focus on comparing this model with other geophysical data, such as gravimetry and magnetometry. This approach would help provide a clearer understanding of the Paleozoic to Permo-Triassic basement within the architecture of the Domeyko Range. Additionally, research should explore the continuity of the COT fault system and its interactions with other NS oriented fault systems, such as the Domeyko and Atacama systems. This exploration will enhance our understanding of the fault system's role in regional mineralization. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Author Contribution D.C., D.C-G., F.J. and S.P. conceived and designed the study. S.W.R. provided the software for data processing. J.J-R., V.R-W and D.C-G. processed the data and generated the models. J.J-R., V.R-W., D.C., M.P. and S.L-R. contributed to the interpretation of the results. J.J-R. and V.R-W. drafted the manuscript and prepared the figures. D.C., S.L-R. and M.P. commented and improved the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgement This research was funded by the National Agency for Research and Development of Chile (ANID) by Project AFB180004, Project AFB220002, Project AFB230001, and by the FONDEF IT23I0131 project. Data georeferencing was carried out using QGIS 3.34.13 (www.qgis.org). The figures were generated using Leapfrog 2022.1 (www.seequent.com) and GMT v6.5.0 (www.generic-mapping-tools.org), and colored following the guidelines for CVD accessibility by Crameri (https://www.fabiocrameri.ch/colourmaps/). Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality agreements with the companies involved in the research but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Arndt, N. T. et al. Future Global Mineral Resources. Geochem. Persp. 1–171 (2017) doi:10.7185/geochempersp.6.1. Witherly, K. 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Multi-proxy insights into the structure and geometry of the tectonic boundary at the Cordillera de Domeyko-Salar de Atacama border: An example of the interplay between basement and foreland basins. Tectonophysics 807 , 228818 (2021). Salisbury, M. J. et al. 40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province. Geological Society of America Bulletin 123 , 821–840 (2011). Reyes-Wagner, V., Comte, D., Roecker, S. W. & Rietbrock, A. CORREL: Automated Onset Estimation for Controlled-Source Seismic Experiments. Pure Appl. Geophys. 180 , 3753–3767 (2023). Kushnir, A. F., Lapshin, V. M., Pinsky, V. I. & Fyen, J. Statistically optimal event detection using small array data. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 80 , 1934–1950 (1990). Pisarenko, V. F., Kushnir, A. F. & Savin, I. V. Statistical adaptive algorithms for estimation of onset moments of seismic phases. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 47 , 4–10 (1987). Husen, S., Kissling, E., Flueh, E. & Asch, G. Accurate hypocentre determination in the seismogenic zone of the subducting Nazca Plate in northern Chile using a combined on-/offshore network. Geophys. J. Int. 138 , 687–701 (1999). Kennett, B. L. N. & Engdahl, E. R. Traveltimes for global earthquake location and phase identification. Geophysical Journal International 105 , 429–465 (1991). Roecker, S., Thurber, C. & McPhee, D. Joint inversion of gravity and arrival time data from Parkfield: New constraints on structure and hypocenter locations near the SAFOD drill site. Geophysical Research Letters 31 , 2003GL019396 (2004). Roecker, S., Thurber, C., Roberts, K. & Powell, L. Refining the image of the San Andreas Fault near Parkfield, California using a finite difference travel time computation technique. Tectonophysics 426 , 189–205 (2006). Tassara, A. & Echaurren, A. Anatomy of the Andean subduction zone: three-dimensional density model upgraded and compared against global-scale models: Anatomy of the Andean subduction zone. Geophysical Journal International 189 , 161–168 (2012). Peña, M. et al. ESTRUCTURA SUBSUPERFICIAL DE SISTEMAS DE PÓRFIDOS CUPRÍFEROS DEL NORTE DE CHILE A TRAVÉS DE TOMOGRAFÍA SÍSMICA. (2024). Ballard, J. R., Palin, J. M., Williams, I. S., Campbell, I. H. & Faunes, A. Two ages of porphyry intrusion resolved for the super-giant Chuquicamata copper deposit of northern Chile by ELA-ICP-MS and SHRIMP. Geol 29 , 383 (2001). Narea, K. et al. Paleomagnetism of Permo-Triassic and Cretaceous rocks from the Antofagasta region, northern Chile. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 64 , 261–272 (2015). Maksaev, V. Metallogeny, Geological Evolution, and Thermochronology of the Chilean Andes Between Latitudes 21 o and 26° South, and the Origin of Major Porphyry Copper Deposits. (Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canadá, 1990). Randall, D. E., Tomlinson, A. J. & Taylor, G. K. Paleomagnetically defined rotations from the Precordillera of northern Chile: Evidence of localized in situ fault‐controlled rotations. Tectonics 20 , 235–254 (2001). Christensen, N. I. Poisson’s ratio and crustal seismology. J. Geophys. Res. 101 , 3139–3156 (1996). Park, J.-W., Campbell, I. H., Chiaradia, M., Hao, H. & Lee, C.-T. Crustal magmatic controls on the formation of porphyry copper deposits. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2 , 542–557 (2021). Lee, C.-T. A. & Tang, M. How to make porphyry copper deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 529 , 115868 (2020). Rezeau, H. et al. Temporal and genetic link between incremental pluton assembly and pulsed porphyry Cu-Mo formation in accretionary orogens. Geology 44 , 627–630 (2016). Sillitoe, R. H. Porphyry Copper Systems. Economic Geology 105 , 3–41 (2010). Piquer, J., Berry, R. F., Scott, R. J. & Cooke, D. R. Arc-oblique fault systems: their role in the Cenozoic structural evolution and metallogenesis of the Andes of central Chile. Journal of Structural Geology 89 , 101–117 (2016). Richards, J. P. Porphyry copper deposit formation in arcs: What are the odds? Geosphere 18 , 130–155 (2022). Filipovich, R. et al. Geological Map of the Tocomar Basin (Puna Plateau, NW Argentina). Implication for the Geothermal System Investigation. Energies 13 , 5492 (2020). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 17 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 06 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 03 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 07 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 18 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 17 Mar, 2025 Editor invited by journal 17 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 17 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6198089","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":433662544,"identity":"6357d260-57d2-4370-a7ea-31403c3b027c","order_by":0,"name":"Javiera Jaque-Reyes","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Javiera","middleName":"","lastName":"Jaque-Reyes","suffix":""},{"id":433662545,"identity":"4b189dc5-8adf-4751-bac0-1ebfe9917408","order_by":1,"name":"Valentina Reyes-Wagner","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Valentina","middleName":"","lastName":"Reyes-Wagner","suffix":""},{"id":433662546,"identity":"1ea51fa1-0351-4657-9aed-c2714fb93bef","order_by":2,"name":"Diana Comte","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Diana","middleName":"","lastName":"Comte","suffix":""},{"id":433662547,"identity":"dc84fb8f-2d73-43a3-81e7-2ed885e75035","order_by":3,"name":"Matias Peña","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matias","middleName":"","lastName":"Peña","suffix":""},{"id":433662548,"identity":"f83a9fd8-2523-4bb1-b5e5-a94cfbe37d4e","order_by":4,"name":"Daniela Calle-Gardella","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniela","middleName":"","lastName":"Calle-Gardella","suffix":""},{"id":433662549,"identity":"f556400a-d00e-403c-803e-2629508a4c8a","order_by":5,"name":"Sergio Leon-Rios","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad de Chile","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sergio","middleName":"","lastName":"Leon-Rios","suffix":""},{"id":433662550,"identity":"1c9c5464-6b80-47a5-a85b-50d5d83727e3","order_by":6,"name":"Steven W. Roecker","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Steven","middleName":"W.","lastName":"Roecker","suffix":""},{"id":433662551,"identity":"de127e0d-84d7-4e7b-a647-bbd28526cead","order_by":7,"name":"Felipe Jimenez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Exploraciones Mineras S.A.","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Felipe","middleName":"","lastName":"Jimenez","suffix":""},{"id":433662552,"identity":"79c28a5e-c28c-4d6a-98fd-9813caf29dcc","order_by":8,"name":"Sergio Pichott","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Codelco (Chile)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sergio","middleName":"","lastName":"Pichott","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-10 19:18:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-11021-x","type":"published","date":"2025-07-17T15:57:12+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79330675,"identity":"f186019c-e351-4e8f-adc3-e0f937594405","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95891,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Location of porphyry copper deposits in the main metallogenic belts\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e in northern Chile (~20.5 - 27°S). The red rectangle marks the study area with a (b) zoom where Carboniferous-Triassic rocks and Eocene-Oligocene units\u003csup\u003e15–18\u003c/sup\u003e and porphyry-type deposits in the study area are indicated.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/c85b2443cffc42ec622303a4.jpg"},{"id":79330674,"identity":"a6228076-1885-4da6-bdda-9892bb0dd7c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79853,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTectonic evolution since the Carboniferous with the San Rafael orogeny (A) and its collapse during the Permo-Triassic with a bimodal magmatism (B), then the development of the Domeyko basin during the Triassic (C) and ending of the extensional tectonics and develop of Mesozoic basins in the lower Early Cretaceous (D). During the Eocene - Oligocene in the study area, magmas ascend, intruding the basement of the Domeyko Cordillera (E) and the migration of the arc eastward from the Miocene (F) in the study area. Modified from Amilibia et al.\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/22c14a7c9c0e2def52b08a7d.jpg"},{"id":79330678,"identity":"dde8aca7-c4e0-4365-ae9e-1ee058c8608d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108086,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of the seismic network. Triangles represent the seismic stations used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/1e1792873890f1f77da014ad.jpg"},{"id":79330694,"identity":"3c51bb21-b332-461a-b084-832ead91c8cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:03","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82258,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Plan view of the selected model at sea level, where the anomalies T, C, L1, L2, H1, and H2 are identified. Solid lines represent the EW section profiles. Triangles show the location of the seismic stations used in this study and squares indicate the location of mining operations. (b) Profile views of the sections down to a depth of 45 km.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/41ea878e2c27801a3589918d.jpg"},{"id":79330682,"identity":"07731c17-3925-497f-b4de-d98887ff379d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75615,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlain views of the Vp/Vs model at different elevations: (a) at 2.9 km above sea level, the mean elevation of the study area, (b) at 5 km depth, (c) at 10 km depth, and (d) at 15 km depth. The red segmented lines show the orientation of the main Vp/Vs anomalies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/113c9b764f80c8643ad22460.jpg"},{"id":79330676,"identity":"9f1b8567-483c-47f9-8b5b-b11db9fc855d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100829,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVp/Vs model at sea level projected onto a map showing major structural features at a regional scale. The white segmented line represents the COT lineament proposed by Espinoza et al.\u003csup\u003e24\u003c/sup\u003e. Black parallel lines illustrate our proposed COT fault system. Background map modified from Espinoza et al.\u003csup\u003e24\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/7be565ca2628d3b2f94c65a6.jpg"},{"id":79330685,"identity":"46865da8-f5e8-44f1-b7e1-b87a8246e0f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56814,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual model of the subsurface architecture of the SFCOT between 22° and 23°S and its influence on the formation of the porphyry copper system, based on the distribution of Vp/Vs ratios. Arrows represent potential fluid and/or magma pathways, while the lines indicate inferred structures. The segmented red line corresponds to the SFCOT. White circles mark recorded seismicity in the area, with the numbers inside corresponding to the stages of porphyry system formation (Stages 1 to 5).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/6b91d645503cfad1607311d9.jpg"},{"id":88506196,"identity":"aaa813c2-75f2-425e-9984-f00762632497","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 07:32:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1226569,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/9a0e8238-b44f-48d7-b732-d3f8068557e8.pdf"},{"id":79330684,"identity":"9affa27f-6897-4313-9d3d-39fd20a44864","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-27 06:35:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1877737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6198089/v1/f49f30bc1964e21cba550c60.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Subsurface Architecture of the Tuina Prospect and Its Relationship to Fluid Migration in Mineral Deposit Formation","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe real influence of crustal architecture in the emplacement of Cu Porphyry deposits is still a matter of discussion; its kinematic history and geometry are crucial to understanding the different stress fields linked to magmatic and hydrothermal fluids flow. Added to these, many of the Cu world-class deposits are below unconsolidated sediments, making the study of structural styles with surface information a difficult task, adding more clues to the search for Cu Porphyry deposits. Related to this problem, in recent decades, the mining industry has ventured into deeper mineral deposits\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, leading to increased complexity in exploration. A significant challenge is the exploration of areas where potential deposits are under thick cover and have little surface expression\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In such contexts, the use of unconventional geophysical techniques becomes fundamental due to their ability to effectively explore the subsurface\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e while also being cost-effective and low-impact compared to traditional methods\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal Earthquake Tomography (LET) is a passive, non-invasive geophysical method that uses local seismicity to image the subsurface structures through seismic wave velocities \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This technique has been widely used to study processes at different scales in subduction zones, such as fluid migration and partial melting\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. More recently, studies have shown that LET is an effective method for studying deep-seated structures within porphyry-type deposits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The models obtained by LET in these studies showed a strong agreement with the proposed porphyry formation models, highlighting the importance of geophysical studies in understanding subsurface geology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLET is performed by inverting the seismic body wave arrival times and hypocenters from a local seismic catalog. Body waves consist of primary (P) and secondary (S) phases that propagate through the Earth\u0026rsquo;s interior during an earthquake. P-waves, or compressional waves, are the fastest and are longitudinal waves that can propagate through both solid and liquid materials. In contrast, S-waves, or shear waves, are transverse waves and can only travel through solid materials. LET's main products are 3D seismic velocity models for P- and S-waves, and the ratio between them (Vp, Vs, and Vp/Vs, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeismic velocities depend on numerous factors such as mineralogical composition, fluid content, temperature, pressure, grain size, cementation, orientation with respect to bedding or foliation, and alteration\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, their interpretation is not unique. Particularly, within active convergent margins, Vp/Vs models can distinguish between different processes and structures in depth\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, the inclusion of local geology aspects (structural, economic, and regional geology) is essential for the accurate interpretation of the seismic velocity models.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study applies LET to investigate the crustal structure around a greenfield prospect located in the southern central Andes in northern Chile. In this area, porphyry copper deposits are distributed in three arc-parallel metallogenic belts associated with magmatic activity in different epochs: Early Cretaceous, Paleocene to Early Eocene, and Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea). The Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene belt hosts the largest porphyry Cu deposits in Chile with the largest reserves of copper resources\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, making it a focal point for mineral exploration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge porphyry deposits in the middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt are emplaced along the Domeyko Fault System\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (DFS). This is the case for the Chuquicamata district, located to the west of our study area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb), which includes the world-class Chuquicamata and Radomiro Tomic deposits, among others\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Regionally, oblique lineaments have been proposed to play a fundamental role in the Cenozoic metallogenic belts\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Given the location of the study area, we are particularly interested in the Calama - Olacapato - El Toro (COT) lineament, a NW-SE strike-slip fault that is one of the most important active tectonic lineaments in the southern central Andes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While in Argentina, this lineament can be traced with recognizable structures on the surface and is thought to control volcanic and geothermal systems23,24, in Chile, surface evidence of its trace is not clear due to the extent of covered areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe focus of this work is to understand the relationship between the 3D seismic velocity models obtained with LET and the deposits in the Eocene-Oligocene belt. The analysis examines two main aspects: the position of magmatic arcs and local/regional scale structures. The study supports previous research suggesting that Paleozoic magmatic events played a significant role in the formation of the basement of the Domeyko Range and are closely related to the formation of porphyry copper deposits\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, Cenozoic magmatic events, when intruding into the Paleozoic basement under certain conditions, have contributed to the formation of world-class deposits\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The analysis also considers north-south (NS) and obliquely oriented structures associated with Mesozoic basin deformation and Cenozoic deformation processes on both local and regional scales. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between magmatic events, structures, and deposit formation in Cenozoic metallogenic belts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Geological Context","content":"\u003cp\u003eUpper Early Carboniferous to Mid-Permian magmatism developed in a compressive convergent margin environment characterized by normal to thickened continental crust during the Gondwana orogeny (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA). This magmatism was emplaced within an early-stage accretionary prism. The intrusions, comprising dioritic, tonalitic, and granodioritic magmas, form a continuous belt that extends from approximately 21°S to 40°S\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It includes the San Rafael event (ca. 284 Ma to 276 Ma), a compressional episode characterized by intense folding and thrusting\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e observed in the Argentine Frontal Cordillera\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMid-Permian to Triassic magmatism occurred in an extensional convergent margin setting (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB), driven by slab rollback and the progressive thinning of the continental crust. Most of the magma was derived from melting of the lower continental crust, with reduced contributions from the upper crust and variable mantle influence\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The generalized extension along the southwestern margin of Pangea reactivated pre-existing zones of weakness, resulting in the formation of several NW-SE oriented basins\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Among these, the rift-related bimodal sequences of the Choiyoi Province stand out\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This province includes the Tuina Formation, which is characterized by a volcanic and sedimentary sequence composed mainly of andesitic lavas, rhyolites, and sandstones\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Domeyko Basin developed during the Triassic as a rift-related basin (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC), characterized by the deposition of sedimentary and volcanic sequences during its syn-rift stage. The architecture of this stage was controlled by the interaction between major N-S faults and oblique NW-SE discontinuities, which generated asymmetric half-graben depocenters and structural highs within a left-lateral transtensional regime (pull-apart or releasing bend)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These oblique discontinuities are interpreted as NW-SE continental-scale lineaments, suggesting that inherited basement weaknesses played a critical role in the segmentation and evolution of the Domeyko Basin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe same Triassic basins remained active until the upper Early Cretaceous when they were reactivated and tectonically inverted\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eD), leading to the formation of positive relief in the Coastal Range around 105–107 Ma\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This uplifting process related to tectonic inversion continued to the East, allowing the formation of the initial relief in the Domeyko Range\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, during the Late Cretaceous\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, being the period of major shortening during the Eocene-Early Oligocene, correlating with the deformation of the Bolivian orocline\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe structure of the Domeyko Range is characterized by several north-south trending basement ridges parallel to the trench. These ridges are uplifted by high-angle reverse to oblique faults (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eE). This north-south orientation of contemporaneous deposits suggests that the emplacement of Eocene-Oligocene intrusive complexes was controlled by a NS strike-slip fault system known as the West Fault System (WFS) within a transtensional regime\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tectonostratigraphic history of the region is more consistent with the formation of a Late Eocene-Oligocene retroarc foreland basin in the Altiplano, followed by the development of the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene west- and east-trending thrust systems\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eF). High-resolution geochronological analyses, together with volume and spatial assessments conducted by Salisbury et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, allowed the identification of the onset and timing of magmatic activity within the APVC. Around 11 Ma, the earliest recorded activity is characterized by small-volume (280 km³) and widespread volcanic eruptions in northern Chile and Argentina.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3D velocity models\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur preferred velocity models, shown in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, S4, and S5, are consistent with the features observed by Leon-Rios et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (Figure S5). The subducting slab, with depths between 80 km and 100 km in P3, shows low Vp/Vs values (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.76) in this area. High Vp/Vs values (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.80) predominate in the continental mantle (H3), and a high Vp (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;8.4 km/s) anomaly is observed at ~\u0026thinsp;80 km depth, which is consistent with the continental mantle described by Leon-Rios et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The transition from the crust to the mantle of the South American plate, i.e., the Moho discontinuity, is outlined by a Vp\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.5 km/s, indicating a crustal thickness of ~\u0026thinsp;40 km, consistent with other observations for the area\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt shallow depths (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25 km, Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), Vp/Vs values vary from 1.66 to 1.89, with three main low Vp/Vs (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.73) anomalies (C, L1, L2). The first anomaly (C) overlaps with the known Chuquicamata porphyry copper deposit. The anomaly extends to depths down to 20 km, but due to the distribution of the seismic stations, the extent and shape of this anomaly are not well constrained on the surface. Similarly, we cannot resolve the full extent of the anomaly (L1), but it is clear from our model that this is a prominent feature that may extend even beyond our study area. The third anomaly (L2) extends to a depth of 20 km. This anomaly (L2) is probably associated with some Permo-Triassic formation due to its proximity to formations such as the Cas Fm. and Peine Fm.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e but is covered by deposits and units of Miocene-Pleistocene volcanism in this area\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Another low Vp/Vs anomaly is observed northeast of the study area. However, there is no good model resolution in this area, particularly in depth (see Figures S2 and S3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the center of our study area, a seismic anomaly (T) shows Vp/Vs values down to 1.73, slightly below the average Vp/Vs\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.77 determined by the Wadati diagram. This feature coincides with the location of the Cerros de Tuina, where a large part of the Tuina Formation is located. This anomaly is smaller in size than the low Vp/Vs anomalies (C, L1, and L2) and cannot be observed at depths greater than 10 km (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the tomography model also shows high Vp/Vs (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.80) shallow anomalies (H1, H2) with a NW orientation, which are interrupted by the T anomaly (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The H1 and H2 anomalies can be observed up to 20 km depth. At the surface, the C, H1, and H2 anomalies present a NW direction. From the surface to 15 km depth, four of the five anomalies identified (C, L2, H1, and H2) maintain this orientation. Anomaly T interrupts the connection between H1 and H2 up to at least 10 km depth and has an oblique orientation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAt shallow depths (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;20 km), high Vp/Vs anomalies H1 and H2 (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) may represent weak or highly fractured zones within a fault system\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Transcurrent structures have been reported in the literature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e with consistent NW trends in depth. These characteristics suggest that anomalies H1 and H2 are associated with the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). However, given the kilometer scale extent (15\u0026ndash;20 km) of the high Vp/Vs anomaly related to the fault system, we propose to rename it as the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro Fault System (SFCOT) rather than a simple lineament.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults from Le\u0026oacute;n-R\u0026iacute;os et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e highlight a low Vp/Vs anomaly at the Chuquicamata porphyry (Figure S5) and a high Vp/Vs anomaly (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.80) to the east, associated with the continuity of H1 and H2, representing the SFCOT. LET studies conducted further north\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e show a high Vp/Vs anomaly oriented NW, suggesting the continuity of the SFCOT northward. These studies also indicate a slight change in direction where it interacts with an NS-oriented structure, the Western Fault, part of the DFS, reinforcing the concept of a fault system with directional variations along its influence zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Vp/Vs anomalies C, L1, and L2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) correspond to Paleozoic formations that form the Domeyko Range basement, with faults oriented NS to NW and NNE\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These values are associated with a higher concentration of economically significant minerals, such as sulfides in quartz, compared to the surrounding rock matrix\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Previous 3D models\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e have associated low Vp/Vs anomalies, low electrical resistivity, and low density domains with Cu-Mo deposits, indicating the presence of aqueous fluids in fractured zones, sulfide-rich stockworks, and substantial metallic veins. These low Vp/Vs anomalies can serve as greenfield exploration targets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt shallower depths, the anomaly T, characterized by moderate Vp/Vs values (~\u0026thinsp;1.75) and low Vp values (~\u0026thinsp;4 km/s; Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and S4), is associated with an ancient magmatic arc\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e deformed under a transtensional regime\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This anomaly can be associated with the Tuina Formation in the Cerros de Tuina\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, a Permo-Triassic continental volcano-sedimentary sequence\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The northwestern sector of the Cerros de Tuina, which is highly deformed and intersected by high-angle reverse faults, contains Eocene intrusions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, similar to nearby world-class deposits, such as Chuquicamata\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The observed moderate Vp/Vs corresponds to a deeply fractured Permo-Triassic basement. The Tuina Mining District lies in this area, where mineralization occurs as disseminations in sandstones and along hydrothermal manganese veins.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaleomagnetic studies conducted in the area have identified sinistral strike-slip faults during the Oligocene-Early Miocene in Chuquicamata\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and dextral strike-slip faults in the Tuina Formation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, associated with a transpressional regime. Maksaev\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e also identifies this regime in NNE dextral structures within porphyry-type deposits. Randall et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Astudillo et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e recognized the presence of anomalous rotations attributed to the complex kinematic history of the Domeyko Fault System (DFS). However, this and previous studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e attribute these anomalies to the interaction between predominantly NS fault systems, such as the DFS, and oblique fault systems, such as the proposed SFCOT, which facilitated the emplacement of giant copper porphyry deposits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows a 3D conceptual model of the subsurface architecture down to 120 km depth, from which magmatic reservoirs, intrusive bodies, and fluid displacement are inferred to have formed porphyry-type reservoirs within the study area. The presence of the subducted slab dipping eastward to a depth greater than 100 km is inferred by the intense seismic activity and the high anomaly values at greater depths (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1.90). Values of Vp/Vs\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;1.90\u0026ndash;2.0 are consistent with hydrated mantle rocks\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The model proposes 5 stages, the first 3 following the model presented by Comte et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Stage 1, the release of oxidizing fluids from the subducting plate causes hydration of the mantle wedge, leading to partial melting of the mantle wedge and producing hydrated and oxidized basic arc magmas\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. During Stage 2, pulses of basic magmas, observed as high Vp/Vs anomalies, rise and accumulate at the mantle-crust boundary (i.e., Moho). In this zone, reservoirs form at intermediate to shallow depths in the crust (~\u0026thinsp;30\u0026ndash;70 km)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Stage 3 involves the differentiation of these basaltic magmas by fractional crystallization, a process that depends on crustal thickness and tectonic context\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. At this point, magmatic reservoirs act as sources of copper mineralizing fluids that circulate in the mid to lower crust during the formation of porphyritic intrusions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Stage 4, the enriched magmas ascend to the upper crust and form magmatic chambers, the parent plutons for the porphyry copper formation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The presence of SFCOT, a highly fractured medium, facilitates the mobilization of mineralizing fluids, which can be released through processes of decompression, degassing, metamorphism, and differentiation, leading to their exsolution\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The channeling of these fluids could be controlled by the intersection of fault systems, in this case the DFS and SFCOT, which create favorable structures for their accumulation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Finally, Stage 5 is the formation of copper mineralized porphyries. In this stage, fluids enter into a brittle deformation regime that favors their transport through pores and fractures\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Mineralization develops around plug-like intrusions, where sulfide precipitation occurs through multiple hydrothermal alteration events, producing stockworks and breccia-like mineralized bodies. This stage is associated with low Vp/Vs anomalies, indicative of hydrothermally altered zones, which are accompanied by high Vp/Vs areas that act as fluid transport channels, favoring their channeling and precipitation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Summary","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur analysis confirms that the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro (COT) is not only a lineament, as previously suggested, but an active fault system in its SE sector (Argentina), where activity has been recorded during the Quaternary\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This system shows continuity to the north, as identified by imaging high Vp/Vs anomalies with LET studies. The Calama-Olacapato-El Toro fault system also exhibits complex structural architecture, manifested in orientation variations, particularly at intersections with NS structures such as the West Fault part of the DFS. This suggests a strong influence on the tectonic dynamics and fluid migration in the region and, therefore, on the metallogenesis of northern Chile. The Tuina prospect is located within the area defined by the SFCOT, where it disrupts the high Vp/Vs anomaly over a 10 km stretch in the Cerros de Tuina. In this zone, Vp/Vs values indicate a highly fractured environment, facilitating the mobilization of mineralizing fluids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proposed model consists of five stages, where the first three stages coincide with the conceptual model developed by Comte et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The main differences between the last two stages lie in the channeling mechanisms of mineralizing fluids and the role played by geological structures for their accumulation and subsequent formation of porphyry-type deposits. In the model of Comte et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, magma and fluid migration are mainly controlled by magmatic reservoirs in the middle and lower crust, with fluid differentiation and exsolution processes leading to the formation of parent plutons in the upper crust. In contrast, in our model, the structural control of faults such as the SFD and SFCOT in the channeling of mineralizing fluids is emphasized, suggesting that the intersection of these fractured systems facilitates their accumulation. In the last stage, both models agree that mineralization occurs around plug-like intrusions through hydrothermal alteration events and precipitation of copper sulfides. However, our model highlights the coexistence of low and high Vp/Vs anomalies in mineralized zones, indicating that high Vp/Vs areas act as conduits for fluid transport, an aspect not explicitly addressed in the model of Comte et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, where migration through pores and fractures in the upper crust is prioritized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results provided a deeper understanding of the region's tectonic and structural controls on mineralization, particularly concerning fluid movement. Future studies should focus on comparing this model with other geophysical data, such as gravimetry and magnetometry. This approach would help provide a clearer understanding of the Paleozoic to Permo-Triassic basement within the architecture of the Domeyko Range. Additionally, research should explore the continuity of the COT fault system and its interactions with other NS oriented fault systems, such as the Domeyko and Atacama systems. This exploration will enhance our understanding of the fault system's role in regional mineralization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eD.C., D.C-G., F.J. and S.P. conceived and designed the study. S.W.R. provided the software for data processing. J.J-R., V.R-W and D.C-G. processed the data and generated the models. J.J-R., V.R-W., D.C., M.P. and S.L-R. contributed to the interpretation of the results. J.J-R. and V.R-W. drafted the manuscript and prepared the figures. D.C., S.L-R. and M.P. commented and improved the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the National Agency for Research and Development of Chile (ANID) by Project AFB180004, Project AFB220002, Project AFB230001, and by the FONDEF IT23I0131 project. Data georeferencing was carried out using QGIS 3.34.13 (www.qgis.org). The figures were generated using Leapfrog 2022.1 (www.seequent.com) and GMT v6.5.0 (www.generic-mapping-tools.org), and colored following the guidelines for CVD accessibility by Crameri (https://www.fabiocrameri.ch/colourmaps/).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality agreements with the companies involved in the research but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArndt, N. T. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Future Global Mineral Resources. \u003cem\u003eGeochem. Persp.\u003c/em\u003e 1\u0026ndash;171 (2017) doi:10.7185/geochempersp.6.1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWitherly, K. 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Implication for the Geothermal System Investigation. \u003cem\u003eEnergies\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 5492 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Tuina prospect is situated in northern Chile, approximately 50 km east of Calama in the Antofagasta Region. It lies within the Eocene-Oligocene metallogenic belt, which is home to world-class copper deposits, including Chuquicamata, El Abra, and Radomiro Tomic. To characterize the subsurface architecture, we deployed a temporary seismic network of 37 geophones and applied Local Seismic Tomography to derive seismic velocity models. The results show intermediate Vp/Vs values in the prospect area, suggesting a highly fractured environment consistent with surface geological data. Additionally, we identified a high Vp/Vs anomaly with a northwest orientation, reaching depths of up to 20 km and intersecting the anomaly associated with Tuina. We propose that this structure is not a simple lineament, as previously suggested, but rather a concealed fault system controlling the eastern boundary of the Eocene-Oligocene metallogenic belt. In this context, the so-called Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament represents a complex fault system playing a key role in the region\u0026rsquo;s structural evolution and mineralization. Based on this, we present a five-stage conceptual model explaining how fluid migration from subduction enables the formation of mineral prospects controlled by this fault system. The tomography results correlate with surface data, demonstrating the method\u0026rsquo;s effectiveness for geophysical exploration.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Subsurface Architecture of the Tuina Prospect and Its Relationship to Fluid Migration in Mineral Deposit Formation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-27 06:34:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6198089/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-06T21:00:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-03T14:32:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"312582020812118269163987058968328988735","date":"2025-05-01T17:23:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-07T16:09:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"91431863315329065190859822521549546421","date":"2025-03-25T09:40:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-18T07:53:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-17T19:30:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-17T18:41:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-17T04:47:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-03-10T18:53:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ecc14c26-ab62-4a7a-8e85-eb4c34339b7f","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":46175285,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences"},{"id":46175286,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geology"},{"id":46175287,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences/Geophysics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-07T07:19:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6198089","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-11021-x","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-17 15:57:12","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 17th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-27 06:34:57","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-11021-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-11021-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6198089","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6198089","identity":"rs-6198089","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}