Indigenous Health Practices and Medical Knowledge: A study of the Poumai Naga Tribe

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It highlights the interplay between formal healthcare systems and traditional medical practices, arguing for a more integrated approach to health that respects and incorporates community knowledge. The work delves into how local knowledge and cultural traditions shape health behaviors and perceptions, emphasizing the role of informal healthcare systems alongside formal medical institutions. Using an ethnographic approach, primary data was collected through unstructured interviews and observation of local informants, such as traditional herbalists, experienced village elders, and farmers among the indigenous population. The study advocates for participatory approaches that recognize and value diverse medical narratives. The findings of this study indicate that most Poumai Nagas still depend on traditional remedies rather than modern pharmaceutical treatments. Numerous plants are used as everyday food sources, while others are specifically valued for their medicinal properties in addressing different illnesses and health conditions. The findings suggest that integrating traditional medical lore with formal healthcare systems can enhance health outcomes, promoting a more holistic approach to health care. Therefore, it suggests for policymakers to create culturally sensitive health interventions that respect and incorporate local practices. Diseases Treatment Poumai Traditional Knowledge Introduction The World Health Organization (WHO) 1948 defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”(Bickenbach, 2020). Health, for indigenous communities, is not merely a biomedical condition but is intrinsically linked to broader notions of well-being and human capability. This holistic view of health has fostered the development of diverse genres of medical knowledge termed as medical pluralism (Sujata, 2003). Sujata characterizes these genres by varying degrees of professionalization, specialization, and textual orientation, with the permutations and combinations of these factors resulting in multiple orders of medical knowledge and practice functioning concomitantly. Therefore, in order to create effective treatment models and best practices that are both culturally and linguistically suitable for indigenous peoples, the United Nations suggests that health care services be pluricultural. Unlike Western medicine, which is grounded in technical and analytical methods, traditional medicine adopts a holistic approach. As highlighted in Cunningham’s study in Tanzania, the number of traditional practitioners ranged from 30,000 to 40,000, compared to just 600 medical doctors(Cunningham, 1993). Similarly, in Malawi, it was estimated that there were around 17,000 traditional healers compared to just 35 practicing medical doctors across the country. Leonti et. al examines the impact of Mediterranean dietary habits on morbidity patterns and correlate that consuming fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and red wine is associated with a lower risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, cancer as well as longer life spans overall. In Southern Europe it is found that a core group of 18 culinary species including weedy and shrubby species have been identified among an estimated 20,000 botanical species (Albania, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal) or the Mediterranean region as a whole(Leonti et al., 2006). Wild edibles are found to supplement food security among the Guji Oromo semi-pastoralists of Ethiopia, out of 70 wild edible plant species that were discovered, 21 were utilized for medicinal remedies(Mersha, 2023). A society's knowledge traditions and worldviews contextualize its health-care system. Indigenous peoples have traditional knowledge that includes traditional healing methods. The healthcare system frequently disregards traditional medicine, an important aspect of First Nations health. However, the Indigenous Peoples in North America have persevered in pursuing wellness based on their knowledge and well-being despite considerable health issues. Traditional folk practices play a significant role in transmitting ethnic knowledge. In spite of varying practices between different tribes, all traditional medicine is based on the belief that humans are part of nature and that health is a matter of balance(United Nations, 2016). The knowledge on plants, animals and their natural surroundings is based on the experiences and stories of the people that have been passed down from generation to the next through the expertise that is already there. Indigenous people gathered knowledge about the efficacy of different herbal preparations and practices in villages, pertaining to health, disease and medicine, which is call as medical lore(Sujata, 2003). To cure different kinds of diseases and ailments using traditional methods, various parochial medicines are prepared from different kinds of plants. In addition, in certain instances, they used insects, animal parts, and even magical charms to heal and cure those illnesses. Diseases and ailments are as old as human existence. Humankind has used medicinal plants to treat their day-to-day sufferings since time immemorial. The indigenous peoples, who are often among the poorest peoples and suffer the worst health condition. For communities lacking access to modern pharmaceuticals, traditional medicine remains the most accessible and cost-effective form of treatment within the primary healthcare system. Amid the advancement of modern technology, traditional knowledge plays a significant role among the rural people, particularly, the Poumai Nagas in dealing with the health care system. The Poumai Naga community is a significant indigenous tribe of the Naga people, known for its rich cultural and historical heritage in the northeastern region of India. The predominant residential areas of their population are primarily concentrated within the Senapati district of Manipur, with a little presence observed in select villages situated in the Phek district of Nagaland. The Indian government officially recognized the Poumai Naga tribe in 2003 under the provisions of the Constitution (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) Order (Amendment) Act of 2002(D., 2019). Many names, including Poumei, Pumei, Paumei, Pome, and Pomai, recognize the Poumai ethnic group(Veikho & Khyriem, 2015). Before Christianity, early anthropologists and ethnographers called them heathens or pagans(Hodson, 1911); (Hutton, 1921); (Mills, 1926) and others. They practiced traditional forms of rituals that are still prevalent parallelly in many aspects. This article explores the indigenous knowledge systems, medicinal plant use, and natural resource management strategies of the Poumai Naga community. It also acknowledges the evolving nature of the Poumai traditional knowledge system and the continued relevance of its sustainable practices in the contemporary context. Since time immemorial, the Poumai Naga people have used several medicinal plant species to heal their day-to-day sufferings. Ethnomedicine plays a vital role in the lives of Poumai people living in rural areas. Ethnomedicine is a field of study focused on remedies derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals, and their application in treating various illnesses, grounded in indigenous pharmacopoeia, traditional folklore, and herbal rituals (Nath et al., 2011). Therefore, this paper primarily aims to study, identify and document the traditional treatment methods of different diseases and ailments among the Poumai Naga tribe. Concept of disease and its treatment Hufford has classified medicine as official and unofficial. While the former is a scientific medical system practiced in the western countries that are considered modern with advanced technology approved in a formal manner, the latter is the opposite. The unofficial medical system is considered a religious as well as material in nature(Hufford, 1997). However, the widely accepted medical systems in medical anthropology are classified as ‘ethnomedical systems’ and ‘biomedical systems’(Fabrega, 1971). The ‘ethnomedical systems’ refer to notions of (non-western) people in which disease is a cultural category, whereas biomedical systems refer to conceptions (of western medicine) in which disease is perceived in physiological terms. In India situation is different as there is a plethora of health traditions that have sprung from the village-bone-setting. Various health issues constitute the knowledge system of the village folk such as veterinary medicine, treatment of the bites of snakes and poisonous insects, treatment of bites of rabid dogs, rats and cats, smallpox vaccination, a cure for thorn pricks of various kinds and intensity, stomach aches and sprains, child health and gynecological problems, jaundice and many more. Just as modern medicine has several prescriptions for the same disease, depending upon the stage of the disease or suitability of a drug in a particular patient, so have the Poumai also. The early Poumai people believed that illness arose from two main causes: the wrath of malevolent deities and the spread of epidemics or viral fevers caused by seasonal changes. They believe that if a person encounters an evil ( rahshi ), in the forest or a secluded area, the deity causes harm, leading to illness. Thus, they rely solely on traditional folk medicine. They have their own traditional healers and specialists, who serve them well, and in whom they have complete faith and confidence. Treatment focusses on removal of the causative factor of illness. The tribal communities and the Poumai Naga tribe holds the belief that most illnesses are the result of supernatural forces. These supernatural causes illness and death among human beings. They have their own way of healing different illness (culturally defined) and disease (physiological reality)(United Nations, 2016) related to socio-cultural and magical-religious practices. Among the Poumais’, of the folk medicines there existed two main different types of healing practices, the magico-religious folk medicine and the natural folk medicine for a health care system. The magico-religious folk medicine heavily depends on the incantations of magical verses and animal sacrificial to bring about cures. On the basis of magico-religious factors Veimy found four ailments prevalent among the Poumai Naga community(Veimy, 2021). Rachii (evil spirits) is one of the causes of sickness that Poumais’ are afraid of, as it causes them illness with fever and loss of sensation to the extent of death. Therefore, the hills, rivers, stones and tress are to be appeased in the form of offerings with objects like clothes, rice or even chicken. Shu (sorcery) is also found to be practiced among the Poumai Naga community. A sorcerer, also known as tiashitia , usually performs it on enemies by obtaining objects that belong to the victim and uttering incantations over them. The other way is through soil from the grave which is thrown to the victim’s house causing the victim to instantly get sick and feel weak. However, the sorcerer usually belongs to the other community. The only precautionary measure is to avoid eating their food or not letting them touch the belongings. Another ailment of the magico-religious factor is cha h (witchcraft). The people who perform this type of magic are called mhraomai , and are believed to be hereditary. Mhraomai cast a spell over by merely looking which then causes stomach pain to the victim. To heal the pain, sharing food of the culprit is the only means. Defensive measure is by wearing an amulet in the form of anklets, bracelets, necklaces, or even earring. Akhaosii (evil eye), is another type of illness that is usually caused to the children. The evil eyer looks at the child causing them difficulty in breathing. Therefore, charm against the evil eye is soot, which is smeared around the forehead of a child. The children are also made to wear an amulet made of shells or nails of pangolin as well as the dry umbilical cord of oneself. It is believed that when a child is affected by the evil eye, the medicine-man knows it when he breaks the egg, as the yolk of an egg is mixed with egg white. Likewise, when the liver of alive chicken being operated is broken, it is a sign that the child has met with the evil eye. The other types of healing practices for a health care system that existed among the Poumai Naga community is the natural folk medicine. The natural medicines are those rational empirical medicines which are dependent on the plants. It is also called herbal folk medicine. This article focuses on the traditional knowledge of ethnomedicinal practices based on natural folk medicine. Methodology The primary objective of this study was to provide a comprehensive account of the ethnomedicinal practices seen within the Poumai community. The study focused on the Poumai Naga group residing in the Senapati area of Manipur as the population of interest. This study obtained its primary data through direct interaction with informants, supplemented by the use of secondary literature to gather additional information about the target group. The data gathering process involved the use of a semi-structured interview schedule. A survey was undertaken, involving five traditional herbalists hailing from distinct villages, namely Tungjoy, Koide, Saranamai, and Purul. Additionally, a series of in-depth interviews were undertaken with a cohort of ten older individuals and who possessed a comprehensive understanding of the therapeutic properties associated with various plant species and ten younger adults between the age group of 20 to 30 years. During the interviews, participants were asked about the nomenclature of plants, their identification, the specific plant parts utilized, vernacular names, techniques of preparation, treatments for various ailments, modes of utilization, doses, and the ethnomedicinal applications of these plants across all four seasons (winter, spring, monsoon, and autumn). For conducting field study, the researcher utilized a diary for the purpose of note-taking, while a mobile phone was used to make video and audio recordings. Additionally, photographs were captured of ethnomedicinal plants. In order to document the interviews and capture visual images, the researchers received prior Informed Consent from the indigenous communities before to conducting each interview. Results Natural or herbal medicine is the most heavily relied folk medicine among the Poumai community for their health care system. This type of medicine is based on the empirical or rational use of herbal and other medicaments. It is among humanity's earliest reactions to the natural environment, and it entails looking for remedies for his sickness in natural medicines, herbs, minerals, and animal substances. Natural medicine, often referred to as 'rational' folk medicine or 'herbal' folk medicine due to the prominent use of herbs in its medicinal practices. Indigenous cultures practice natural medicine, and several of its effective treatments have been incorporated into modern medical practices. Some of the Poumais believe that all illnesses, even accidents, are caused by evil spirits. However, others discriminate between natural diseases, which everyone gets and need no explanations, such as cough and cold, and those caused by superhuman factors. They use physical agents and procedures particularly for 'natural diseases'. This includes herbs and their preparations. It is found that a multiple number of diseases and ailments affect the Poumai people, including highblood pressure, fever, malaria, dengue, diarrhea, dysentery, cuts and wounds, cough, gastritis, allergy, sore eyes, cold, diabetes, toothache, piles, jaundice, headache, rashes, labor pain, burns from fire or hot water, swollen bones, post-delivery, sinus, kidney (stone), sprain of legs and joints, nose bleed, blood purification, blood circulation, irregularity in periods, urine problem, stomach pain, ear pain, throat infections, blood refilling, snakebite and mumps. Ethno-medicinal plants play a significant role in their healthcare system for almost all types of diseases and ailments. The study also shows that the Poumais’ depend on numerous plants, animals, insects and other objects to cure atleast 36 diseases and ailments. Various parts of the plant and animals are used in the form of decoction, juice, or paste for treating multiple health issues. 1. Fever It is a temporary increase in body temperature, often due to an illness. It is most often caused by the body's natural response to various factors like infections such as viral infections (e.g., flu, common cold, COVID-19, dengue) and Parasitic infections (e.g., malaria). It is also due to an inflammatory bowel that act as an inflammatory response. Heatstroke or overheating also cause the body to develop a fever-like response. Another cause of fever is vaccination which results in mild fever as the body’s immune system responds to the vaccine. According to the respondents, fever often accompanies other signs of illness such as headache, body aches, shivering, tasteless, loss of appetite, weakness, dizziness and pukish feeling. Fever is also attributed to smallpox, measles, and other diseases of this variety. There are different kinds of fever that are caused due to different reason and are treated differently. Rachishi is a type of fever when body temperature increase. It occurs mostly due to shift in season and also when exposed in rain. Consumption of heavy foods in large quantities and/or incompatible foodstuffs also leads to fever. For immediate relief, a handful of mashed pfepfe , Drymaria Cordata (Caryophyllaceae) or commonly known as tropical chickweed leaf is rubbed all over the body to lower body temperature. Every time the body temperature rises, it is applied. Sometime it is even taken in the form of decoction. They also drink the decoction of the boiled leaf of Neem. Another cooling measure is to use a cool damp cloth or sponge bath to help lower body temperature. Atsii is a type of fever with acute body-ache. It is caused due to change in weather and when the body does not get enough rest. It is also due to overwork. They treat this kind of fever by boiling the leaf of shachii , Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae), with water. The water is then utilized for bathing, which should be done twice a day. Chicken is also taken in the form of meal. However, the preparation for this purpose is different. The mincemeat is steamed in a tightly sealed glass jar that is then cooked in water. The decoction that comes out from mincemeat is consumed once or twice a day. It is also taken for body aches and assisting in delivery. Drinking the decoction of boiled Neem once a day is also one of the curative measures. Mosquito-borne diseases like dengue and malaria can be treated with natural remedies. The treatment for malaria is to boil the leaf of shachii, with water. The water is then utilized for bathing, which should be done twice a day. Another curative measure is consuming crab, which is prepared as chutney by cooking or burning it, then smashing it with salt and chillies. On the other hand, for dengue, taking the decoction of papaya leaves boiled with water act as a curative remedy. Khaoravu is another type of fever mainly due to shift in season, mainly during the dry and dusty season. The symptoms of this type of fever include sore throat, dryness in the nose, runny nose, nose block and cough. Several plants and animals are traditionally used to treat common ailments such as coughs and colds, utilizing various parts of the organisms for their medicinal properties. Garlic is used to treat multiple ailments such as coughs and blood pressure. A paste made from crushed garlic mixed with mustard oil is applied to the throat, chest, and back as a balm, and it should be applied twice a day until fully recovered. The decoction of ginger rhizome should be consumed two to three times a day. The gall bladder of Cyprinus carpio fish is also taken raw treat coughs. Anura frog act as an important remedy for cough as well as for physical injury and post-delivery. The decoction as well as the cooked flesh is taken as meal. Similarly, Rattus norvegicus or the wild rat is also taken in the form of meal. The treatment of fever depends on its cause. However, one of the general strategies for managing fever is by resting and hydration. Getting plenty of rest and drinking fluids like water, soups, electrolyte drinks is important to prevent dehydration. Consuming porridge made from rice and various vegetables such as reivu Elsholtzia, nyupia Tulsi, achivu solanum species, or khaokha thou Solanum virginianum that may be cooked together or separately is also one of the curative measures. While the villagers seek allopathic treatment, they prefer their own treatment because they feel it cannot be controlled by allopathic medicine. 2. Diarrhea and Dysentery They are a common problem among the Poumai Nagas, both young and old. The dietary pattern is one of the major causes of stomach issues such as diarrhea, dysentery, and gas formation. Consumption of certain traditional food preparation methods contribute to the contamination of food. For example, fermented food such as bamboo shoot, soybean and fish if not properly stored, handled, or cooked, it can become a breeding ground for pathogens that causes irritation in the stomach. As they are chilly lover people, king chillies are found in every household placed above the hearth of almost every kitchen. They add chillies in every meal they prepare, but sometime they over eat due to good taste and causes them to suffer from diarrhea. Apart from that, seasonal change is another factor that causes various types of stomach problem due to contamination of water sources as well as changes in temperature. Some of the symptoms of diarrhea include dizziness and loss of appetite. A variety of plants are used in traditional medicine to treat digestive ailments like diarrhea, dysentery, and acidity. The bark of pah chii shikao (Alnus) is consumed raw or as a decoction by boiling it with water, which acts as a remedy for diarrhoea. Another curative measure of diarrhea is to have a banana. Consuming the tender raw leaf of guava or thickhead weed locally term as poupa hiduh are effective remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. Drinking the decoction of aradouchi pomegranate, leaf with water helps in both diarrhea and dysentery. Mouchhi which is commonly known as Rhus Chinensis, helps for multiple diagnosis such as diarrhea, dysentery, and stomach issues like gas formation. The decoction from fruit that is boiled in water is taken. The leaves of passion fruit or bitter gourd or mint is also taken in the form of porridge which is effective for treating both diarrhea and dysentery. It can be taken raw or in the form of porridge. Japan reivu Eupatorium adenophorum, is the most effective ethnomedicine that helps alleviate dysentery and blood in the stool. The decoction from mashed raw tender leaves is taken in order to get quick relief. Another treatment for dysentery is by drinking the decoction of boiled zaichi chii Myrica esculenta. These natural remedies, utilizing different parts of plants such as leaves, bark, and fruits, offer effective treatments for various digestive disorders and provide accessible, time-tested solutions for improving gastrointestinal health. 3. Skin Problems There are several problems that are related to skin such as rashes and allergy, animal bites, cuts and wounds, burn from fire and hot water, and blister. Rashes and allergies are often closely linked, as allergic reactions can lead to skin irritation, redness, and inflammation. Allergies are a common trigger for rashes, with substances like certain foods, medications, plants (such as poison ivy), insect stings, or environmental allergens like pollen and dust mites causing an immune system response. In addition, rashes are caused by certain wild plants, leaves, and caterpillars. Several natural remedies are used to treat rashes and allergies, with a variety of plants and even human saliva being employed for their healing properties. The fresh peach leaves, neem and aalouh Elsholtzia blanda Benth., mashed are applied directly onto the affected area to subsides the rashes. For animal bites such as snake bite, the fluid of the earthworm is taken immediately to prevent the spread of poison. Cuts and wounds can occur for a variety of reasons, often resulting from physical trauma to the skin. Common causes include accidents, such as contact with sharp objects like knives, glass and nails. Poor handling of tools or equipment, as well as accidents in the workplace, can also lead to cuts and lacerations. For minor cuts, several plants are traditionally used for the treatment due to fast healing and antimicrobial properties. For cuts and wounds, the thickhead weed is an important plant as the flower is used as cotton while the fresh leaves mashed are applied directly to stop bleeding and act as an antifungal agent. Similarly, the leaf of Hill gynura(Gynura cusimbua) commonly known as beggar's tick and locally termed as mhapeitei , Indian pennywort, apai or mugort and japan reivu are used in the same way to control bleeding and aid in the healing process. Another significant natural remedy in healing the wounds is by pasting the crushed roots of tsiichuma Tibouchina semidecandra. To treat the skin from burn injuries, natural and effective treatments, aloe vera and potato are the natural remedies that help to soothe and heal faster. For blister, the fresh leaves of aalouh , is used. A few droplets of saliva with mashed leaves are applied directly to the affected area for fast healing. These plant-based remedies highlight the use of natural ingredients, often involving simple yet effective methods to create healing pastes that address both bleeding and infection in cuts and wounds. 4. Kidney Stone Another common health issue among the Poumai is kidney stone. Many people attribute the increase of the problem of kidney stone to chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture. However, the exact reason for the cause is not known. One of the most curative remedies is citrus fruit. Particularly, pomelo or locally known as anga is one of the quickest remedies for removing stone if taken on regularly as it helps in breaking down the stones into smaller pieces. Additionally, taking lime with yolk on an empty stomach also helps in breaking down the stone. Another remedy is taking the decoction of the boiled roots of touch-me-not. 5. Bones There are various bones issue such as swollen bones, sprains, and fractures. The bone injury mostly occurs due to accident. However, swelling of bones is also believed to happen due to excessive consumption of alcohol. Traditional remedies for its treatment are based on plants and animals. Pasting the raw tuber of yam which is sliced or crushed on the affected area helps in healing. The most effective treatment for the leg and joint sprain is to sponge bath on the fractured joints with hot water and decoction of teh hri pou Ricinus communis leaves. In addition to plants, certain animals, such as chicken, are used for treating fractures and swelling. The whole chicken is pounded, crushed, or ground into a paste, which is then applied to the affected area once a day. Similarly, an egg is used to treat fractures and swelling by applying it directly to the wound to promote healing. In certain cases, the treatment includes magical spells and charms. For example, smashed rice and charcoal are pasted in fracture and swollen. These natural remedies demonstrate how traditional medicine makes use of both plant-based and animal-derived substances for the treatment of physical injuries and swelling, providing accessible solutions for managing these common ailments. 6. Gastritis is a common health problem that the adult suffers from. The major symptoms of gastritis are the burning sensation in the stomach. Stomach issues like gastritis and acidity are caused due to various reasons. Among the people of the village, it is mostly due to consumption of oily food like mustard or refined oil, fats, butter and cheese. However, it also depends from person to person as some get gastritis due to consumption of green chillies or fish mint while others due to non-vegetarian food. Another cause of gastritis is soaking in water for a long time. Several plants are traditionally used to treat digestive issues such as gastritis and ulcers. Consumption of raw Indian pennywort, is beneficial for both gastritis and ulcers. Another remedy for gastritis is taking the decoction of the boiled leaves of toubuvu Gynura bicolor, and also consuming the leaves for better result. Likewise, taking the decoction from the stem of pha Leucaena, also act as a remedy. It is prepared by boiling it with water. The raw fruit of Parkia speciosa (Fabaceae)orstink bean locally known as yoncha , is taken in the form of a salad which helps in treating gastritis. Among all types of curative measures, consuming the decoction from the boiled leaves of Artemisia argyi, locally known as apai and aalouh in an empty stomach helps the best in general. These plant-based remedies offer accessible solutions for managing and alleviating the discomfort associated with gastritis and ulcers, often involving simple methods of preparation and consumption for maximum effectiveness. 7. Diabetes has become one of the major health issues among the elder members of the population. The cause of diabetes is believed to be excessive consumption of tea with extreme sweetness. Another cause is due to infrequent, yet heavy intake of meal at a time and not keeping track of food time. Some of the symptoms include loss of weight, frequent thirst and urination, numbness and tingling. Several plants are traditionally used to manage diabetes by regulating blood sugar levels. The decoction of vivu Acmella oleracea, leaf by boiling helps in controlling blood sugar level. Pomelo, is also effective for diabetes. The decoction of pilled Pomelo helps to regulate blood sugar levels. Consuming hroumou Helianthus tuberosus, helps in stabilising sugar levels. These remedies emphasize the use of natural plant-based solutions to support the management of diabetes. 8 . Blood Pressure Among the Poumais, blood pressure normally increases due to consumption of non-vegetarian food, particularly fats. Several plants are traditionally used to manage and regulate blood pressure. Rah bei Alocasia macrorrhizos, stem, is applied topically to the head to help regulate high blood pressure. The stem's cover is removed, and it is applied until the blood pressure normalizes. The leaves of peiduhvu Clerodendrum colebrookianum, is effective in controlling blood pressure. The leaves are boiled and consumed in the form of curry. Consuming the decoction of Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae) leaves or locally term as shachiihou, in an empty stomach also help in regulating blood pressure. Bitter gourd, which in a local term is kha zhanya , also control blood pressure. Consuming the decoction of the boiled leaves with water help in lowering blood pressure. The Indian gooseberry helps in various ailments. Taking a piece of fruit after meal helps in stabilizing blood pressure as well as relieving coughs. 9. Blood circulation and period Although health issues related to blood are very common especially among the woman, there are no explanations for its cause. However, for curative measures, several traditional remedies are used to address issues related to blood circulation, purification, and irregular periods, utilizing a range of plants and even animal-derived products. Indian pennywort is one among the herbs that helps in purifying blood. Consuming the raw leaves in the form of salad not only purify blood but also control high blood pressure. In order to improve blood circulation, bathing with the boiled leaves of rahbo Brugmansia suaveolens, helps promote better circulation. For irregular periods, consuming the decoction of crushed roots of touch-me-not, that has been boiled with water act as a remedy. It can also be done in the form of steam. Additionally, taking the fresh blood of eel fish, also help with blood refilling in cases of blood deficiency. These remedies highlight the use of both plant-based and animal-derived substances to address various health concerns related to blood, circulation, and reproductive health. 10. Labour Pain and Delivery Several plants and animals are traditionally used to assist with labor, delivery, and post-delivery recovery. Yam is used to ease labour pain. To help ensure a smooth and quick birth, the tuber is taken frequently in the form of meal until delivery. Similarly, vebei Musa x paradisiaca, is taken in the form of curry during labour pain and post-delivery to aid in labour. The pseudo-stem is boiled or cooked as a simple curry, without any additional ingredients, and consumed as a meal until the wounds are healed. Additionally, chicken is consumed during the post-delivery recovery to help provide nourishment and healing during recovery. The preparation process is the same as for fever. These traditional remedies reflect the use of both plants and animals to support women through the different stages of childbirth and recovery. 11. Piles The villagers consider it piles when there is swollen and bleeding from the anus. It is believed that piles are caused due to consumption of various food. Consuming more bananas or guava are some of the immediate reactions to piles. Thus, several plants are used for their medicinal remedies that provide natural relief for managing piles, focusing on controlling symptoms like bleeding and inflammation. The decoction from the rhizome of vahchiipou Acorus calamus, that is boiled with water help to control bleeding. Another treatment is by taking raw Daikon radish. 12. Toothache among the Poumai Nagas include decay, loose or broken filling and food stuck between teeth. Older people suffer more than other groups of the community due to ageing as well as poor dental hygiene. However, the adolescent also experiences loose or broken filling. For treating toothaches, several plants are used for their natural antibiotic properties. One of the most frequently employed for toothache relief is khaoputu Nicotiana. The leaves are pasted onto the affected area after being softened with hot ashes to relief the pain as well as strengthen the loose tooth. However, it is only applicable for the older people. The other remedy for toothaches is the leaf of peach. This is applicable for any age group of people. The tender raw leaf of peach act as an antibiotic, and should be chewed whenever pain occurs, offering immediate comfort and pain relief. Both of these natural remedies rely on the direct application of plant parts to the affected area, providing simple and effective relief for toothaches. 13. Eyes The problem related to eyes that are found among this community are visual impairment, refractive errors, sore eyes or conjunctivitis. The majority of individuals with visual impairment are blind by birth. In contrast, refractive errors can occur at any time in one's life. Conjunctivitis commonly causes sore eyes. It is contagious and can be spread to other people. Among all types of eye infection, conjunctivitis is the most common found among the community. It can be treated traditionally by employing natural substances from plants, animals, and even human products. The extracted juice of Indian gooseberry, is used as an eye drop which should be applied in the morning. Similarly, extraction of liquid from the snail’s membrane is used as an eye drop. Additionally, using breastmilk and urine as an eye drop allows the eye to benefit from its vapor that provides an effective remedy for sore eyes as well. 14. Nose The common issues of nose among this community are nosebleed and sinus. Among the adults, generally the nose bleeds due to excessive exposure to heat, whereas for children, the nosebleed when they get hit while playing. One of the symptoms of nosebleed is a headache. The remedies to control or stop the bleeding is by pasting and sniffing mugort crushed leaves. Sinus, on the other hand, become severe during cold weather. Its symptoms include nasal congestion and headache. The curative remedy is to apply aalouh , on the nose by heating the leaves from hot ashes. It provides relief from sinus congestion and discomfort. These natural treatments rely on the direct application of plant-based substances to alleviate symptoms associated with nasal conditions. 15. Earache To alleviate the pain of earache, the liquid extracted from the leaves of geranium is used as an ear drops. Other Various Types When fish bone is stuck in the throat, consuming the raw flower as well as the leaves of mte-te pah Rhododendron, helps in removing the bones. For headaches and stomach pain, the gallbladder of a bear is consumed either as a curry by cooking it or by smoking it over fire. For urine problems, consuming sparrow in the form of curry helps in controlling urination in bed. For jaundice, the traditional remedy is by drinking the decoction from the crushed crab that is mixed with water. The consumption of fresh, raw earthworms has been traditionally believed to aid in the detoxification for a snakebite. Eels are considered a rich source of nutrients and are traditionally believed to help replenish blood levels and support recovery from blood loss. For mumps, applying the paste made of mud used by the wasp to build its home mixed with water act as a curative measure. The pangolin shell or own naval is worn as an amulet to ward off the evil eye and witch spell. Discussion The study discovers that the Poumai Naga tribe of Manipur uses various plants with a total number of 49 ethnomedicinal plants. Aside from the few plants described, there are a number of other plants that have not been documented and may be known and unknown to the Poumai. As the study (Yuhlung & Bhattacharyya, 2014) states that most notably, climate change, deforestation, jhum farming, economic constraints, Christianity, people's ignorance, lack of sustainable management, and unsystematic collection and destruction of identified plants and their surrounding ecosystems, among other factors, have posed a serious threat to the existing ethno-medicinal plants in North-East India. The plant's leaf and stem are found to be the most often used components for traditional medicinal preparations. Other parts of the plants used in treatment include tuber, root, seed, the whole plant, rhizome, bark, flower, pseudo stem and fruit are frequencies. According to the Poumais, some medications are made by combining two or three plant parts. The methods of preparing medicines differ depending on the plant, herb, and the specific disease being treated. Thus, based on the severity of the condition it is being treated. It is also found that the health care system of the internal organs differs from that of the external issues. For example, in cases of acidity, diarrhea and dysentery treatment is based on consumption, however, when there is external injury like cuts, wounds, burnt from fire and hot water, treatment is in the form of pasting. In cases such as fever it is treated in both ways. When the body temperature goes very high, mashed leaves are applied otherwise it is mostly treated in the form of consumption. The agency of indigenous healers in the Poumai community is strongly evident in the way they adapt, resist, and hybridize modern influences while sustaining their traditional healing systems. While biomedical treatments (like allopathy) are acknowledged and occasionally used, Poumai healers often adapt traditional methods to address contemporary health challenges. In many cases, community members resist full reliance on biomedical systems. For instance, they prefer herbal treatments for fevers and minor injuries, asserting that these remedies “cannot be controlled by allopathic medicine”. This indicates a confident assertion of the value and efficacy of indigenous knowledge. There is also a creative blending of traditional and modern practices. For example, the use of chicken or crab decoctions alongside bathing with herbal infusions to treat ailments like fever or malaria illustrates syncretic healing strategies that combine dietary, physical, and spiritual dimensions. Their practices are not static remnants of the past but are living, adaptive systems that continue to meet the community’s health needs while asserting cultural autonomy. In the Poumai community, access to traditional health knowledge, especially herbal medicine, is shaped by age, gender, and social status. Elders and traditional healers are the main custodians, while younger generations lack such knowledge due to modernization and reliance on allopathic medicine. Gender roles also influence knowledge - women, especially older ones, handle every day and reproductive health care, while men often deal with injuries and animal-based remedies. Social status further affects access, as specialized knowledge is controlled by respected healers and elders, creating a hierarchical system of knowledge transmission. The study highlights a significant generational gap in the knowledge, practice, and perception of traditional medicine within the Poumai Naga community. Traditionally, ethnomedicinal knowledge was passed orally from one generation to the next, with elders especially traditional healers and older individuals acting as the primary custodians of this wisdom. They possess deep understanding of plant-based remedies, their preparation, dosage, and application, often gained through years of observation, experience, and intergenerational teaching. However, intergenerational transmission of this knowledge is rapidly declining, particularly among the younger Poumai generation. The study finds that individuals belonging to the younger demographic, possess little or negligible understanding of the process of preparing herbal medications and their subsequent use, in comparison to older cohorts. This is mostly attributable to the fact that current therapeutic medications are readily available in rural areas. Therefore, the indigenous knowledge and practices related to medicinal plants in the area under investigation are in some way in danger of being lost. It is for this reason that it is essential to document the useful knowledge, in addition to ensuring the preservation of the taxonomic species. Due to the rising of modernization, the younger generations prefer to use pharmaceutical drugs for minor ailments such as headaches, stomachaches, cough and small cuts. However, this does not imply that people have completely abandoned their traditional indigenous remedies. Moreover, the impact of formal education, Christianity, and exposure to globalized medical narratives has led many young people to view traditional medicine as outdated or superstitious. While the community has not wholly abandoned indigenous healing, the preference among youth leans heavily toward modern systems, especially when access is available. Despite this shift, traditional healers and elders continue to play a respected role, particularly in remote or rural areas where biomedical healthcare may be limited or distrusted. This dynamic underscore a fragile state of knowledge transmission, where unless actively documented and preserved, the rich ethnomedicinal heritage of the Poumai tribe is at risk of being lost. Yet, the persistence of traditional healers and the growing interest in natural and alternative medicine across broader public and academic domains offer hope for potential revival, particularly if the younger generation can be engaged through education, cultural pride, and scientific validation of indigenous practices. It is also found that the traditional medical practices of the Poumai Nagas share notable similarities with other tribes of Northeast India- Karbi(Das et al., 2023), Galo(Doni & Gajurel, 2020), Khasi(Tynsong & Tiwari, 2010), Mizo(Laldingliani et al., 2022), Nagas of the Nagaland (Zingkhai, 2015) and other indigenous ethnic groups such as Nepal (K.C., 2017), South Africa (S. E. Shackleton et al., 2002),(C. M. Shackleton & Shackleton, 2006), Ethiopia (Mersha, 2023), Africa (Cunningham, 1993) and Europe (Leonti et al., 2006), particularly in their reliance on natural or herbal remedies and their strong connection to the natural environment. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes traditional medicine as a vital component of healthcare, especially in Indigenous and rural communities. WHO acknowledges that 80% of the global population in some countries relies on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs (World Health Organization, 2022). As deforestation, modern agriculture, and changing lifestyles threaten local flora and fauna, safeguarding the biocultural heritage is essential. Protecting these ecosystems not only preserves Poumai health practices but also ensures future access to potentially valuable medicinal resources for broader society. On the other hand, the documentation of Poumai ethnomedicine reveals unique, community-owned knowledge about disease treatment and resource use. Thus, there is a need to establish community-centric Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) frameworks to prevent unauthorized commercialization. Additionally, as traditional practices are increasingly studied and documented, there is a critical need to ensure informed consent, cultural sensitivity, and community participation. The ethnomedicinal practices of the Poumai community reflect a deep tradition of orally transmitted knowledge rooted in generations of empirical observation. Their ability to distinguish and treat various types of illnesses such as fevers like Rachishi , Atsii , and Khaoravu demonstrates sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic skills using specific plant parts in precise forms. Similarly, spiritual beliefs are closely tied to health, with some attributing ailments to natural causes and others to malevolent spirits. This dual belief system shapes treatment approaches, often involving charms, rituals, and amulets, integrating physical and spiritual care into healing. Additionally, a strong plant-animal interface characterizes Poumai medicine. While plants form the core of their healthcare system, animals such as chickens, frogs, eels, and even human substances like saliva and breastmilk are also used. These practices reflect a holistic worldview where humans, animals, and plants coexist in a network of mutual healing. However, traditional knowledge is eroding under the influence of modern medicine, processed foods, and changing lifestyles. Although allopathic medicine is used, it is found that many still prefer traditional remedies for culturally specific or spiritually rooted illnesses. The oral nature of this knowledge and declining youth engagement threaten its continuity. The Poumai Naga traditional healthcare system includes two main types: magico-religious and natural folk medicine, which differ both conceptually and functionally. Magico-religious medicine views illness as caused by supernatural forces like evil spirits, sorcery, witchcraft, and the evil eye. Treatments involve rituals, incantations, offerings, sacrifices, and protective amulets aimed at removing or appeasing these spiritual causes. Diagnosis relies on spiritual signs and symbolic acts. In contrast, natural folk medicine attributes illness to natural and physiological causes and treats diseases empirically using medicinal plants, animal products, and minerals. This system focuses on observable symptoms and uses decoctions, pastes, and other herbal preparations to cure ailments like fever, wounds, jaundice, and malaria. It is a practical, sustainable approach deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge and the natural environment. While magico-religious practices address spiritual aspects of illness and reinforce cultural beliefs, natural folk medicine provides accessible, rational treatment for physical conditions. Both coexist and sometimes overlap, reflecting the Poumai Nagas' pluralistic healthcare system grounded in tradition and empirical knowledge. Conclusions The present study has determined that the indigenous population residing in the studied region has distinct methods of utilizing medicinal plants for the treatment of various disorders. It was found that, in addition to pharmaceutical medications, many Poumai still depend on their indigenous medicinal plants for health treatment. The study showed that the locals of the community depend heavily on medicinal herbs and plants. And they adopt the indigenous knowledge systems to maintain health care. It is therefore, important that pluralism in medicine be recognized and advocate not only in the third world, but also in the industrialized West. Thus, a thorough scientific study is required so to discover new compounds for developing into a modern medicine. This study also suggests that different aspects of traditional healing within health services to the Poumai community should be given greater consideration. It is likely that the issues regarding the use of traditional medicine is similar and relevant to circumstances among the indigenous peoples in the other Asian countries and among the tribals in northeast India, but this is an area that needs to be a higher priority area for health services research. Despite the area's abundant plant resources, their numbers are steadily declining each day due to deforestation caused by various human activities. The Poumai Naga community’s rich indigenous health care system, rooted deeply in ethnomedicinal knowledge and the sustainable use of local biodiversity, remains a vital resource for primary health care especially in rural and underserved areas. Natural products, particularly those of botanical origin, persistently provide novel and significant prospects within the realm of medication research. The initial stage in the process of drug discovery involves the documentation of substances that have been traditionally employed for the treatment of a certain medical condition. The knowledge of how to use medicinally significant plants and practices is passed down from generation to generation, and because of this history, there is concern that indigenous knowledge of traditional medicine is progressively declining. There is a notable increase in public, academic, and government interest in traditional medicine. This can be attributed to the escalating occurrences of bad medication responses and the fiscal strain associated with the contemporary healthcare system. Thus, the documentation of the information provided by our study will contribute to its preservation and support future study on the safety and effectiveness of medicinal herbs, with the aim of validating their traditional usage and preventing any detrimental change in knowledge throughout intergenerational transfer. For public health planners and ethnobotanical conservationists, it is imperative to adopt a multi-dimensional strategy that respects, preserves, and integrates Poumai traditional medicine with contemporary health systems. This includes documenting and scientifically validating medicinal plant use, supporting sustainable conservation of biodiversity, protecting indigenous IPR, and fostering intergenerational transmission of knowledge. Engagement with local healers, communities, and youth through culturally sensitive educational programs and research collaborations will help ensure that traditional health practices remain dynamic, respected, and accessible. By embracing medical pluralism and recognizing the complementary strengths of indigenous and modern healthcare, policymakers can promote holistic health outcomes while conserving both cultural heritage and natural resources essential to the Poumai’s well-being. Despite the deep-rooted cultural and therapeutic importance of traditional medicine among the Poumai Naga community, traditional healers today face multiple and intersecting challenges that threaten the continuity and survival of their knowledge systems and practices. These challenges stem from socio-religious, environmental, legal, and generational shifts. The survival of Poumai traditional medicine and the healers who safeguard it is under serious threat from legal invisibility, environmental destruction, religious transformation, and social change. Unless urgent efforts are made to document, protect, and integrate this knowledge system, it risks disappearing within a generation. To safeguard it, a multi-pronged approach involving policy recognition, cultural revitalization, biodiversity conservation, and youth engagement is essential. Declarations Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to all the Folk medicine practitioners, elders and the people of the Poumai Naga tribe for their helped and sincere co-operation throughout the field trips. We want to appreciate the respondents in our sample for setting the time for our interviews and providing valuable information. The responsibilities for the interpretations and conclusions still remain those of the authors. The first author gratefully acknowledges the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi, for the financial assistance received through the Doctoral Fellowship that supported during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contributions MV: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - original draft preparation RG: Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - review and editing, Supervision Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained verbally from all individual participants included in the study. References Bickenbach, J. (2020). Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine. Handbook of the Philosophy of Medicine , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8706-2 Cunningham, A. B. (1993). African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper 1. People and Plants Working Paper , March , 50. http://peopleandplants.squarespace.com/storage/working-papers/wp1e.pdf D., A. (2019). An Analysis on Education of Poumai Naga Tribe in Manipur. 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Rawat Publications. Tynsong, H., & Tiwari, B. K. (2010). Plant Diversity in the Homegardens and their Significance in the Livelihoods of War Khasi Community of Meghalaya, North-east India . Journal of Biodiversity , 1 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766901.2010.11884713 United Nations. (2016). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples: Indigenous Peoples’ Access to Health Services. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs , 1–190. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/03/The-State-of-The-Worlds-Indigenous-Peoples-WEB.pdf Veikho, S. L., & Khyriem, B. (2015). Poula phonetics and phonology: An initial overview. In L. Konnerth, S. Morey, P. Sarmah, & A. Teo (Eds.), North East Indian Linguistics 7 (NEIL 7) (pp. 47–62). Asia-Pacific Linguistics. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/95392 Veimy, M. (2021). Traditional Folk Medicine of the Poumai Ethnic Group of North East India. In Indian Folklore Contemplation on Art, Aesthetics and Culture (pp. 236–243). Upanayan Publiblications. World Health Organization. (2022). WHO establishes the Global Centre for Traditional Medicine in India . https://www.who.int/news/item/25-03-2022-who-establishes-the-global-centre-for-traditional-medicine-in-india?utm Yuhlung, C. C., & Bhattacharyya, M. (2014). Practice of Ethno-medicine among the Chothe Tribe of Manipur, North-East India. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Biological Archives , 5 (3), 138–149. www.ijpba.info%0D Zingkhai, H. G. (2015). Forest and Livelihood: the Naga Traditional Practice of Prudent Use of Forest Resources for a Sustainable Livelihood. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences , 1 (1), 912–926. https://doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2015.s21.912926 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Health, for indigenous communities, is not merely a biomedical condition but is intrinsically linked to broader notions of well-being and human capability. This holistic view of health has fostered the development of diverse genres of medical knowledge termed as \u003cem\u003emedical pluralism\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(Sujata, 2003). Sujata characterizes these genres by varying degrees of professionalization, specialization, and textual orientation, with the permutations and combinations of these factors resulting in multiple orders of medical knowledge and practice functioning concomitantly. Therefore, in order to create effective treatment models and best practices that are both culturally and linguistically suitable for indigenous peoples, the United Nations suggests that health care services be pluricultural.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnlike Western medicine, which is grounded in technical and analytical methods, traditional medicine adopts a holistic approach. As highlighted in Cunningham\u0026rsquo;s study in Tanzania, the number of traditional practitioners ranged from 30,000 to 40,000, compared to just 600 medical doctors(Cunningham, 1993). Similarly, in Malawi, it was estimated that there were around 17,000 traditional healers compared to just 35 practicing medical doctors across the country. \u0026nbsp;Leonti et. al examines the impact of Mediterranean dietary habits on morbidity patterns and correlate that consuming fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and red wine is associated with a lower risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, cancer as well as longer life spans overall. In Southern Europe it is found that a core group of 18 culinary species including weedy and shrubby species have been identified among an estimated 20,000 botanical species (Albania, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal) or the Mediterranean region as a whole(Leonti et al., 2006). Wild edibles are found to supplement food security among the Guji Oromo semi-pastoralists of Ethiopia, out of 70 wild edible plant species that were discovered, 21 were utilized for medicinal remedies(Mersha, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA society\u0026apos;s knowledge traditions and worldviews contextualize its health-care system. Indigenous peoples have traditional knowledge that includes traditional healing methods. The healthcare system frequently disregards traditional medicine, an important aspect of First Nations health. However, the Indigenous Peoples in North America have persevered in pursuing wellness based on their knowledge and well-being despite considerable health issues. Traditional folk practices play a significant role in transmitting ethnic knowledge. In spite of varying practices between different tribes, all traditional medicine is based on the belief that humans are part of nature and that health is a matter of balance(United Nations, 2016).\u0026nbsp;The knowledge on plants, animals and their natural surroundings is based on the experiences and stories of the people that have been passed down from generation to the next through the expertise that is already there. Indigenous people gathered knowledge about the efficacy of different herbal preparations and practices in villages, pertaining to health, disease and medicine, which is call as medical lore(Sujata, 2003).\u0026nbsp;To cure different kinds of diseases and ailments using traditional methods, various parochial medicines are prepared from different kinds of plants.\u0026nbsp;In addition, in certain instances, they used insects, animal parts, and even magical charms to heal and cure those illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiseases and ailments are as old as human existence.\u0026nbsp;Humankind has used medicinal plants to treat their day-to-day sufferings since time immemorial.\u0026nbsp;The indigenous peoples, who are often among the poorest peoples and suffer the worst health condition. For communities lacking access to modern pharmaceuticals, traditional medicine remains the most accessible and cost-effective form of treatment within the primary healthcare system.\u0026nbsp;Amid the advancement of modern technology, traditional knowledge plays a significant role among the rural people, particularly, the Poumai Nagas in dealing with the health care system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Poumai Naga community is a significant indigenous tribe of the Naga people, known for its rich cultural and historical heritage in the northeastern region of India. The predominant residential areas of their population are primarily concentrated within the Senapati district of Manipur, with a little presence observed in select villages situated in the Phek district of Nagaland. The Indian government officially recognized the Poumai Naga tribe in 2003 under the provisions of the Constitution (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) Order (Amendment) Act of 2002(D., 2019). Many names, including Poumei, Pumei, Paumei, Pome, and Pomai, recognize the Poumai ethnic group(Veikho \u0026amp; Khyriem, 2015). Before Christianity, early anthropologists and ethnographers called them heathens or pagans(Hodson, 1911); (Hutton, 1921); (Mills, 1926) and others. They practiced traditional forms of rituals that are still prevalent parallelly in many aspects.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article explores the indigenous knowledge systems, medicinal plant use, and natural resource management strategies of the Poumai Naga community. It also acknowledges the evolving nature of the Poumai traditional knowledge system and the continued relevance of its sustainable practices in the contemporary context. Since time immemorial, the Poumai Naga people have used several medicinal plant species to heal their day-to-day sufferings. Ethnomedicine plays a vital role in the lives of Poumai people living in rural areas. Ethnomedicine is a field of study focused on remedies derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals, and their application in treating various illnesses, grounded in indigenous pharmacopoeia, traditional folklore, and herbal rituals (Nath et al., 2011). Therefore, this paper primarily aims to study, identify and document the traditional treatment methods of different diseases and ailments among the Poumai Naga tribe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConcept of disease and its treatment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHufford has classified medicine as official and unofficial. While the former is a scientific medical system practiced in the western countries that are considered modern with advanced technology approved in a formal manner, the latter is the opposite. The unofficial medical system is considered a religious as well as material in nature(Hufford, 1997). However, the widely accepted medical systems in medical anthropology are classified as \u0026lsquo;ethnomedical systems\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;biomedical systems\u0026rsquo;(Fabrega, 1971). The \u0026lsquo;ethnomedical systems\u0026rsquo; refer to notions of (non-western) people in which disease is a cultural category, whereas biomedical systems refer to conceptions (of western medicine) in which disease is perceived in physiological terms. In India situation is different as there is a plethora of health traditions that have sprung from the village-bone-setting. Various health issues constitute the knowledge system of the village folk such as veterinary medicine, treatment of the bites of snakes and poisonous insects, treatment of bites of rabid dogs, rats and cats, smallpox vaccination, a cure for thorn pricks of various kinds and intensity, stomach aches and sprains, child health and gynecological problems, jaundice and many more.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJust as modern medicine has several prescriptions for the same disease, depending upon the stage of the disease or suitability of a drug in a particular patient, so have the Poumai also. The early Poumai people believed that illness arose from two main causes: the wrath of malevolent deities and the spread of epidemics or viral fevers caused by seasonal changes. They believe that if a person encounters an evil (\u003cem\u003erahshi\u003c/em\u003e), in the forest or a secluded area, the deity causes harm, leading to illness. Thus, they rely solely on traditional folk medicine. They have their own traditional healers and specialists, who serve them well, and in whom they have complete faith and confidence. Treatment focusses on removal of the causative factor of illness. The tribal communities and the Poumai Naga tribe holds the belief that most illnesses are the result of supernatural forces. These supernatural causes illness and death among human beings. They have their own way of healing different illness (culturally defined) and disease (physiological reality)(United Nations, 2016) related to socio-cultural and magical-religious practices. Among the Poumais\u0026rsquo;, of the folk medicines there existed two main different types of healing practices, the magico-religious folk medicine and the natural folk medicine for a health care system. The magico-religious folk medicine heavily depends on the incantations of magical verses and animal sacrificial to bring about cures.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the basis of magico-religious factors Veimy found four ailments prevalent among the Poumai Naga community(Veimy, 2021). \u003cem\u003eRachii\u003c/em\u003e (evil spirits) is one of the causes of sickness that Poumais\u0026rsquo; are afraid of, as it causes them illness with fever and loss of sensation to the extent of death. Therefore, the hills, rivers, stones and tress are to be appeased in the form of offerings with objects like clothes, rice or even chicken. \u003cem\u003eShu\u003c/em\u003e (sorcery) is also found to be practiced among the Poumai Naga community. A sorcerer, also known as \u003cem\u003etiashitia\u003c/em\u003e, usually performs it on enemies by obtaining objects that belong to the victim and uttering incantations over them. The other way is through soil from the grave which is thrown to the victim\u0026rsquo;s house causing the victim to instantly get sick and feel weak. However, the sorcerer usually belongs to the other community. The only precautionary measure is to avoid eating their food or not letting them touch the belongings.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother ailment of the magico-religious factor is \u003cem\u003echa\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eh\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(witchcraft). The people who perform this type of magic are called \u003cem\u003emhraomai\u003c/em\u003e, and are believed to be hereditary. \u003cem\u003eMhraomai\u003c/em\u003e cast a spell over by merely looking which then causes stomach pain to the victim. To heal the pain, sharing food of the culprit is the only means. Defensive measure is by wearing an amulet in the form of anklets, bracelets, necklaces, or even earring. \u003cem\u003eAkhaosii\u003c/em\u003e (evil eye),\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eis another type of illness that is\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eusually caused to the children. The evil eyer\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003elooks at the child causing them difficulty in breathing. Therefore, charm against the evil eye is soot, which is smeared around the forehead of a child. The children are also made to wear an amulet made of shells or nails of pangolin as well as the dry umbilical cord of oneself. It is believed that when a child is affected by the evil eye, the medicine-man knows it when he breaks the egg, as the yolk of an egg is mixed with egg white. Likewise, when the liver of alive chicken being operated is broken, it is a sign that the child has met with the evil eye.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe other types of healing practices for a health care system that existed among the Poumai Naga community is the natural folk medicine. The natural medicines are those\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003erational empirical medicines which are dependent on the plants. It is also called herbal folk medicine. This article focuses on the traditional knowledge of ethnomedicinal practices based on natural folk medicine.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective of this study was to provide a comprehensive account of the ethnomedicinal practices seen within the Poumai community. The study focused on the Poumai Naga group residing in the Senapati area of Manipur as the population of interest. This study obtained its primary data through direct interaction with informants, supplemented by the use of secondary literature to gather additional information about the target group. The data gathering process involved the use of a semi-structured interview schedule. A survey was undertaken, involving five traditional herbalists hailing from distinct villages, namely Tungjoy, Koide, Saranamai, and Purul. Additionally, a series of in-depth interviews were undertaken with a cohort of ten older individuals and who possessed a comprehensive understanding of the therapeutic properties associated with various plant species and ten younger adults between the age group of 20 to 30 years. During the interviews, participants were asked about the nomenclature of plants, their identification, the specific plant parts utilized, vernacular names, techniques of preparation, treatments for various ailments, modes of utilization, doses, and the ethnomedicinal applications of these plants across all four seasons (winter, spring, monsoon, and autumn). For conducting field study, the researcher utilized a diary for the purpose of note-taking, while a mobile phone was used to make video and audio recordings. Additionally, photographs were captured of ethnomedicinal plants. In order to document the interviews and capture visual images, the researchers received prior Informed Consent from the indigenous communities before to conducting each interview.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eNatural or herbal medicine is the most heavily relied folk medicine among the Poumai community for their health care system. This type of medicine is based on the empirical or rational use of herbal and other medicaments. It is among humanity\u0026apos;s earliest reactions to the natural environment, and it entails looking for remedies for his sickness in natural medicines, herbs, minerals, and animal substances. Natural medicine, often referred to as \u0026apos;rational\u0026apos; folk medicine or \u0026apos;herbal\u0026apos; folk medicine due to the prominent use of herbs in its medicinal practices. Indigenous cultures practice natural medicine, and several of its effective treatments have been incorporated into modern medical practices. Some of the Poumais believe that all illnesses, even accidents, are caused by evil spirits. However, others discriminate between natural diseases, which everyone gets and need no explanations, such as cough and cold, and those caused by superhuman factors. They use physical agents and procedures particularly for \u0026apos;natural diseases\u0026apos;. This includes herbs and their preparations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is found that a multiple number of diseases and ailments affect the Poumai people, including highblood pressure, fever, malaria, dengue, diarrhea, dysentery, cuts and wounds, cough, gastritis, allergy, sore eyes, cold, diabetes, toothache, piles, jaundice, headache, rashes, labor pain, burns from fire or hot water, swollen bones, post-delivery, sinus, kidney (stone), sprain of legs and joints, nose bleed, blood purification, blood circulation, irregularity in periods, urine problem, stomach pain, ear pain, throat infections, blood refilling, snakebite and mumps. Ethno-medicinal plants play a significant role in their healthcare system for almost all types of diseases and ailments. The study also shows that the Poumais\u0026rsquo; depend on numerous plants, animals, insects and other objects to cure atleast 36 diseases and ailments. Various parts of the plant and animals are used in the form of decoction, juice, or paste for treating multiple health issues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1. Fever\u003c/em\u003e It is a temporary increase in body temperature, often due to an illness. It is most often caused by the body\u0026apos;s natural response to various factors like infections such as viral infections (e.g., flu, common cold, COVID-19, dengue) and Parasitic infections (e.g., malaria). It is also due to an inflammatory bowel that act as an inflammatory response. Heatstroke or overheating also cause the body to develop a fever-like response. Another cause of fever is vaccination which results in mild fever as the body\u0026rsquo;s immune system responds to the vaccine. According to the respondents, fever often accompanies other signs of illness such as headache, body aches, shivering, tasteless, loss of appetite, weakness, dizziness and pukish feeling. Fever is also attributed to smallpox, measles, and other diseases of this variety. There are different kinds of fever that are caused due to different reason and are treated differently.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e Rachishi\u003c/em\u003e is a type of fever when body temperature increase. It occurs mostly due to shift in season and also when exposed in rain. Consumption of heavy foods in large quantities and/or incompatible foodstuffs also leads to fever. For immediate relief, a handful of mashed \u003cem\u003epfepfe\u003c/em\u003e, Drymaria Cordata (Caryophyllaceae) or commonly known as tropical chickweed leaf is rubbed all over the body to lower body temperature. Every time the body temperature rises, it is applied. Sometime it is even taken in the form of decoction. They also drink the decoction of the boiled leaf of Neem. Another cooling measure is to use a cool damp cloth or sponge bath to help lower body temperature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAtsii \u003c/em\u003eis a type of fever with acute body-ache. It is caused due to change in weather and when the body does not get enough rest. It is also due to overwork. They treat this kind of fever by boiling the leaf of \u003cem\u003eshachii\u003c/em\u003e, Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae), with water. The water is then utilized for bathing, which should be done twice a day. Chicken is also taken in the form of meal. However, the preparation for this purpose is different. The mincemeat is steamed in a tightly sealed glass jar that is then cooked in water. The decoction that comes out from mincemeat is consumed once or twice a day. It is also taken for body aches and assisting in delivery. Drinking the decoction of boiled Neem once a day is also one of the curative measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMosquito-borne diseases like dengue and malaria can be treated with natural remedies. The treatment for malaria is to boil the leaf of \u003cem\u003eshachii,\u003c/em\u003e with water. The water is then utilized for bathing, which should be done twice a day. Another curative measure is consuming crab, which is prepared as chutney by cooking or burning it, then smashing it with salt and chillies. On the other hand, for dengue, taking the decoction of papaya leaves boiled with water act as a curative remedy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKhaoravu\u003c/em\u003e is another type of fever mainly due to shift in season, mainly during the dry and dusty season. The symptoms of this type of fever include sore throat, dryness in the nose, runny nose, nose block and cough. Several plants and animals are traditionally used to treat common ailments such as coughs and colds, utilizing various parts of the organisms for their medicinal properties. Garlic is used to treat multiple ailments such as coughs and blood pressure. A paste made from crushed garlic mixed with mustard oil is applied to the throat, chest, and back as a balm, and it should be applied twice a day until fully recovered. The decoction of ginger rhizome should be consumed two to three times a day. The gall bladder of Cyprinus carpio fish is also taken raw treat coughs. Anura frog act as an important remedy for cough as well as for physical injury and post-delivery. The decoction as well as the cooked flesh is taken as meal. Similarly, Rattus norvegicus or the wild rat is also taken in the form of meal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe treatment of fever depends on its cause. However, one of the general strategies for managing fever is by resting and hydration. Getting plenty of rest and drinking fluids like water, soups, electrolyte drinks is important to prevent dehydration. Consuming porridge made from rice and various vegetables such as \u003cem\u003ereivu \u003c/em\u003eElsholtzia, \u003cem\u003enyupia \u003c/em\u003eTulsi, \u003cem\u003eachivu\u003c/em\u003e solanum species, or \u003cem\u003ekhaokha thou \u003c/em\u003eSolanum virginianum that may be cooked together or separately is also one of the curative measures. While the villagers seek allopathic treatment, they prefer their own treatment because they feel it cannot be controlled by allopathic medicine.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2. Diarrhea and Dysentery\u003c/em\u003e They are a common problem among the Poumai Nagas, both young and old. The dietary pattern is one of the major causes of stomach issues such as diarrhea, dysentery, and gas formation. Consumption of certain traditional food preparation methods contribute to the contamination of food. For example, fermented food such as bamboo shoot, soybean and fish if not properly stored, handled, or cooked, it can become a breeding ground for pathogens that causes irritation in the stomach. As they are chilly lover people, king chillies are found in every household placed above the hearth of almost every kitchen. They add chillies in every meal they prepare, but sometime they over eat due to good taste and causes them to suffer from diarrhea. Apart from that, seasonal change is another factor that causes various types of stomach problem due to contamination of water sources as well as changes in temperature. Some of the symptoms of diarrhea include dizziness and loss of appetite.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA variety of plants are used in traditional medicine to treat digestive ailments like diarrhea, dysentery, and acidity. The bark of \u003cem\u003epah chii shikao\u003c/em\u003e (Alnus) is consumed raw or as a decoction by boiling it with water, which acts as a remedy for diarrhoea. Another curative measure of diarrhea is to have a banana. Consuming the tender raw leaf of guava or thickhead weed locally term as \u003cem\u003epoupa hiduh\u003c/em\u003e are effective remedy for diarrhea and dysentery. Drinking the decoction of \u003cem\u003earadouchi\u003c/em\u003e pomegranate, leaf with water helps in both diarrhea and dysentery. \u003cem\u003eMouchhi\u003c/em\u003e which is commonly known as Rhus Chinensis, helps for multiple diagnosis such as diarrhea, dysentery, and stomach issues like gas formation. The decoction from fruit that is boiled in water is taken. The leaves of passion fruit or bitter gourd or mint is also taken in the form of porridge which is effective for treating both diarrhea and dysentery. It can be taken raw or in the form of porridge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJapan reivu\u003c/em\u003e Eupatorium adenophorum, is the most effective ethnomedicine that helps alleviate dysentery and blood in the stool. The decoction from mashed raw tender leaves is taken in order to get quick relief. Another treatment for dysentery is by drinking the decoction of boiled \u003cem\u003ezaichi chii\u003c/em\u003e Myrica esculenta. These natural remedies, utilizing different parts of plants such as leaves, bark, and fruits, offer effective treatments for various digestive disorders and provide accessible, time-tested solutions for improving gastrointestinal health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3. Skin Problems\u003c/em\u003e There are several problems that are related to skin such as rashes and allergy, animal bites, cuts and wounds, burn from fire and hot water, and blister. Rashes and allergies are often closely linked, as allergic reactions can lead to skin irritation, redness, and inflammation. Allergies are a common trigger for rashes, with substances like certain foods, medications, plants (such as poison ivy), insect stings, or environmental allergens like pollen and dust mites causing an immune system response. In addition, rashes are caused by certain wild plants, leaves, and caterpillars. Several natural remedies are used to treat rashes and allergies, with a variety of plants and even human saliva being employed for their healing properties. The fresh peach leaves, neem and \u003cem\u003eaalouh \u003c/em\u003eElsholtzia blanda Benth., mashed are applied directly onto the affected area to subsides the rashes. For animal bites such as snake bite, the fluid of the earthworm is taken immediately to prevent the spread of poison.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCuts and wounds can occur for a variety of reasons, often resulting from physical trauma to the skin. Common causes include accidents, such as contact with sharp objects like knives, glass and nails. Poor handling of tools or equipment, as well as accidents in the workplace, can also lead to cuts and lacerations. For minor cuts, several plants are traditionally used for the treatment due to fast healing and antimicrobial properties. For cuts and wounds, the thickhead weed is an important plant as the flower is used as cotton while the fresh leaves mashed are applied directly to stop bleeding and act as an antifungal agent. Similarly, the leaf of Hill gynura(Gynura cusimbua) commonly known as beggar\u0026apos;s tick and locally termed as \u003cem\u003emhapeitei\u003c/em\u003e, Indian pennywort, \u003cem\u003eapai \u003c/em\u003eor\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003emugort\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e japan reivu\u003c/em\u003e are used in the same way to control bleeding and aid in the healing process. Another significant natural remedy in healing the wounds is by pasting the crushed roots of \u003cem\u003etsiichuma \u003c/em\u003eTibouchina semidecandra.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo treat the skin from burn injuries, natural and effective treatments, aloe vera and potato are the natural remedies that help to soothe and heal faster.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eFor blister, the fresh leaves of \u003cem\u003eaalouh\u003c/em\u003e, is used. A few droplets of saliva with mashed leaves are applied directly to the affected area for fast healing. These plant-based remedies highlight the use of natural ingredients, often involving simple yet effective methods to create healing pastes that address both bleeding and infection in cuts and wounds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4. \u003cem\u003eKidney Stone\u003c/em\u003e Another common health issue among the Poumai is kidney stone. Many people attribute the increase of the problem of kidney stone to chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture. However, the exact reason for the cause is not known. One of the most curative remedies is citrus fruit. Particularly, pomelo or locally known as\u003cem\u003e anga\u003c/em\u003e is one of the quickest remedies for removing stone if taken on regularly as it helps in breaking down the stones into smaller pieces. Additionally, taking lime with yolk on an empty stomach also helps in breaking down the stone. Another remedy is taking the decoction of the boiled roots of touch-me-not.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.\u003cem\u003e Bones\u003c/em\u003e There are various bones issue such as swollen bones, sprains, and fractures. The bone injury mostly occurs due to accident. However, swelling of bones is also believed to happen due to excessive consumption of alcohol. Traditional remedies for its treatment are based on plants and animals. Pasting the raw tuber of yam which is sliced or crushed on the affected area helps in healing. The most effective treatment for the leg and joint sprain is to sponge bath on the fractured joints with hot water and decoction of \u003cem\u003eteh hri pou\u003c/em\u003e Ricinus communis leaves. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to plants, certain animals, such as chicken, are used for treating fractures and swelling. The whole chicken is pounded, crushed, or ground into a paste, which is then applied to the affected area once a day. Similarly, an egg is used to treat fractures and swelling by applying it directly to the wound to promote healing. In certain cases, the treatment includes magical spells and charms. For example, smashed rice and charcoal are pasted in fracture and swollen. These natural remedies demonstrate how traditional medicine makes use of both plant-based and animal-derived substances for the treatment of physical injuries and swelling, providing accessible solutions for managing these common ailments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6. \u003cem\u003eGastritis\u003c/em\u003e is a common health problem that the adult suffers from. The major symptoms of gastritis are the burning sensation in the stomach. Stomach issues like gastritis and acidity are caused due to various reasons. Among the people of the village, it is mostly due to consumption of oily food like mustard or refined oil, fats, butter and cheese. However, it also depends from person to person as some get gastritis due to consumption of green chillies or fish mint while others due to non-vegetarian food. Another cause of gastritis is soaking in water for a long time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral plants are traditionally used to treat digestive issues such as gastritis and ulcers. Consumption of raw Indian pennywort, is beneficial for both gastritis and ulcers. Another remedy for gastritis is taking the decoction of the boiled leaves of \u003cem\u003etoubuvu\u003c/em\u003e Gynura bicolor, and also consuming the leaves for better result. Likewise, taking the decoction from the stem of \u003cem\u003epha\u003c/em\u003e Leucaena, also act as a remedy. It is prepared by boiling it with water. The raw fruit of Parkia speciosa (Fabaceae)orstink bean locally known as \u003cem\u003eyoncha\u003c/em\u003e, is taken in the form of a salad which helps in treating gastritis. Among all types of curative measures, consuming the decoction from the boiled leaves of Artemisia argyi, locally known as \u003cem\u003eapai\u003c/em\u003e and\u003cem\u003e aalouh\u003c/em\u003e in an empty stomach helps the best in general. These plant-based remedies offer accessible solutions for managing and alleviating the discomfort associated with gastritis and ulcers, often involving simple methods of preparation and consumption for maximum effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7. \u003cem\u003eDiabetes\u003c/em\u003e has become one of the major health issues among the elder members of the population. The cause of diabetes is believed to be excessive consumption of tea with extreme sweetness. Another cause is due to infrequent, yet heavy intake of meal at a time and not keeping track of food time. Some of the symptoms include loss of weight, frequent thirst and urination, numbness and tingling. Several plants are traditionally used to manage diabetes by regulating blood sugar levels. The decoction of \u003cem\u003evivu\u003c/em\u003e Acmella oleracea, leaf by boiling helps in controlling blood sugar level. Pomelo, is also effective for diabetes. The decoction of pilled Pomelo helps to regulate blood sugar levels. Consuming \u003cem\u003ehroumou\u003c/em\u003e Helianthus tuberosus, helps in stabilising sugar levels. These remedies emphasize the use of natural plant-based solutions to support the management of diabetes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003cem\u003e. Blood Pressure\u003c/em\u003e Among the Poumais, blood pressure normally increases due to consumption of non-vegetarian food, particularly fats. Several plants are traditionally used to manage and regulate blood pressure. \u003cem\u003eRah bei\u003c/em\u003e Alocasia macrorrhizos, stem, is applied topically to the head to help regulate high blood pressure. The stem\u0026apos;s cover is removed, and it is applied until the blood pressure normalizes. The leaves of \u003cem\u003epeiduhvu\u003c/em\u003e Clerodendrum colebrookianum, is effective in controlling blood pressure. The leaves are boiled and consumed in the form of curry. Consuming the decoction of Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae) leaves or locally term as \u003cem\u003eshachiihou,\u003c/em\u003e in an empty stomach also help in regulating blood pressure. Bitter gourd, which in a local term is\u003cem\u003e kha zhanya\u003c/em\u003e, also control blood pressure. Consuming the decoction of the boiled leaves with water help in lowering blood pressure. The\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eIndian gooseberry helps in various ailments. Taking a piece of fruit after meal helps in stabilizing blood pressure as well as relieving coughs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9. \u003cem\u003eBlood circulation and period \u003c/em\u003eAlthough health issues related to blood are very common especially among the woman, there are no explanations for its cause. However, for curative measures, several traditional remedies are used to address issues related to blood circulation, purification, and irregular periods, utilizing a range of plants and even animal-derived products. Indian pennywort is one among the herbs that helps in purifying blood. Consuming the raw leaves in the form of salad not only purify blood but also control high blood pressure. In order to improve blood circulation, bathing with the boiled leaves of \u003cem\u003erahbo \u003c/em\u003eBrugmansia suaveolens, helps promote better circulation. For irregular periods, consuming the decoction of crushed roots of touch-me-not, that has been boiled with water act as a remedy. It can also be done in the form of steam. Additionally, taking the fresh blood of eel fish, also help with blood refilling in cases of blood deficiency. These remedies highlight the use of both plant-based and animal-derived substances to address various health concerns related to blood, circulation, and reproductive health.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10. \u003cem\u003eLabour Pain and Delivery \u003c/em\u003eSeveral plants and animals are traditionally used to assist with labor, delivery, and post-delivery recovery. Yam is used to ease labour pain. To help ensure a smooth and quick birth, the tuber is taken frequently in the form of meal until delivery. Similarly,\u003cem\u003e vebei \u003c/em\u003eMusa x paradisiaca, is taken in the form of curry during labour pain and post-delivery to aid in labour. The pseudo-stem is boiled or cooked as a simple curry, without any additional ingredients, and consumed as a meal until the wounds are healed. Additionally, chicken is consumed during the post-delivery recovery to help provide nourishment and healing during recovery. The preparation process is the same as for fever.\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eThese traditional remedies reflect the use of both plants and animals to support women through the different stages of childbirth and recovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11. \u003cem\u003ePiles\u003c/em\u003e The villagers consider it piles when there is swollen and bleeding from the anus. It is believed that piles are caused due to consumption of various food. Consuming more bananas or guava are some of the immediate reactions to piles. Thus, several plants are used for their medicinal remedies that provide natural relief for managing piles, focusing on controlling symptoms like bleeding and inflammation. The decoction from the rhizome of \u003cem\u003evahchiipou \u003c/em\u003eAcorus calamus, that is boiled with water help to control bleeding. Another treatment is by taking raw Daikon radish.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12. \u003cem\u003eToothache\u003c/em\u003e among the Poumai Nagas include decay, loose or broken filling and food stuck between teeth. Older people suffer more than other groups of the community due to ageing as well as poor dental hygiene. However, the adolescent also experiences loose or broken filling. For treating toothaches, several plants are used for their natural antibiotic properties. One of the most frequently employed for toothache relief is \u003cem\u003ekhaoputu \u003c/em\u003eNicotiana. The leaves are pasted onto the affected area after being softened with hot ashes to relief the pain as well as strengthen the loose tooth. However, it is only applicable for the older people. The other remedy for toothaches is the leaf of peach. This is applicable for any age group of people. The tender raw leaf of peach act as an antibiotic, and should be chewed whenever pain occurs, offering immediate comfort and pain relief. Both of these natural remedies rely on the direct application of plant parts to the affected area, providing simple and effective relief for toothaches.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13. \u003cem\u003eEyes\u003c/em\u003e The problem related to eyes that are found among this community are visual impairment, refractive errors, sore eyes or conjunctivitis. The majority of individuals with visual impairment are blind by birth. In contrast, refractive errors can occur at any time in one\u0026apos;s life. Conjunctivitis commonly causes sore eyes. It is contagious and can be spread to other people. Among all types of eye infection, conjunctivitis is the most common found among the community. It can be treated traditionally by employing natural substances from plants, animals, and even human products. The extracted juice of\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eIndian gooseberry, is used as an eye drop which should be applied in the morning. Similarly, extraction of liquid from the snail\u0026rsquo;s membrane is used as an eye drop. Additionally, using breastmilk and urine as an eye drop allows the eye to benefit from its vapor that provides an effective remedy for sore eyes as well. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14. \u003cem\u003eNose\u003c/em\u003e The common issues of nose among this community are nosebleed and sinus. Among the adults, generally the nose bleeds due to excessive exposure to heat, whereas for children, the nosebleed when they get hit while playing. One of the symptoms of nosebleed is a headache. The remedies to control or stop the bleeding is by pasting and sniffing mugort crushed leaves. Sinus, on the other hand, become severe during cold weather. Its symptoms include nasal congestion and headache. The curative remedy is to apply \u003cem\u003eaalouh\u003c/em\u003e, on the nose by heating the leaves from hot ashes. It provides relief from sinus congestion and discomfort. These natural treatments rely on the direct application of plant-based substances to alleviate symptoms associated with nasal conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15. \u003cem\u003eEarache\u003c/em\u003e To alleviate the pain of earache, the liquid extracted from the leaves of geranium is used as an ear drops. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther Various Types\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen fish bone is stuck in the throat, consuming the raw flower as well as the leaves of \u003cem\u003emte-te pah\u003c/em\u003e Rhododendron, helps in removing the bones. For headaches and stomach pain, the gallbladder of a bear is consumed either as a curry by cooking it or by smoking it over fire. For urine problems, consuming sparrow in the form of curry helps in controlling urination in bed. For jaundice, the traditional remedy is by drinking the decoction from the crushed crab that is mixed with water. The consumption of fresh, raw earthworms has been traditionally believed to aid in the detoxification for a snakebite. Eels are considered a rich source of nutrients and are traditionally believed to help replenish blood levels and support recovery from blood loss. For mumps, applying the paste made of mud used by the wasp to build its home mixed with water act as a curative measure. The pangolin shell or own naval is worn as an amulet to ward off the evil eye and witch spell.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study discovers that the Poumai Naga tribe of Manipur uses various plants with a total number of 49 ethnomedicinal plants. Aside from the few plants described, there are a number of other plants that have not been documented and may be known and unknown to the Poumai. As the study (Yuhlung \u0026amp; Bhattacharyya, 2014)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003estates that\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003emost notably, climate change, deforestation, jhum farming, economic constraints, Christianity, people\u0026apos;s ignorance, lack of sustainable management, and unsystematic collection and destruction of identified plants and their surrounding ecosystems, among other factors, have posed a serious threat to the existing ethno-medicinal plants in North-East India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe plant\u0026apos;s leaf and stem are found to be the most often used components for traditional medicinal preparations. Other parts of the plants used in treatment include tuber, root, seed, the whole plant, rhizome, bark, flower, pseudo stem and fruit are frequencies. According to the Poumais, some medications are made by combining two or three plant parts. The methods of preparing medicines differ depending on the plant, herb, and the specific disease being treated. Thus, based on the severity of the condition it is being treated. It is also found that the health care system of the internal organs differs from that of the external issues. For example, in cases of acidity, diarrhea and dysentery treatment is based on consumption, however, when there is external injury like cuts, wounds, burnt from fire and hot water, treatment is in the form of pasting. In cases such as fever it is treated in both ways. When the body temperature goes very high, mashed leaves are applied otherwise it is mostly treated in the form of consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe agency of indigenous healers in the Poumai community is strongly evident in the way they adapt, resist, and hybridize modern influences while sustaining their traditional healing systems. While biomedical treatments (like allopathy) are acknowledged and occasionally used, Poumai healers often adapt traditional methods to address contemporary health challenges. In many cases, community members resist full reliance on biomedical systems. For instance, they prefer herbal treatments for fevers and minor injuries, asserting that these remedies \u0026ldquo;cannot be controlled by allopathic medicine\u0026rdquo;. This indicates a confident assertion of the value and efficacy of indigenous knowledge. There is also a creative blending of traditional and modern practices. For example, the use of chicken or crab decoctions alongside bathing with herbal infusions to treat ailments like fever or malaria illustrates syncretic healing strategies that combine dietary, physical, and spiritual dimensions. Their practices are not static remnants of the past but are living, adaptive systems that continue to meet the community\u0026rsquo;s health needs while asserting cultural autonomy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Poumai community, access to traditional health knowledge, especially herbal medicine, is shaped by age, gender, and social status. Elders and traditional healers are the main custodians, while younger generations lack such knowledge due to modernization and reliance on allopathic medicine. Gender roles also influence knowledge - women, especially older ones, handle every day and reproductive health care, while men often deal with injuries and animal-based remedies. Social status further affects access, as specialized knowledge is controlled by respected healers and elders, creating a hierarchical system of knowledge transmission. The study highlights a significant generational gap in the knowledge, practice, and perception of traditional medicine within the Poumai Naga community. Traditionally, ethnomedicinal knowledge was passed orally from one generation to the next, with elders especially traditional healers and older individuals acting as the primary custodians of this wisdom. They possess deep understanding of plant-based remedies, their preparation, dosage, and application, often gained through years of observation, experience, and intergenerational teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, intergenerational transmission of this knowledge is rapidly declining, particularly among the younger Poumai generation. The study finds that individuals belonging to the younger demographic, possess little or negligible understanding of the process of preparing herbal medications and their subsequent use, in comparison to older cohorts. This is mostly attributable to the fact that current therapeutic medications are readily available in rural areas. Therefore, the indigenous knowledge and practices related to medicinal plants in the area under investigation are in some way in danger of being lost. It is for this reason that it is essential to document the useful knowledge, in addition to ensuring the preservation of the taxonomic species. Due to the rising of modernization, the younger generations prefer to use pharmaceutical drugs for minor ailments such as headaches, stomachaches, cough and small cuts. However, this does not imply that people have completely abandoned their traditional indigenous remedies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the impact of formal education, Christianity, and exposure to globalized medical narratives has led many young people to view traditional medicine as outdated or superstitious. While the community has not wholly abandoned indigenous healing, the preference among youth leans heavily toward modern systems, especially when access is available. Despite this shift, traditional healers and elders continue to play a respected role, particularly in remote or rural areas where biomedical healthcare may be limited or distrusted. This dynamic underscore a fragile state of knowledge transmission, where unless actively documented and preserved, the rich ethnomedicinal heritage of the Poumai tribe is at risk of being lost. Yet, the persistence of traditional healers and the growing interest in natural and alternative medicine across broader public and academic domains offer hope for potential revival, particularly if the younger generation can be engaged through education, cultural pride, and scientific validation of indigenous practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is also found that the traditional medical practices of the Poumai Nagas share notable similarities with other tribes of Northeast India- Karbi(Das et al., 2023), Galo(Doni \u0026amp; Gajurel, 2020), Khasi(Tynsong \u0026amp; Tiwari, 2010), Mizo(Laldingliani et al., 2022), Nagas of the Nagaland (Zingkhai, 2015) and other indigenous ethnic groups such as Nepal (K.C., 2017), South Africa (S. E. Shackleton et al., 2002),(C. M. Shackleton \u0026amp; Shackleton, 2006), Ethiopia (Mersha, 2023), Africa (Cunningham, 1993) and Europe (Leonti et al., 2006), particularly in their reliance on natural or herbal remedies and their strong connection to the natural environment. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes traditional medicine as a vital component of healthcare, especially in Indigenous and rural communities. WHO acknowledges that 80% of the global population in some countries relies on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs (World Health Organization, 2022). As deforestation, modern agriculture, and changing lifestyles threaten local flora and fauna, safeguarding the biocultural heritage is essential. Protecting these ecosystems not only preserves Poumai health practices but also ensures future access to potentially valuable medicinal resources for broader society. On the other hand, the documentation of Poumai ethnomedicine reveals unique, community-owned knowledge about disease treatment and resource use. Thus, there is a need to establish community-centric Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) frameworks to prevent unauthorized commercialization. Additionally, as traditional practices are increasingly studied and documented, there is a critical need to ensure informed consent, cultural sensitivity, and community participation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ethnomedicinal practices of the Poumai community reflect a deep tradition of orally transmitted knowledge rooted in generations of empirical observation. Their ability to distinguish and treat various types of illnesses such as fevers like \u003cem\u003eRachishi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAtsii\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eKhaoravu\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic skills using specific plant parts in precise forms. Similarly, spiritual beliefs are closely tied to health, with some attributing ailments to natural causes and others to malevolent spirits. This dual belief system shapes treatment approaches, often involving charms, rituals, and amulets, integrating physical and spiritual care into healing. Additionally, a strong plant-animal interface characterizes Poumai medicine. While plants form the core of their healthcare system, animals such as chickens, frogs, eels, and even human substances like saliva and breastmilk are also used. These practices reflect a holistic worldview where humans, animals, and plants coexist in a network of mutual healing. However, traditional knowledge is eroding under the influence of modern medicine, processed foods, and changing lifestyles. Although allopathic medicine is used, it is found that many still prefer traditional remedies for culturally specific or spiritually rooted illnesses. The oral nature of this knowledge and declining youth engagement threaten its continuity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Poumai Naga traditional healthcare system includes two main types: magico-religious and natural folk medicine, which differ both conceptually and functionally. Magico-religious medicine views illness as caused by supernatural forces like evil spirits, sorcery, witchcraft, and the evil eye. Treatments involve rituals, incantations, offerings, sacrifices, and protective amulets aimed at removing or appeasing these spiritual causes. Diagnosis relies on spiritual signs and symbolic acts. In contrast, natural folk medicine attributes illness to natural and physiological causes and treats diseases empirically using medicinal plants, animal products, and minerals. This system focuses on observable symptoms and uses decoctions, pastes, and other herbal preparations to cure ailments like fever, wounds, jaundice, and malaria. It is a practical, sustainable approach deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge and the natural environment. While magico-religious practices address spiritual aspects of illness and reinforce cultural beliefs, natural folk medicine provides accessible, rational treatment for physical conditions. Both coexist and sometimes overlap, reflecting the Poumai Nagas\u0026apos; pluralistic healthcare system grounded in tradition and empirical knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study has determined that the indigenous population residing in the studied region has distinct methods of utilizing medicinal plants for the treatment of various disorders. It was found that, in addition to pharmaceutical medications, many Poumai still depend on their indigenous medicinal plants for health treatment. The study showed that the locals of the community depend heavily on medicinal herbs and plants. And they adopt the indigenous knowledge systems to maintain health care. It is therefore, important that pluralism in medicine be recognized and advocate not only in the third world, but also in the industrialized West. Thus, a thorough scientific study is required so to discover new compounds for developing into a modern medicine. This study also suggests that different aspects of traditional healing within health services to the Poumai community should be given greater consideration. It is likely that the issues regarding the use of traditional medicine is similar and relevant to circumstances among the indigenous peoples in the other Asian countries and among the tribals in northeast India, but this is an area that needs to be a higher priority area for health services research. Despite the area\u0026apos;s abundant plant resources, their numbers are steadily declining each day due to deforestation caused by various human activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Poumai Naga community\u0026rsquo;s rich indigenous health care system, rooted deeply in ethnomedicinal knowledge and the sustainable use of local biodiversity, remains a vital resource for primary health care especially in rural and underserved areas. Natural products, particularly those of botanical origin, persistently provide novel and significant prospects within the realm of medication research. The initial stage in the process of drug discovery involves the documentation of substances that have been traditionally employed for the treatment of a certain medical condition. The knowledge of how to use medicinally significant plants and practices is passed down from generation to generation, and because of this history, there is concern that indigenous knowledge of traditional medicine is progressively declining. There is a notable increase in public, academic, and government interest in traditional medicine. This can be attributed to the escalating occurrences of bad medication responses and the fiscal strain associated with the contemporary healthcare system. Thus, the documentation of the information provided by our study will contribute to its preservation and support future study on the safety and effectiveness of medicinal herbs, with the aim of validating their traditional usage and preventing any detrimental change in knowledge throughout intergenerational transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor public health planners and ethnobotanical conservationists, it is imperative to adopt a multi-dimensional strategy that respects, preserves, and integrates Poumai traditional medicine with contemporary health systems. This includes documenting and scientifically validating medicinal plant use, supporting sustainable conservation of biodiversity, protecting indigenous IPR, and fostering intergenerational transmission of knowledge. Engagement with local healers, communities, and youth through culturally sensitive educational programs and research collaborations will help ensure that traditional health practices remain dynamic, respected, and accessible. By embracing medical pluralism and recognizing the complementary strengths of indigenous and modern healthcare, policymakers can promote holistic health outcomes while conserving both cultural heritage and natural resources essential to the Poumai\u0026rsquo;s well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the deep-rooted cultural and therapeutic importance of traditional medicine among the Poumai Naga community, traditional healers today face multiple and intersecting challenges that threaten the continuity and survival of their knowledge systems and practices. These challenges stem from socio-religious, environmental, legal, and generational shifts. The survival of Poumai traditional medicine and the healers who safeguard it is under serious threat from legal invisibility, environmental destruction, religious transformation, and social change. Unless urgent efforts are made to document, protect, and integrate this knowledge system, it risks disappearing within a generation. To safeguard it, a multi-pronged approach involving policy recognition, cultural revitalization, biodiversity conservation, and youth engagement is essential.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are thankful to all the Folk medicine practitioners, elders and the people of the Poumai Naga tribe for their helped and sincere co-operation throughout the field trips. We want to appreciate the respondents in our sample for setting the time for our interviews and providing valuable information. The responsibilities for the interpretations and conclusions still remain those of the authors. The first author gratefully acknowledges the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi, for the financial assistance received through the Doctoral Fellowship that supported during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMV: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - original draft preparation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRG: Methodology, Formal analysis and investigation, Writing - review and editing, Supervision\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained verbally from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBickenbach, J. 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Upanayan Publiblications.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. (2022). \u003cem\u003eWHO establishes the Global Centre for Traditional Medicine in India\u003c/em\u003e. https://www.who.int/news/item/25-03-2022-who-establishes-the-global-centre-for-traditional-medicine-in-india?utm\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYuhlung, C. C., \u0026amp; Bhattacharyya, M. (2014). Practice of Ethno-medicine among the Chothe Tribe of Manipur, North-East India. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Pharmaceutical \u0026amp; Biological Archives\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e5\u003c/em\u003e(3), 138\u0026ndash;149. www.ijpba.info%0D\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZingkhai, H. G. (2015). Forest and Livelihood: the Naga Traditional Practice of Prudent Use of Forest Resources for a Sustainable Livelihood. \u003cem\u003ePEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e(1), 912\u0026ndash;926. https://doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2015.s21.912926\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Diseases, Treatment, Poumai, Traditional Knowledge","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8074942/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8074942/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the intricate relationship between community practices and health of the Poumai Naga tribe living in northeastern part of India. It highlights the interplay between formal healthcare systems and traditional medical practices, arguing for a more integrated approach to health that respects and incorporates community knowledge. The work delves into how local knowledge and cultural traditions shape health behaviors and perceptions, emphasizing the role of informal healthcare systems alongside formal medical institutions. Using an ethnographic approach, primary data was collected through unstructured interviews and observation of local informants, such as traditional herbalists, experienced village elders, and farmers among the indigenous population. The study advocates for participatory approaches that recognize and value diverse medical narratives. The findings of this study indicate that most Poumai Nagas still depend on traditional remedies rather than modern pharmaceutical treatments. Numerous plants are used as everyday food sources, while others are specifically valued for their medicinal properties in addressing different illnesses and health conditions. The findings suggest that integrating traditional medical lore with formal healthcare systems can enhance health outcomes, promoting a more holistic approach to health care. Therefore, it suggests for policymakers to create culturally sensitive health interventions that respect and incorporate local practices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Indigenous Health Practices and Medical Knowledge: A study of the Poumai Naga Tribe","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-24 12:30:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8074942/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94a7ba6c-0947-4336-b4a3-1a863c115a2e","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-31T13:09:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-24 12:30:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8074942","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8074942","identity":"rs-8074942","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}