THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION

THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION | medRxiv /* */ /* */ <!-- <!-- /*! * yepnope1.5.4 * (c) WTFPL, GPLv2 */ (function(a,b,c){function d(a){return"[object Function]"==o.call(a)}function e(a){return"string"==typeof a}function f(){}function g(a){return!a||"loaded"==a||"complete"==a||"uninitialized"==a}function h(){var a=p.shift();q=1,a?a.t?m(function(){("c"==a.t?B.injectCss:B.injectJs)(a.s,0,a.a,a.x,a.e,1)},0):(a(),h()):q=0}function i(a,c,d,e,f,i,j){function k(b){if(!o&&g(l.readyState)&&(u.r=o=1,!q&&h(),l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=null,b)){"img"!=a&&m(function(){t.removeChild(l)},50);for(var d in y[c])y[c].hasOwnProperty(d)&&y[c][d].onload()}}var j=j||B.errorTimeout,l=b.createElement(a),o=0,r=0,u={t:d,s:c,e:f,a:i,x:j};1===y[c]&&(r=1,y[c]=[]),"object"==a?l.data=c:(l.src=c,l.type=a),l.width=l.height="0",l.onerror=l.onload=l.onreadystatechange=function(){k.call(this,r)},p.splice(e,0,u),"img"!=a&&(r||2===y[c]?(t.insertBefore(l,s?null:n),m(k,j)):y[c].push(l))}function j(a,b,c,d,f){return q=0,b=b||"j",e(a)?i("c"==b?v:u,a,b,this.i++,c,d,f):(p.splice(this.i++,0,a),1==p.length&&h()),this}function k(){var a=B;return a.loader={load:j,i:0},a}var l=b.documentElement,m=a.setTimeout,n=b.getElementsByTagName("script")[0],o={}.toString,p=[],q=0,r="MozAppearance"in l.style,s=r&&!!b.createRange().compareNode,t=s?l:n.parentNode,l=a.opera&&"[object Opera]"==o.call(a.opera),l=!!b.attachEvent&&!l,u=r?"object":l?"script":"img",v=l?"script":u,w=Array.isArray||function(a){return"[object Array]"==o.call(a)},x=[],y={},z={timeout:function(a,b){return b.length&&(a.timeout=b[0]),a}},A,B;B=function(a){function b(a){var a=a.split("!"),b=x.length,c=a.pop(),d=a.length,c={url:c,origUrl:c,prefixes:a},e,f,g;for(f=0;f<d;f++)g=a[f].split("="),(e=z[g.shift()])&&(c=e(c,g));for(f=0;f<b;f++)c=x[f](c);return c}function g(a,e,f,g,h){var i=b(a),j=i.autoCallback;i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift(),i.bypass||(e&&(e=d(e)?e:e[a]||e[g]||e[a.split("/").pop().split("?")[0]]),i.instead?i.instead(a,e,f,g,h):(y[i.url]?i.noexec=!0:y[i.url]=1,f.load(i.url,i.forceCSS||!i.forceJS&&"css"==i.url.split(".").pop().split("?").shift()?"c":c,i.noexec,i.attrs,i.timeout),(d(e)||d(j))&&f.load(function(){k(),e&&e(i.origUrl,h,g),j&&j(i.origUrl,h,g),y[i.url]=2})))}function h(a,b){function c(a,c){if(a){if(e(a))c||(j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}),g(a,j,b,0,h);else if(Object(a)===a)for(n in m=function(){var b=0,c;for(c in a)a.hasOwnProperty(c)&&b++;return b}(),a)a.hasOwnProperty(n)&&(!c&&!--m&&(d(j)?j=function(){var a=[].slice.call(arguments);k.apply(this,a),l()}:j[n]=function(a){return function(){var b=[].slice.call(arguments);a&&a.apply(this,b),l()}}(k[n])),g(a[n],j,b,n,h))}else!c&&l()}var h=!!a.test,i=a.load||a.both,j=a.callback||f,k=j,l=a.complete||f,m,n;c(h?a.yep:a.nope,!!i),i&&c(i)}var i,j,l=this.yepnope.loader;if(e(a))g(a,0,l,0);else if(w(a))for(i=0;i (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];var j=d.createElement(s);var dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.src='//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;j.type='text/javascript';j.async=true;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-P4HH5NV'); Skip to main content Home About Submit ALERTS / RSS Search for this keyword Advanced Search THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION Harry James Okah , Christopher A. Ogan doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.07.07.25329657 Harry James Okah Cross River University of Technology (now, University of Cross River State) Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Christopher A. Ogan Cross River University of Technology (now, University of Cross River State) Find this author on Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Search for this author on this site Abstract Full Text Info/History Metrics Data/Code Preview PDF ABSTRACT BACKGROUND Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing or digital fabrication, is an emerging technology with diverse applications across multiple industries (Shahrubudin et. al., 2019). Despite its growing adoption, its potential in anatomical education particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria remains underexplored. This study aimed to fabricate a maxillofacial segment of the human skull using 3D printing technology to produce an anatomically accurate, ethically compliant, mobile, biosecure and cost-effective model for educational purposes. METHODOLOGY A Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model of a human skull in Stereolithography (.STL) format was processed using Ultimaker® Cura™ and Microsoft® 3D Builder™ software. The model was then printed using a Creality® Ender-3™ 3D printer with polylactic acid (PLA) filament (1.75 mm) via Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). RESULTS The resulting model demonstrated high fidelity to anatomical structures, confirming the feasibility of 3D printing for producing biosecure, accessible, and ethically non-controversial anatomical models. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that 3D printing technology can effectively supplement traditional anatomical education, particularly in resource-limited settings where access to cadavers is limited. INTRODUCTION Knowledge of maxillofacial anatomy is essential for medical and dental education, yet access to cadaveric specimens remains limited in many regions, including Nigeria. Three-dimensional (3D) printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a process of fabricating physical objects from digital models through successive layer deposition ( Mpofu et al., 2014 ). Unlike subtractive manufacturing techniques (e.g., milling or drilling), 3D printing builds structures additively, allowing for complex geometries and customized designs. This technology has gained traction in various fields, including medicine, engineering, and architecture, due to its versatility and declining costs ( Mpofu et al., 2014 ). In medical education, 3D-printed anatomical models offer a viable alternative to cadaveric specimens, which are often scarce, ethically sensitive, and associated with health risks from formaldehyde exposure ( Rengier et al., 2010 ). Despite these advantages, the adoption of 3D printing in anatomical education particularly in developing nations like Nigeria remains limited. While 3D printing has been extensively researched in high-income countries, its application in anatomical education within low-resource settings is underreported. The current educational landscape in many African countries often relies heavily on theory-based instruction, challenges such as limited access to cadavers, ethical concerns, and safety risks associated with traditional dissection necessitate alternative teaching tools and the integration of 3D printing introduces a practical, hands-on approach that can help students apply theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios.This study addresses this gap by demonstrating the feasibility of 3D-printed anatomical models for maxillofacial education. The decreasing cost of 3D printers and the availability of open-source software present an opportunity to enhance anatomical training in resource-constrained environments. This study contributes to the growing body of research on 3D printing in medical education, particularly in contexts where cadaver availability is restricted. This research highlights the potential of 3D printing to produce accurate, portable, and ethically compliant anatomical models, mitigating the limitations of cadaver-based learning. The primary objective was to fabricate a 3D-printed maxillofacial skull segment suitable for anatomical education. This research is limited to the application of 3D printing technology or digital fabrication in the study of Human Anatomy to produce a human skull showing maxillofacial features suitable as an anatomical model for lecture demonstration and as a learning aid. METHODOLOGY Site of Study The study was conducted in a laboratory setting equipped with a Creality® Ender-3™ 3D printer and associated software tools. Materials Hardware 3D Printer Creality® Ender-3™ FDM printer (Shenzhen Creality 3D Technology Co., Ltd., China) with a build volume of 220 × 220 × 250 mm, positional precision of ±0.1 mm, and maximum print speed of 180 mm/s (operational speed: 30–60 mm/s). The printer features a single extruder with a maximum nozzle temperature of 250°C and a heated bed (<100°C), compatible with Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems. Filament Polylactic acid (PLA) filament (1.75 mm diameter, natural color). Computer System HP Pavilion Gaming laptop (Intel® Core™ i5-10300H processor, NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1650, 8GB DDR4 RAM, 256GB SSD). Power Supply Sumec Firman 3000W portable generator for uninterrupted power. Accessories USB flash drive for file transfer, digital calipers for dimensional verification. Software 3D Model Anatomically accurate human skull model in STL format (purchased from TurboSquid®). Slicing Software Ultimaker Cura™ (v4.8, Ultimaker BV, Netherlands). Segmentation Software Microsoft 3D Builder™ (v16.0.30214.0, Microsoft Corp., USA). Methods 1. Printer Setup and Calibration – The Ender-3 printer was assembled according to manufacturer specifications. – Calibration procedures included: – Bed leveling. – Test prints to verify dimensional accuracy. – Nozzle temperature and extrusion rate optimization. 2. Model Preparation Model Acquisition A high-resolution (0.1 mm tolerance) skull model was obtained in STL format. Slicing Parameters: – Layer height: 0.2 mm. – Wall thickness: 1.2 mm. – Infill density: 20% (honeycomb pattern). – Support structures: Tree-type (density: 15%). – Print temperature: 200°C (nozzle), 60°C (bed). Model Segmentation The skull was divided into maxillofacial and mandibular components using Boolean operations in 3D Builder™ to accommodate the printer’s build volume. 3. Printing Process – Pre-printing Checks Filament feeding system verification. Nozzle cleaning. Bed adhesion treatment (glue stick application). Printing Parameters Print speed: 50 mm/s. Cooling: 100% fan speed after the first layer. Retraction: 6 mm at 25 mm/s. Print Execution Maxillofacial segment: 11 hours 48 minutes. 4. Post-Processing – Support structure removal. – Surface finishing with 400-grit sandpaper. – Component alignment verification. – Bonding with cyanoacrylate adhesive. RESULTS The printed maxillofacial segment ( Fig. 1 ) measured 26.67 × 32.39 mm and accurately reproduced key anatomical features, including: – Orbital margins. – Zygomatic processes. – Nasal conchae. – Palatine sutures. – Alveolar processes. Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 1. Ender-3 3D printer (printing a model). Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 2. 1.75mm PLA filamen Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 3. Ender-3 ready to print Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 4. Ender-3 printing Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 5. Ultimaker Cura rendering (a) left lateral view (b) anterior view. Download figure Open in new tab Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 6. 3D Builder rendering (a) anterior view (b) left rotation (c) right rotation (d) right la eral view (e) left lateral view Dimensional accuracy was verified to within ±0.3 mm of the digital model using digital calipers. Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 7. Aosterior side Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 8. Posterior side Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 9. Superior side Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 10. Inferior side Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 11. Right lateral side Download figure Open in new tab Fig. 12. Left lateral side DISCUSSION The study successfully demonstrated the feasibility of producing anatomically accurate maxillofacial models using low-cost FDM 3D printing. Key advantages include: Educational Value: Models provide a tactile learning experience without the ethical concerns associated with cadaver use. Cost Efficiency: Total material cost was <$5 per model , significantly lower than commercial anatomical models. Reproducibility: Digital files enable unlimited identical reproductions, ensuring consistency in educational tools. Limitations Surface resolution was limited by the 0.4 mm nozzle diameter . Anisotropic mechanical properties of PLA may affect model durability. Color uniformity challenges arose due to the single-extruder system. Future Directions – Explore multi-material printing for tissue differentiation. – Incorporate pathological variants to enhance clinical relevance. – Develop regional anatomical model repositories for resource-limited settings. CONCLUSION This study highlights the potential of low-cost 3D printing to produce accurate, portable, and ethically compliant anatomical models. The approach is particularly valuable in resource-limited settings , such as sub-Saharan Africa, where access to cadavers is restricted. Future research should focus on refining printing techniques and expanding model applications to further enhance anatomical education. Data Availability All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors. REFERENCES 1. ASTM F2792-12a ( 2012 ). “Standard terminology for additive manufacturing technologies.” 2. Bose , S. , Vahabzadeh , S. , & Bandyopadhyay , A. ( 2013 ). “ Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing .” Materials Today , 16 : 496 – 504 . OpenUrl 3. Crump , S.S. ( 1992 ). “Apparatus and method for creating three-dimensional objects.” U.S . Patent 5 , 121 ,329. OpenUrl 4. Dizon , J.R.C. , Espera Jr. , A.H. , Chen , Q. , Advincula , R.C. ( 2018 ). “ Mechanical characterization of 3D-printed polymers .” Additive Manufacturing , 20 : 44 – 67 . OpenUrl 5. Li , J. , Nie , L. , Li , Z. , et al. ( 2012 ). “ Maximizing modern distribution of complex anatomical spatial information: 3D reconstruction and rapid prototype production of anatomical corrosion casts of human specimens .” Anatomical Sciences Education , 5 : 330 – 339 . OpenUrl PubMed 6. McMenamin , P.G. , Quayle , M.R. , McHenry , C.R. , Adams , J.W. ( 2014 ). “ The production of anatomical teaching resources using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology .” Anatomical Sciences Education , 00 : 00 – 00 . OpenUrl 7. ↵ Mpofu , T.P. , Mawere , C. , & Mukosera , M. ( 2014 ). “ The impact and application of 3D printing technology .” International Journal of Science and Research , 3 : 2148 – 2152 . OpenUrl 8. Preece , D. , Williams , S.B. , Lam , R. , Weller , R. ( 2013 ). “ ‘Let’s get physical’: Advantages of a physical model over 3D computer models and textbooks in learning imaging anatomy .” Anatomical Sciences Education , 6 : 216 – 224 . OpenUrl PubMed 9. ↵ Rengier , F. , Mehndiratta , A. , von Tengg-Kobligk , H. , et al. ( 2010 ). “ 3D printing based on imaging data: Review of medical applications .” International Journal of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery , 5 : 335 – 341 . OpenUrl 10. Schubert , C. , van Langeveld , M.C. , Donoso , L.A. ( 2014 ). “ Innovations in 3D printing: A 3D overview from optics to organs .” British Journal of Ophthalmology , 98 : 159 – 161 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 11. Shahrubudin , N. , Lee , T.C. , Ramlan , R. ( 2019 ). “ An Overview on 3D Printing Technology: Technological, Materials, and Applications ”. Procedia Manufacturing , 35 : 1286 – 1296 . OpenUrl 12. Ventola , C.L. ( 2014 ). “ Medical applications for 3D printing: Current and projected uses .” Pharmacy and Therapeutics , 39 ( 10 ): 704 – 711 . OpenUrl View the discussion thread. Back to top Previous Next Posted July 08, 2025. Download PDF Data/Code Email Thank you for your interest in spreading the word about medRxiv. NOTE: Your email address is requested solely to identify you as the sender of this article. Your Email * Your Name * Send To * Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas. You are going to email the following THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a page to you from medRxiv Message Body (Your Name) thought you would like to see this page from the medRxiv website. Your Personal Message CAPTCHA This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions. Share THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION Harry James Okah , Christopher A. Ogan medRxiv 2025.07.07.25329657; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.07.07.25329657 Share This Article: Copy Citation Tools THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING OF THE MAXILLOFACIAL SEGMENT OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOR ANATOMICAL EDUCATION Harry James Okah , Christopher A. Ogan medRxiv 2025.07.07.25329657; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.07.07.25329657 Citation Manager Formats BibTeX Bookends EasyBib EndNote (tagged) EndNote 8 (xml) Medlars Mendeley Papers RefWorks Tagged Ref Manager RIS Zotero Tweet Widget Facebook Like Google Plus One Subject Area Medical Education Subject Areas All Articles Addiction Medicine (568) Allergy and Immunology (863) Anesthesia (299) Cardiovascular Medicine (4425) Dentistry and Oral Medicine (443) Dermatology (382) Emergency Medicine (607) Endocrinology (including Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolic Disease) (1507) Epidemiology (15221) Forensic Medicine (30) Gastroenterology (1123) Genetic and Genomic Medicine (6588) Geriatric Medicine (667) Health Economics (997) Health Informatics (4524) Health Policy (1368) Health Systems and Quality Improvement (1612) Hematology (540) HIV/AIDS (1264) Infectious Diseases (except HIV/AIDS) (15910) Intensive Care and Critical Care Medicine (1103) Medical Education (623) Medical Ethics (145) Nephrology (667) Neurology (6588) Nursing (346) Nutrition (998) Obstetrics and Gynecology (1143) Occupational and Environmental Health (956) Oncology (3331) Ophthalmology (970) Orthopedics (369) Otolaryngology (420) Pain Medicine (435) Palliative Medicine (129) Pathology (663) Pediatrics (1690) Pharmacology and Therapeutics (691) Primary Care Research (710) Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology (5440) Public and Global Health (9219) Radiology and Imaging (2195) Rehabilitation Medicine and Physical Therapy (1369) Respiratory Medicine (1196) Rheumatology (593) Sexual and Reproductive Health (710) Sports Medicine (529) Surgery (710) Toxicology (99) Transplantation (289) Urology (265) (function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'9ffc8b234b4ddf94',t:'MTc3OTQ2MDQ4NQ=='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();