Issues of Food Security and Safety: Insights from a Myanmar Refugee Camp

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Employing qualitative observations from residents and medical staff, alongside photographic documentation, we assessed the accessibility and sufficiency of dietary resources and food safety. Findings reveal significant limitations in food diversity, particularly concerning staple crops and culturally important vegetables like those from the Solanum spp. and legumes which are exacerbated by restricted seed availability. The absence of elders capable of transmitting food knowledge, combined with limited resource availability within the camp, directly impacted the preservation and practice of traditional plant food utilisation knowledge. Furthermore, animal farming, while serving as a primary protein source, raised concerns about sufficiency. Food handling practices were also a concern, as improper handling may lead to cross-contamination and possibly induce gastrointestinal diseases. This research underscores the urgent need for enhanced humanitarian supports, including diversifying food sources, improving supply chain management, and providing training on safe animal husbandry practices. The study highlighted the critical role of accessible and culturally appropriate food resources in maintaining the well-being and stability of refugee communities in challenging border regions. food insecurity foodscape food safety staple food military coup Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction 1.1 Background and historical context The ongoing conflict in Myanmar represents a protracted civil war pitting the military against ethnic minorities. Rooted in a historical struggle for autonomy and territorial control dating back to the country's independence in 1948, this tension has endured [ 1 ]. Recent events, notably the military coup in February 2021, further aggravated the situation, triggering widespread protests and civil unrest [ 2 ]. The response of the military to these protests has contributed to increased violence, human rights violations, mass displacement, and economic hardship. At the same time, ethnic minority rebel groups have taken advantage of the situation to strengthen their resistance against the military regime, leading to an escalation of conflicts in minority-dominated areas. Despite continued peace efforts, the situation remains complex and uncertain [ 1 ]. 1.2 Impact of conflict on economic and social stability The military coup in February 2021 triggered a cascade of economic disruptions, compounding the existing pandemic-induced vulnerabilities and effectively derailing any potential recovery. During the early stages of economic recovery from the COVID-19-related shocks, Myanmar experienced much more severe and prolonged disturbances of economic activities due to the coup [ 3 , 4 ]. The military takeover prompted major protests and strikes, as well as disruptions to economy and financial system of the country. Myanmar fell into a deep economic recession, with an estimated 18% contraction in GDP in 2021. After the military coup, it is estimated that the number of refugees has increased to over 200,000, resulting in an estimate of over 700,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs) with an increasing population density within the camps along the Thai-Myanmar border [ 5 , 6 ]. Compounding these challenges are recent funding shortages and waning international attention, which have exacerbated conditions in refugee camps. This has resulted in a distressing surge in suicides and domestic violence among Burmese refugees. Moreover, insufficient food supplies have exacerbated hunger and malnutrition, while limited access to education and medical care compounds the hardships faced by displaced populations [ 7 ]. 1.3 Threats to ethnobotanical knowledge and cultural Heritage Armed conflicts are not merely destructive to physical infrastructure; they are equally devastating to the intangible infrastructure of cultural knowledge, particularly ethnobotanical wisdom. The transmission of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which encompasses plant identification, usage, and management, relies heavily on oral traditions and intergenerational transfer. Wars disrupt these processes in profound ways. The wars could also have a devastating impact on ethnobotanical knowledge, as they often disrupt traditional systems of knowledge transfer and hurdle the social supports that fabric the preservation. The displacement of populations can result in the loss of traditional knowledge and skills, as older generations may be unable to pass on their knowledge to younger generations [ 8 ]. For example, the Bosnian War saw the loss of many elderly individuals who held essential knowledge of traditional medicine and food practices [ 9 ]. Furthermore, conflict and instability can also lead to the destruction of local ecosystems and the loss of plant species, reducing the overall diversity of plant knowledge and the ability to utilize it for food and medicine [ 10 ]. Sudan provides a striking example, suffering from 60 years of chronic civil wars and instability. These conditions have severely affected the country's biological diversity, pushing many species to critical thresholds of extinction, which further diminishes indigenous knowledge of local flora and fauna [ 11 ]. The consequences of losing the traditional knowledge along with the management of its ecosystems include a reduction in the potential of available resources for food [ 12 ], medicine [ 13 , 14 ] and cultural practices, leading also to the loss of biodiversity, cultural heritage and the identity [ 15 , 16 ]. 1.4 Research objectives and recommendations The objective of this study was to comprehensively understand the food security challenges faced by the affected populations. Additionally, the assessment aimed to uncover the root causes of food insecurity, with the overarching goal of developing effective interventions to improve the well-being and stability of refugee communities. To address these challenges, it is crucial to implement a comprehensive and adequately funded humanitarian response, coupled with initiatives targeting the underlying causes of conflict and instability [ 17 , 18 ]. This article underscores the multifaceted impact of civil conflict, military coups, and displacement on critical aspects such as food security, economic stability, and the preservation of traditional knowledge systems. It highlights the pressing need for meaningful actions to address these real-world challenges faced by communities in conflict-ridden regions. The erosion of ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional skills due to conflict emphasis that regional development encompasses not only economic growth but also the preservation of cultural heritage and biodiversity. The urgency of research in this context cannot be overstated, as it not only contributes to immediate regional development but also holds the key to the long-term sustainability of communities and ecosystems. The connections between food security, economic stability, cultural preservation, and biodiversity highlights the need for a holistic approach in regional development, where interventions in one aspect can have profound effects on others. 2. Methodology 2.1 Site description The Burmese refugee camp, located along the Moei River shoreline near Tak province in Northern Thailand (Fig. 1 ) [16°32'42.0"N 98°35'37.4"E] was accessed by medical staff from the Mae Tao Clinic (Tha Sai Luat, Mae Sot District, Tak, Thailand). This camp is situated within a region characterised by mountainous terrain and a tropical deciduous forest ecosystem. The area experiences inclimate weather patterns, including a pronounced monsoon season with heavy rainfall from May to October, leading to potential flooding and logistical challenges [ 19 ]. The soil type is predominantly lateritic, known for its poor water retention and nutrient content, which can limit agricultural productivity. The vegetation is typical of tropical deciduous forests, featuring a mix of teak ( Tectona grandis ), various Dipterocarpus species, and bamboo [ 20 ], which are utilised by the refugees for shelter construction and other purposes. 2.2 Data collection methodology Interviews were conducted with informed and consenting clinic-attending camp residents and the village head, ensuring strict adherence to voluntary participation and secure data handling to protect participant privacy. Security concerns limited direct camp access, so we adapted by conducting interviews outside the camp and utilizing photographic documentation provided by clinic-visiting residents and medical staff. Through open-ended questions, we gathered information on living conditions, economic activities, household roles, and food access strategies [ 21 ]. Local interpreters who received thorough briefing on maintaining confidentiality and neutrality were also used. Participants shared lists and photographs of available food resources, including plant species with details on availability, utilisation, and perceived quality. Our taxonomist, Prateep Panyadee, identified the plant species from these photographs to confirm their scientific classification [ 22 ]. Medical staff who could cross the border contributed additional photographs documenting the food landscape, facilities, and hygiene conditions within the camp, complementing their observational insights. We descriptively analysed all qualitative data, including handwritten notes and transcribed interview quotations, incorporating the visiting medical team's observations. Throughout this process, all identifying information was removed from interview transcripts and notes to maintain participant confidentiality. 2.3 Research objectives and expected outcomes This study aims to comprehensively understand the food security challenges faced by populations affected by the Myanmar conflict and to uncover the root causes of food insecurity among refugee and displaced communities. The research seeks to develop effective interventions to improve the well-being and stability of refugee communities and to highlight areas for further research and humanitarian response that addresses not only immediate needs but also underlying causes 3. Refugee camp 3.1 Location and accessibility The camp located near the borders between Thailand and Myanmar, houses approximately 500–1,000 refugees with about 30,000 square meters of space, the majority of whom are Karen people, the majority ethnic community in Myanmar (Fig. 2 ). From the interview with the village head, the camp located proximity to major transportation routes and infrastructure not only improved accessibility for humanitarian organisations but also, due to the area's relative stability, lessened the threat of military action, thus providing a dual benefit of aid access and security for the refugees. "This location, situated near major transportation routes and infrastructure, not only enhances accessibility for humanitarian organizations but also, due to the area's relative stability, reduces the threat of military operations. This provides a dual benefit: access to aid and security for the refugees. " [Refugee camp head] However, the refugees may remain vulnerable to border conflicts, cross-border violence, and movement restrictions, which can limit their access to essential services such as healthcare and education. 3.2 Infrastructure development and organisation Within this refugee camp, a meticulous organisation is evident, complete with well-equipped shelters, water tanks, agricultural zones, a clinic, a training center, a designated meeting area, and small shops—conforming to the guidelines set forth by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) [ 23 ]. The accessibility to the major cities and towns however is difficult due to its temporary nature. The shelters are made from some construction materials cooperated with locally available materials, such as Bamboo wood, Tueng leaves ( Dipterocarpus tuberculatus ) and Fan Palm ( Corypha lecomtei ). The shelters are relatively close to the next, and typically houses three-four individuals who may be either family members or strangers. In addition, this camp is located next to the Moei River, where the refugees can bathe and swim. Clean water was facilitated by the installation of water filters and tanks for harvesting rainwater. Additionally, due to its proximity to the official boarder checkpoint in Mae Sot, the camp has access to basic utilities, food and goods available in Thailand. Even though the refugee camp was designed to provide temporary housing for refugees, it has all the basic amenities required for people to live. The fact that the situation in the area is uncertain and fragile, which means that access to utilities like water, electricity, and gas may be disrupted at any time. Consequently, a contingency plan is necessary to ensure that people in the refugee camp have access to these utilities even if the normal supply is disrupted. 4. Foodscape in the refugee camp The continuing conflict in Myanmar has deeply affected the lives of refugees residing in the camp. Land for cultivation was allocated to refugee residents, with plot size determined in proportion to household demographic composition. They were equipped with necessary cultivation tools and had access to fertilisers and irrigation systems. From the interview, we identified that several small home gardens where common crops, such as water spinach, pumpkin, and gourd, were cultivated to meet the primary food needs of the residents. The availability, cultivation schedule, and utilisation of food crops in this refugee camp are presented in Table 1 . The crops cultivated mainly consisted of vegetables, including wax gourd and eggplant, both of which are nutrient-rich. While rice is considered the major staple food in Myanmar, maize, groundnut, and potato are alternative crops found in this refugee camp. Our survey also found that the camp had limited supplies of fruit, with papaya being the only short-lived perennial type available (Fig. 3 ). Based on the assessment, the refugee camp faced a shortage of staple food crops, particularly maize, peanuts, and potatoes, which were in high demand. Certain vegetables, crucial for the ethnic group from Myanmar, were notably scarce. These included Asian vegetables like those from the Solanum spp. and various legumes. Additionally, the camp exhibited a lack of fruit crops, with papaya being the sole fruit option available. Table 1 Qualitative availability of food crops as assessed by the village head and medical staff, using a scale from minimal (+) to extensive (++++). Food crops Method of consumption Cultivation (month – month) Quantity Demand Maize (Zea mays) Staple September-October + +++ Ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) Staple All year ++ ++ Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Staple All year ++ +++ Water spinach (Ipomoea aquatic) Vegetable All year +++ ++ Pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata) Vegetable June-October ++ ++ Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ) Vegetable November-February + +++ Yardlong bean ( Vigna unguiculata ssp. Sesquipedalis) Vegetable November-February ++ +++ Asian eggplant ( Solanum melongena ) Vegetable March-May +++ +++ Wax Gourd, winter melon ( Benincasa hispida ) Vegetable All year +++++ +++ Long eggplant, eggplant ( Solanum melongena ) Vegetable All year ++++ +++ Chinese okra ( Luffa acutangular ) Vegetable March-May +++ +++ Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var. capitata) Vegetable June-October +++ +++ Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ) Vegetable Spice (fruit) January-February +++ +++ Chinese flowering cabbage ( Brassica Chinensis Linn.) Vegetable June-October ++ ++ Beetroot ( Beta vulgaris ) Vegetable March-May ++ + Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus ) Vegetable November-May + + Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) Vegetable June-October ++ + Broccoli ( Brassica oleracea var. italica) Vegetable November-February ++ + White Mugwort ( Artemisia lactiflora ) Vegetable May-October ++ + Lemon grass ( Cymbopogon citratus ) Spice All year +++ +++ Galangal ( Alpinia galanga ) Spice All year ++ ++ Ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) Spice November-December +++ ++ Bird’s eye chili, chili ( Capsicum frutescens ) Spice All year ++++ +++ Roselle ( Hibiscus sabdariffa L) Spice Colorant March-May + + Papaya ( Carica papaya ) Fruit June-October + +++ 5. Food hygiene In this camp, there was a grocery store where food supplies, snacks, and beverages, and a shaved ice were sold (Fig. 4 A). It was depicted from the survey that fresh food was improperly stored usually due to the absent of refrigerator or cold storage in the camp. The common practice involved submerging fresh food, such as blood curd and soybean tofu, in water, which likely led to cross-contamination and posed a significant risk of illness (Fig. 4 B). Also, we also found that packed ice was stored in white sacks and placed on the ground, with the direct contact with physical and microbial contaminants. In addition, access to clean water for cooking, cleaning food and personal uses is essential for food safety. As mentioned in the issue of food hygiene in the refugee camps, we are concerned that food-related diseases and illnesses among the migrants could become more serious in the future, therefore, the refugees should effectively disseminate knowledge of food hygiene. 6. Animal farming as source of protein In the refugee camps, instead of relying solely on humanitarian programs, animal husbandry is regarded as the sustainable and reliable food production. In general, the animal farming in the refugee camps is often small-scale and limited by space and resources. Small animals such as fish, chickens, and ducks can be raised by the refugees, as they require less space and resources than livestock. Due to the condensed living conditions, animal farming is often limited by space and the resources to feed the animals. What we have found in the camp was that freshwater fish farming was the primary sources of protein (Fig. 5 ). The residents purchased meats and eggs from distant cities, which required approximately two to three hours of arduous and dangerous travel during the civil war. Through interviews with the residents in the camp, it was determined that the majority of the individuals had some background in growing animals such as beef cattle and native chickens as food prior to immigration. It is essential that aid organisations and governments provide the civilian populations with safe and dependable feed access along with the necessary training of animal farming. More importantly, animal breed and alternative protein options such as milk and legume should also be considered. 7. Diminishing of traditional knowledge and local plant biodiversity Despite the high population density in the camp, most of the land had been cleared out for habitation and agriculture, leading to the loss of local food system such as wild vegetables and native plants and the cultivation practices. This is very common in the refugee camp where its residents are unable to grow and harvest food in the same way they did in their home communities. Although the younger correspondents were knowledgeable about the crops being cultivated, they had limited knowledge of the traditional plants found within the camp. "The number of elderly residents in the camp is not very large, and due to space limitations, most food crops come from seeds that can be found.” [Refugee resident, age 28] "We never go out to search for food in the forest. We only bring food in or cross over to buy from markets on the Thai side." [Refugee resident, age 32] These traditional plants, such as Acmella uliginosa , Phyllanthus amarus , and Scoparia dulcis , were often overlooked and considered as mere weeds. Upon speaking with the elders in the camp, we learned that these plants were once commonly used for food and medicine, but the restrictions imposed by the civil war and the resulting constraints of life in the camp had prevented them from collecting these plants and passing down their traditional knowledge to the younger generation. This loss of ethnobotanical knowledge has left the refugees in the camp with limited resources and options for food and medicine. They are now dependent on exotic crops that acquired external supports, as they cannot collect the seeds themselves. This loss of traditional knowledge has not only resulted in a significant cultural loss, but also has practical consequences for the refugees' overall well-being, food security, and healthcare. The impact of the civil war is therefore compounded by the loss of this valuable knowledge, which could have provided much-needed support to the residents of the camp. 8. Discussion Civil wars can have a significant impact on food security, leading to an increase in hunger and malnutrition and a deterioration of economic conditions [ 24 ]. In one instant, the wars can displace many people, frequently to refugee camps or other regions where food and other resources are scarce. They also often involve the destruction of public infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and ports, making it harder to convey food and other necessities. Refugee camps are defined as temporary shelters for people fleeing wars or conflicts in their home countries (refugees), with the safety and availability of basic facilities being important and necessary for refugee camps [ 25 ]. The observation that this refugee camp, despite its temporary design, provides basic amenities is a positive finding. This suggests a level of organization and resource allocation that supports the residents' fundamental needs. Location, space, water and sanitation, health care, security, community spaces, infrastructure, and accessibility should be taken into account when designing the layout of a refugee camp to ensure the safety and well-being of the refugees [ 26 , 27 ]. From our observation, the critical issue lies in the severe limitations in food security, particularly concerning the availability of staple foods, culturally significant vegetables, and fruits. Local food systems are widely considered a sustainable solution to the environmental and socioeconomic issues caused by industrialized and specialized agriculture, such as loss of biodiversity, environmental pollution, rural depopulation, and marginalization of small farmers [ 28 , 29 ]. However, conflict often disrupts this system due to the destruction of farmland, storage facilities, and displacement of people, leading to food insecurity and malnutrition, especially among women and children. In refugee camps, food supply organizations are often complex, but growing food for self-consumption through home gardening or community farming initiatives is a sustainable approach [ 30 – 32 ]. The shortage of staple crops (maize, peanuts and potatoes) has far-reaching implications. These crops are often primary sources of calories and nutrients, and their absence could lead to malnutrition and related health problems. The scarcity of specific vegetables ( Solanum spp. and legumes) is particularly concerning as these are not just sources of vitamins and minerals, but also hold cultural and economic significances for Asian cultures along with the Myanmar refugees [ 33 ]. Their absence could lead to dietary deficiencies and a sense of cultural loss. The extreme lack of fruit diversity, with only papaya available, further compounds the nutritional deficiencies. A balanced diet requires a variety of fruits and vegetables to ensure adequate intake of essential vitamins and minerals [ 34 ]. This limited availability suggests a severe restriction in dietary options, potentially impacting the health and well-being of the camp's residents. Seasonal availability and seed availability are the factors that determine the common garden vegetables cultivated in the camp. Winter melon is a good source of vitamins C and B1, while eggplant is a good source of dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals [ 35 , 36 ]. Bird's eye chili, a common spice in many Southeast Asian food recipes, including Thai and Burmese, was also abundant in the camp [ 37 ]. It is an important crop for smallholder farmers, especially in rural areas, as it is relatively easy to grow and has a high yield, making it a valuable source of income. The cultivation of these crops provides refugees with an opportunity to generate income within the camp. They can sell surplus produce in local markets, thereby contributing to economic growth and promoting decent work opportunities for themselves and other camp residents. It could also stimulate the development of local markets and trade within the community [ 38 ]. These practices align well with the UN sustainable Development Goal (SDG 8) - Decent Work and Economic Growth. The persistent emergency status in refugee camps is represented in a food basket based primarily on the overall calorie intake rather than the variable of food choices. It is worth highlighting that in the conflict-affected regions, preserving and revitalising local food systems is critical not only for food security but also for broader sustainable development goals (SDGs) set out by the United Nations (UN) [ 39 ]. The local food systems contribute to achieving zero hunger (SDG2) by enhancing food security and reducing dependence on external food aid [ 40 ]. They provide a sustainable source of nutrition, particularly crucial for vulnerable groups like women and children. The prevalence of anemia and acute malnutrition, notably among these vulnerable groups, emerges as a severe and pressing concern [ 41 , 42 ]. In this context, protein assumes a pivotal role in sustaining the well-being of the camp residents. Primary sources of protein, encompassing meat, fish, and eggs, stand as indispensable staples of daily sustenance [ 43 , 44 ]. The significance of protein in mitigating malnutrition and anemia cannot be overstated, as these conditions bear far-reaching health implications. As such, there is an essential need for comprehensive strategies that not only ensure the availability of protein-rich foods but also address underlying factors contributing to nutritional deficiencies. Access to adequate and nutritious animal feed is often limited. Refugees may rely on locally available vegetation, which may lack essential nutrients, impacting animal health and productivity. The quality of feed may be inconsistent, leading to malnutrition and disease in livestock. Seasonal fluctuations in vegetation availability exacerbate feed scarcity, particularly during the dry season. This increases the risk of disease outbreaks among livestock, leading to animal losses and impacting protein availability. The lack of preventative care (vaccinations, parasite control) further compromises animal health [ 45 ]. In relevant with partnership for the goals (SDG17), humanitarian organisations and agencies are actively involved in addressing nutritional challenges within refugee camps. There is a pressing need for coordinated, integrated, and collaborative responses at all levels - international, national, and subnational. These responses should involve various stakeholders, including humanitarian agencies, governments, and civil society. It is essential to tailor these efforts to the specific needs of both displaced and host populations, considering their socio-cultural contexts and realities [ 46 , 47 ]. During the military takeover, the pandemic caused significant shocks to the staple food supply. To address potential social protection issues, the country's interventions included in-kind transfers of rice and food vouchers for a diversified basket of rice and non-staple foods [ 48 ]. The nutritional challenges identified in refugee diets, particularly regarding protein adequacy, are further compounded by concerns about food safety and hygiene practices. Food hygiene, otherwise known as food safety, are generally a concern in the refugee camp, particularly after the overpopulation, unsanitary conditions and limited access to clean water and proper facility. In this trip, we were able to classify the two possible food safety issues in the refugee camp. Firstly, food contaminations of both physical and biological types. Improper handling of raw materials prior to consumption might result in dangers due to soil, rock, or dirt especially when food is stored in the open area or containers. Perishable food items including meat, dairy products, fish, and prepared meals undergo accelerated deterioration when stored at ambient temperatures, with this process significantly intensified in tropical climatic conditions in this camp. The consumption of inadequately refrigerated foodstuffs substantially elevates the probability of foodborne illness, potentially manifesting as gastrointestinal distress including diarrhea and emesis, pyrexia, and various additional adverse health outcomes [ 49 ]. More importantly, inadequate sanitation among the migrants and foodborne contamination are also regarded as important [ 50 ]. If personal hygiene care has not been given enough attention, an outbreak could develop and spread across the camp [ 51 ]. The refugee camp experiences a tropical monsoon climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Water sources in the refugee camp are likely to include rainwater harvesting and from Moei River. The availability of these sources may fluctuate significantly depending on the season. During the dry season, reliance on limited groundwater or river sources may increase. Regular monitoring for microbial contaminants (e.g., E. coli and coliform bacteria) is essential to prevent waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid. This is especially crucial in refugee camps, where overcrowding and poor sanitation increase the risk of disease outbreaks [ 52 ]. As to comply with SDG 6 - Clean Water and Sanitation, the following interventions could be addressed. Implementing comprehensive hygiene education programs within the camp involves training camp residents, particularly community leaders and caregivers, on the significance of personal hygiene, safe food handling practices, and preventing foodborne illnesses. Camp residents should be encouraged and empowered to assume a leading role in upholding sanitation within the camp. This entails establishing community committees tasked with overseeing waste management, the construction and maintenance of sanitary facilities, and conducting regular cleaning campaigns. Finally, the refugee camp leader should collaborate with humanitarian organisations and local authorities to enhance the camp's sanitation infrastructures. 9. Recommendations Based on our observations, we strongly recommend implementing comprehensive training and education programs within the refugee camps. These initiatives can be transformative, equipping displaced individuals with skills for survival and self-sufficiency. Firstly, educational programs focused on local plant food conservation and utilisation should be implemented. These programs should provide instruction on cultivating, collecting germplasm, and conserving indigenous plant resources, thereby ensuring sustainable food availability. Introducing diverse food crop varieties will further promote self-sufficiency and nutritional balance within the community. Crucially, facilitating knowledge transfer from older generations will preserve traditional plant food utilisation practices, safeguarding cultural heritage and valuable ecological wisdom. Secondly, infrastructure development is paramount. Installing adequate utilities, including clean water supply, electricity, and refrigerated appliances, will significantly improve living conditions and food hygiene. Collaboration with humanitarian aid organizations is vital to support these infrastructural upgrades. Thirdly, hygiene and food safety education must be prioritised. Training on personal hygiene and safe food preparation practices will minimise the risk of food contamination and disease outbreaks. Finally, establishing sustainable animal farming initiatives, such as egg-laying hens, cows, and fish farms, will provide reliable and nutritious protein sources, reducing dependence on potentially dangerous external procurement. These programs not only secure the camp's food supply and act as income generators but also promote sustainable resource management and environmental conservation. They build resilience against climate fluctuations, market changes, and other challenges, strengthening the camp community's ability to withstand crises. Beyond tangible benefits, these initiatives foster food safety knowledge, improve health, empower refugees, strengthen social bonds, preserve cultural heritage, and enable long-term planning. Ultimately, these programs offer a pathway to a brighter future within the camp, contributing to peaceful coexistence and reducing the likelihood of conflict. Critically, agricultural programs within refugee camps have the potential to significantly contribute to a more peaceful environment. By directly increasing food availability, these initiatives mitigate competition and conflict over scarce resources. Empowering refugees to cultivate their own food fosters a sense of ownership and control, shifting the dynamic from competition to cooperation. Furthermore, the shared labor and communal benefits inherent in agricultural projects cultivate a collective identity and purpose, effectively reducing social fragmentation. This empowerment extends to economic spheres, as self-sufficiency diminishes dependence on aid, thereby lessening frustration and resentment. Finally, education on sustainable agricultural practices promotes responsible resource management, minimising environmental degradation and the potential for disputes over land and water. This holistic approach, integrating food security, economic empowerment, and environmental stewardship, directly addresses key drivers of conflict, fostering a more harmonious and stable camp environment. 10. Conclusion In summary, the precarious situation in Myanmar, characterised by persistent violence and political instability, has precipitated a severe humanitarian crisis. This crisis manifests as acute limitations in access to food, clean water, and healthcare, with far-reaching consequences for the regional economy and agricultural systems, leading to the erosion of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. Our findings underscore the critical role of integrating local food systems, hygiene, and educational initiatives within refugee camps to mitigate these challenges. Specifically, securing livelihoods through sustainable practices like animal farming and crop cultivation, coupled with comprehensive nutrition support and educational programs, is paramount. These initiatives not only enhance food security but also foster resilience and self-sufficiency. Furthermore, the provision of adequate utilities, such as clean water and refrigerated appliances, alongside education on personal hygiene and safe food preparation, is essential for preventing disease outbreaks and maintaining public health. The importance of preserving and transmitting traditional knowledge of plant food utilisation, particularly through intergenerational engagement, cannot be overstated, as it ensures the continuity of valuable cultural and ecological practices. Ultimately, this article serves as a call to action for collaborative partnerships between humanitarian organizations and governments to implement holistic interventions that address the interconnected needs of refugees in Myanmar. By prioritising integrated approaches that combine food security, hygiene, and education, we can contribute to a more sustainable and peaceful future for these vulnerable populations. Declarations Acknowledgments This research was partially supported by Chiang Mai University. Fundings The research project is part of the output under the memorandum of Understanding on the cooperation on projects of the Mekong Lancang Cooperation Special Fund 2022 (Sustainable conservation and value adding locally edible floral species in the Mekong regions). Author contributions S.R.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Reviewing and Editing. P.T.: Investigation and Visualization. T.T., M.W., C.L., and P.P.: Investigation Writing- Reviewing and Editing. S.H.L.: Supervision. Data availability No data was used for the research described in the article. Ethical approval and consent to participate The protocol was approved by Chiang Mai University Research Ethics Committee (Certificate of Exemption: COE No. 031/67) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, International Conference on Harmonization in Good Clinical Practice (ICH- GCP) and The Belmont Report. 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Biodiversity conservation and armed conflict: a warfare ecology perspective. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1429(1), 50-65. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13689 Siddig, AA. (2014). Biodiversity of Sudan: Between the harsh conditions, political instability and civil wars. Biodiversity Journal , 5 (4), 545-555. Panyadee P, Wangpakapattanawong P, Inta A, Balslev H. Very High Food Plant Diversity among Ethnic Groups in Northern Thailand. Diversity. 2023;15(1):120. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010120. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018(102):1. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Phumthum M, Srithi K, Inta A, Junsongduang A, Tangjitman K, Pongamornkul W, et al. Ethnomedicinal plant diversity in Thailand. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018;214:90-8. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.12.003. de Albuquerque UP, de Sousa Araújo TA, Ramos MA, Do Nascimento VT, de Lucena RFP, Monteiro JM, et al. 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The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): The politics and practice of refugee protection: Routledge; 2013. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203146651. Martin-Shields CP, Stojetz W. Food security and conflict: Empirical challenges and future opportunities for research and policy making on food security and conflict. World Development. 2019;119:150-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.011. Aburamadan R, Trillo C, Makore BCN. Designing refugees’ camps: temporary emergency solutions, or contemporary paradigms of incomplete urban citizenship? Insights from Al Za’atari. City, Territory and Architecture. 2020;7(1):12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-020-00120-z. Cuny FC. Refugee camps and camp planning: the state of the art. Disasters. 1977;1(2):125-43. Stevenson A, Sutton R. There's no place like a refugee camp? Urban planning and participation in the camp context. Refuge. 2011;28:137. Sonnino R. Local foodscapes: place and power in the agri-food system. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B — Soil & Plant Science. 2013;63(sup1):2-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2013.800130. Traverso S. How to escape from a poverty trap: The case of Bangladesh. World Development Perspectives. 2016;4:48-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2016.12.005. Karin S, Chowdhury MA, Hasnat MA, Tarin NJ. Status of Rohingya in Refugee Camps of Bangladesh: A Review Study. Open Access Library Journal. 2020;Vol.07No.09:24. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106575. WTsadik M. Enhancing Household Food Security in Refugee Camps in Ethiopia. Urban Agriculture magazine. 2009:16-7. Werker E. Refugee Camp Economies. Journal of Refugee Studies. 2007;20(3):461-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fem001. Ebert, AW. (2014). Potential of Underutilized Traditional Vegetables and Legume Crops to Contribute to Food and Nutritional Security, Income and More Sustainable Production Systems. Sustainability , 6 (1), 319-335. Kahane, R, Hodgkin, T, Jaenicke, H, Hoogendoorn, C, Hermann, M, Keatinge, J, d’Arros Hughes, J, Padulosi, S, and Looney, N. (2013). Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income. Agronomy for sustainable development , 33 , 671-693. Sun X, Baldwin EA, Manthey J, Dorado C, Rivera T, Bai J. Effect of Preprocessing Storage Temperature and Time on the Physicochemical Properties of Winter Melon Juice. Journal of Food Quality. 2022;2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3237639. Bidaramali V, Akhtar S, Das A. Proximate composition and bioactive compounds in diverse eggplant genotypes. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2020;39(4):113-21. https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i430537. Bargavi R, Elumalai S. Chilli ( Capsicum Annuum ) Cultivation, Diseases, Breeding, Advanced Techniques in Biotechnology-General Review. Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia. 2016;7(1):171-8. Nienkerke IM, Thorat A, Patt A. From distress migration to selective migration: Transformative effects of agricultural development on seasonal migration. World Development Perspectives. 2023;29:100483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2022.100483. Cling J-P, Delecourt C. Interlinkages between the Sustainable Development Goals. World Development Perspectives. 2022;25:100398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2022.100398. Asiedu E, Sadekla SS, Bokpin GA. Aid to Africa’s agriculture towards building physical capital: Empirical evidence and implications for post-COVID-19 food insecurity. World Development Perspectives. 2020;20:100269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2020.100269. Angeloni G, Carr J. Animal and human health in the Sahrawi refugee camps. Forced Migration Review. 2018(58). Bovill M, Moore T, Praditsorn P, Churak P, Yone MK, Thongprakaidown R, et al. Nutrition Surveillance in Thailand-Myanmar Border Refugee Camps - Trends in Wasting and Stunting Over 8 Years. Current Developments in Nutrition. 2021;5 (Supplement_2):626-. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzab045_008. Prache S, Adamiec C, Astruc T, Baéza-Campone E, Bouillot PE, Clinquart A, et al. Review: Quality of animal-source foods. Animal. 2022;16 Suppl 1:100376. Epub 2021/11/28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2021.100376. Duncan N, de Silva S, Conallin J, Freed S, Akester M, Baumgartner L, et al. Fish for whom?: Integrating the management of social complexities into technical investments for inclusive, multi-functional irrigation. World Development Perspectives. 2021;22:100318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2021.100318. Braam, DH. (2022). Excluding Livestock Livelihoods in Refugee Responses: A Risk to Public Health. Journal of Refugee Studies , 35 (2), 910-928. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac006 Krishnan S, Zaman S, Ferdaus M, Kabir MH, Khatun H, Rahman SMS, et al. How can humanitarian services provision during mass displacement better support health systems? An exploratory qualitative study of humanitarian service provider perspectives in Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh. Journal of Migration and Health. 2022;6:100132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2022.100132. Durrance-Bagale A, Salman OM, Omar M, Alhaffar M, Ferdaus M, Newaz S, et al. Lessons from humanitarian clusters to strengthen health system responses to mass displacement in low and middle-income countries: a scoping review. Journal of Migration and Health. 2020;1:100028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2020.100028. Alderman H, Gentilini U, Yemtsov R. The 1.5 billion people question: food, vouchers, or cash transfers?: World Bank Publications; 2017. Akinsemolu, AA, andOnyeaka, HN. (2024). Microorganisms Associated with Food Spoilage and Foodborne Diseases. In Food Safety and Quality in the Global South (pp. 489-531). Springer. Biran A, Schmidt W-P, Zeleke L, Emukule H, Khay H, Parker J, et al. Hygiene and sanitation practices amongst residents of three long-term refugee camps in Thailand, Ethiopia and Kenya. Tropical Medicine & International Health. 2012;17(9):1133-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2012.03045.x. Garsow AV, Campbell E, Closs G, Kowalcyk BB. Food Safety Challenges in Refugee Camps: What Do We Know? Journal of Food Protection. 2021;84(5):876-84. https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-20-316. Garsow, AV, Campbell, E, Closs Jr, G, and Kowalcyk, BB. (2021). Food safety challenges in refugee camps: What do we know? Journal of Food Protection , 84 (5), 876-884. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Organization","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prateep","middleName":"","lastName":"Panyadee","suffix":""},{"id":441699062,"identity":"6b36661e-088e-48b9-ab9e-63182bb9f6a8","order_by":6,"name":"Soo Hee Lee","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kent","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Soo","middleName":"Hee","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-24 10:38:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5705635/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5705635/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01885-4","type":"published","date":"2025-09-26T15:56:58+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80543394,"identity":"03b6c0d4-fe05-4b9b-abb7-50a33b745607","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-14 13:24:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":362908,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA Burmese refugee camp on the Myanmar side\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/8668b9f92b1ae7bdb96b410c.png"},{"id":80543395,"identity":"64d8856d-69e8-4f6c-9438-938a2c0b29e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-14 13:24:22","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":543245,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSome utilities in Myanmar refugee camp (A) water tanks (B) a clinic (C) medical equipment (D) accommodations and farming area (E) commercial processed products in the store\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/21a574997875bb5c9f515240.png"},{"id":80543769,"identity":"0c6c2d70-3d96-4839-9385-9e5958193efd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-14 13:32:22","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":615190,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverall foodscape of the Myanmar refugee camp\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/66f36ae807be650c85a6e2fe.png"},{"id":80543398,"identity":"b102c050-a59e-4382-b2f6-17defa14fb82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-14 13:24:22","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":389559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrocery store (A) and fresh food storage issue (B)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/24d3940a0d7832c42f514726.png"},{"id":80543403,"identity":"b69ea5e8-b13c-483a-a3aa-7daa786a892f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-14 13:24:22","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":460413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRaising catfish in Myanmar refugee camps as protein source\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/777b5e9cb1fedcc5cfa6d7a3.png"},{"id":92430467,"identity":"e872130e-b77f-40a7-923c-74e2353d92ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-29 16:05:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3280390,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5705635/v1/eb7b4ab8-605c-4f9a-b0dc-83738a2784a4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Issues of Food Security and Safety: Insights from a Myanmar Refugee Camp","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Background and historical context\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ongoing conflict in Myanmar represents a protracted civil war pitting the military against ethnic minorities. Rooted in a historical struggle for autonomy and territorial control dating back to the country's independence in 1948, this tension has endured [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent events, notably the military coup in February 2021, further aggravated the situation, triggering widespread protests and civil unrest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The response of the military to these protests has contributed to increased violence, human rights violations, mass displacement, and economic hardship. At the same time, ethnic minority rebel groups have taken advantage of the situation to strengthen their resistance against the military regime, leading to an escalation of conflicts in minority-dominated areas. Despite continued peace efforts, the situation remains complex and uncertain [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Impact of conflict on economic and social stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe military coup in February 2021 triggered a cascade of economic disruptions, compounding the existing pandemic-induced vulnerabilities and effectively derailing any potential recovery. During the early stages of economic recovery from the COVID-19-related shocks, Myanmar experienced much more severe and prolonged disturbances of economic activities due to the coup [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The military takeover prompted major protests and strikes, as well as disruptions to economy and financial system of the country. Myanmar fell into a deep economic recession, with an estimated 18% contraction in GDP in 2021. After the military coup, it is estimated that the number of refugees has increased to over 200,000, resulting in an estimate of over 700,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs) with an increasing population density within the camps along the Thai-Myanmar border [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Compounding these challenges are recent funding shortages and waning international attention, which have exacerbated conditions in refugee camps. This has resulted in a distressing surge in suicides and domestic violence among Burmese refugees. Moreover, insufficient food supplies have exacerbated hunger and malnutrition, while limited access to education and medical care compounds the hardships faced by displaced populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3 Threats to ethnobotanical knowledge and cultural Heritage\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eArmed conflicts are not merely destructive to physical infrastructure; they are equally devastating to the intangible infrastructure of cultural knowledge, particularly ethnobotanical wisdom. The transmission of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which encompasses plant identification, usage, and management, relies heavily on oral traditions and intergenerational transfer. Wars disrupt these processes in profound ways. The wars could also have a devastating impact on ethnobotanical knowledge, as they often disrupt traditional systems of knowledge transfer and hurdle the social supports that fabric the preservation. The displacement of populations can result in the loss of traditional knowledge and skills, as older generations may be unable to pass on their knowledge to younger generations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, the Bosnian War saw the loss of many elderly individuals who held essential knowledge of traditional medicine and food practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, conflict and instability can also lead to the destruction of local ecosystems and the loss of plant species, reducing the overall diversity of plant knowledge and the ability to utilize it for food and medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Sudan provides a striking example, suffering from 60 years of chronic civil wars and instability. These conditions have severely affected the country's biological diversity, pushing many species to critical thresholds of extinction, which further diminishes indigenous knowledge of local flora and fauna [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consequences of losing the traditional knowledge along with the management of its ecosystems include a reduction in the potential of available resources for food [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], medicine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] and cultural practices, leading also to the loss of biodiversity, cultural heritage and the identity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4 Research objectives and recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study was to comprehensively understand the food security challenges faced by the affected populations. Additionally, the assessment aimed to uncover the root causes of food insecurity, with the overarching goal of developing effective interventions to improve the well-being and stability of refugee communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, it is crucial to implement a comprehensive and adequately funded humanitarian response, coupled with initiatives targeting the underlying causes of conflict and instability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. This article underscores the multifaceted impact of civil conflict, military coups, and displacement on critical aspects such as food security, economic stability, and the preservation of traditional knowledge systems. It highlights the pressing need for meaningful actions to address these real-world challenges faced by communities in conflict-ridden regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe erosion of ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional skills due to conflict emphasis that regional development encompasses not only economic growth but also the preservation of cultural heritage and biodiversity. The urgency of research in this context cannot be overstated, as it not only contributes to immediate regional development but also holds the key to the long-term sustainability of communities and ecosystems. The connections between food security, economic stability, cultural preservation, and biodiversity highlights the need for a holistic approach in regional development, where interventions in one aspect can have profound effects on others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Site description\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Burmese refugee camp, located along the Moei River shoreline near Tak province in Northern Thailand (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) [16\u0026deg;32'42.0\"N 98\u0026deg;35'37.4\"E] was accessed by medical staff from the Mae Tao Clinic (Tha Sai Luat, Mae Sot District, Tak, Thailand). This camp is situated within a region characterised by mountainous terrain and a tropical deciduous forest ecosystem. The area experiences inclimate weather patterns, including a pronounced monsoon season with heavy rainfall from May to October, leading to potential flooding and logistical challenges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The soil type is predominantly lateritic, known for its poor water retention and nutrient content, which can limit agricultural productivity. The vegetation is typical of tropical deciduous forests, featuring a mix of teak (\u003cem\u003eTectona grandis\u003c/em\u003e), various Dipterocarpus species, and bamboo [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], which are utilised by the refugees for shelter construction and other purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Data collection methodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews were conducted with informed and consenting clinic-attending camp residents and the village head, ensuring strict adherence to voluntary participation and secure data handling to protect participant privacy. Security concerns limited direct camp access, so we adapted by conducting interviews outside the camp and utilizing photographic documentation provided by clinic-visiting residents and medical staff. Through open-ended questions, we gathered information on living conditions, economic activities, household roles, and food access strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Local interpreters who received thorough briefing on maintaining confidentiality and neutrality were also used. Participants shared lists and photographs of available food resources, including plant species with details on availability, utilisation, and perceived quality. Our taxonomist, Prateep Panyadee, identified the plant species from these photographs to confirm their scientific classification [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Medical staff who could cross the border contributed additional photographs documenting the food landscape, facilities, and hygiene conditions within the camp, complementing their observational insights. We descriptively analysed all qualitative data, including handwritten notes and transcribed interview quotations, incorporating the visiting medical team's observations. Throughout this process, all identifying information was removed from interview transcripts and notes to maintain participant confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Research objectives and expected outcomes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to comprehensively understand the food security challenges faced by populations affected by the Myanmar conflict and to uncover the root causes of food insecurity among refugee and displaced communities. The research seeks to develop effective interventions to improve the well-being and stability of refugee communities and to highlight areas for further research and humanitarian response that addresses not only immediate needs but also underlying causes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Refugee camp","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Location and accessibility\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe camp located near the borders between Thailand and Myanmar, houses approximately 500\u0026ndash;1,000 refugees with about 30,000 square meters of space, the majority of whom are Karen people, the majority ethnic community in Myanmar (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). From the interview with the village head, the camp located proximity to major transportation routes and infrastructure not only improved accessibility for humanitarian organisations but also, due to the area's relative stability, lessened the threat of military action, thus providing a dual benefit of aid access and security for the refugees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"This location, situated near major transportation routes and infrastructure, not only enhances accessibility for humanitarian organizations but also, due to the area's relative stability, reduces the threat of military operations. This provides a dual benefit: access to aid and security for the refugees. \" [Refugee camp head]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the refugees may remain vulnerable to border conflicts, cross-border violence, and movement restrictions, which can limit their access to essential services such as healthcare and education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Infrastructure development and organisation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin this refugee camp, a meticulous organisation is evident, complete with well-equipped shelters, water tanks, agricultural zones, a clinic, a training center, a designated meeting area, and small shops\u0026mdash;conforming to the guidelines set forth by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The accessibility to the major cities and towns however is difficult due to its temporary nature. The shelters are made from some construction materials cooperated with locally available materials, such as Bamboo wood, Tueng leaves (\u003cem\u003eDipterocarpus tuberculatus\u003c/em\u003e) and Fan Palm (\u003cem\u003eCorypha lecomtei\u003c/em\u003e). The shelters are relatively close to the next, and typically houses three-four individuals who may be either family members or strangers. In addition, this camp is located next to the Moei River, where the refugees can bathe and swim. Clean water was facilitated by the installation of water filters and tanks for harvesting rainwater. Additionally, due to its proximity to the official boarder checkpoint in Mae Sot, the camp has access to basic utilities, food and goods available in Thailand. Even though the refugee camp was designed to provide temporary housing for refugees, it has all the basic amenities required for people to live. The fact that the situation in the area is uncertain and fragile, which means that access to utilities like water, electricity, and gas may be disrupted at any time. Consequently, a contingency plan is necessary to ensure that people in the refugee camp have access to these utilities even if the normal supply is disrupted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Foodscape in the refugee camp","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe continuing conflict in Myanmar has deeply affected the lives of refugees residing in the camp. Land for cultivation was allocated to refugee residents, with plot size determined in proportion to household demographic composition. They were equipped with necessary cultivation tools and had access to fertilisers and irrigation systems. From the interview, we identified that several small home gardens where common crops, such as water spinach, pumpkin, and gourd, were cultivated to meet the primary food needs of the residents. The availability, cultivation schedule, and utilisation of food crops in this refugee camp are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The crops cultivated mainly consisted of vegetables, including wax gourd and eggplant, both of which are nutrient-rich. While rice is considered the major staple food in Myanmar, maize, groundnut, and potato are alternative crops found in this refugee camp. Our survey also found that the camp had limited supplies of fruit, with papaya being the only short-lived perennial type available (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the assessment, the refugee camp faced a shortage of staple food crops, particularly maize, peanuts, and potatoes, which were in high demand. Certain vegetables, crucial for the ethnic group from Myanmar, were notably scarce. These included Asian vegetables like those from the \u003cem\u003eSolanum\u003c/em\u003e spp. and various legumes. Additionally, the camp exhibited a lack of fruit crops, with papaya being the sole fruit option available.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative availability of food crops as assessed by the village head and medical staff, using a scale from minimal (+) to extensive (++++).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethod of consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultivation (month \u0026ndash; month)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Zea mays)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeptember-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGround nut\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Arachis hypogaea)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotato\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Solanum tuberosum)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater spinach\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Ipomoea aquatic)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePumpkins\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Cucurbita moschata)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomato\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember-February\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYardlong bean\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eVigna unguiculata\u003c/em\u003e ssp. Sesquipedalis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember-February\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsian eggplant\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSolanum melongena\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch-May\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWax Gourd, winter melon\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eBenincasa hispida\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong eggplant, eggplant\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eSolanum melongena\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese okra\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eLuffa acutangular\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch-May\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCabbage\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eBrassica oleracea\u003c/em\u003e var. capitata)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoriander\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eCoriandrum sativum\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice (fruit)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary-February\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChinese flowering cabbage\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eBrassica Chinensis\u003c/em\u003e Linn.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeetroot\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eBeta vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch-May\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember-May\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLettuce\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBroccoli\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eBrassica oleracea\u003c/em\u003e var. italica)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember-February\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite Mugwort\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eArtemisia lactiflora\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLemon grass\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eCymbopogon citratus\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGalangal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eAlpinia galanga\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGinger\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember-December\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBird\u0026rsquo;s eye chili, chili\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eCapsicum frutescens\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e++++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoselle\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eHibiscus sabdariffa\u003c/em\u003e L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpice\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eColorant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch-May\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePapaya\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eCarica papaya\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune-October\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+++\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Food hygiene","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this camp, there was a grocery store where food supplies, snacks, and beverages, and a shaved ice were sold (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA). It was depicted from the survey that fresh food was improperly stored usually due to the absent of refrigerator or cold storage in the camp. The common practice involved submerging fresh food, such as blood curd and soybean tofu, in water, which likely led to cross-contamination and posed a significant risk of illness (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB). Also, we also found that packed ice was stored in white sacks and placed on the ground, with the direct contact with physical and microbial contaminants. In addition, access to clean water for cooking, cleaning food and personal uses is essential for food safety. As mentioned in the issue of food hygiene in the refugee camps, we are concerned that food-related diseases and illnesses among the migrants could become more serious in the future, therefore, the refugees should effectively disseminate knowledge of food hygiene.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Animal farming as source of protein","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the refugee camps, instead of relying solely on humanitarian programs, animal husbandry is regarded as the sustainable and reliable food production. In general, the animal farming in the refugee camps is often small-scale and limited by space and resources. Small animals such as fish, chickens, and ducks can be raised by the refugees, as they require less space and resources than livestock. Due to the condensed living conditions, animal farming is often limited by space and the resources to feed the animals. What we have found in the camp was that freshwater fish farming was the primary sources of protein (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The residents purchased meats and eggs from distant cities, which required approximately two to three hours of arduous and dangerous travel during the civil war. Through interviews with the residents in the camp, it was determined that the majority of the individuals had some background in growing animals such as beef cattle and native chickens as food prior to immigration. It is essential that aid organisations and governments provide the civilian populations with safe and dependable feed access along with the necessary training of animal farming. More importantly, animal breed and alternative protein options such as milk and legume should also be considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Diminishing of traditional knowledge and local plant biodiversity","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite the high population density in the camp, most of the land had been cleared out for habitation and agriculture, leading to the loss of local food system such as wild vegetables and native plants and the cultivation practices. This is very common in the refugee camp where its residents are unable to grow and harvest food in the same way they did in their home communities. Although the younger correspondents were knowledgeable about the crops being cultivated, they had limited knowledge of the traditional plants found within the camp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"The number of elderly residents in the camp is not very large, and due to space limitations, most food crops come from seeds that can be found.\u0026rdquo; [Refugee resident, age 28]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\"We never go out to search for food in the forest. We only bring food in or cross over to buy from markets on the Thai side.\" [Refugee resident, age 32]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese traditional plants, such as \u003cem\u003eAcmella uliginosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePhyllanthus amarus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eScoparia dulcis\u003c/em\u003e, were often overlooked and considered as mere weeds. Upon speaking with the elders in the camp, we learned that these plants were once commonly used for food and medicine, but the restrictions imposed by the civil war and the resulting constraints of life in the camp had prevented them from collecting these plants and passing down their traditional knowledge to the younger generation. This loss of ethnobotanical knowledge has left the refugees in the camp with limited resources and options for food and medicine. They are now dependent on exotic crops that acquired external supports, as they cannot collect the seeds themselves. This loss of traditional knowledge has not only resulted in a significant cultural loss, but also has practical consequences for the refugees' overall well-being, food security, and healthcare. The impact of the civil war is therefore compounded by the loss of this valuable knowledge, which could have provided much-needed support to the residents of the camp.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eCivil wars can have a significant impact on food security, leading to an increase in hunger and malnutrition and a deterioration of economic conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In one instant, the wars can displace many people, frequently to refugee camps or other regions where food and other resources are scarce. They also often involve the destruction of public infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and ports, making it harder to convey food and other necessities. Refugee camps are defined as temporary shelters for people fleeing wars or conflicts in their home countries (refugees), with the safety and availability of basic facilities being important and necessary for refugee camps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The observation that this refugee camp, despite its temporary design, provides basic amenities is a positive finding. This suggests a level of organization and resource allocation that supports the residents' fundamental needs. Location, space, water and sanitation, health care, security, community spaces, infrastructure, and accessibility should be taken into account when designing the layout of a refugee camp to ensure the safety and well-being of the refugees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom our observation, the critical issue lies in the severe limitations in food security, particularly concerning the availability of staple foods, culturally significant vegetables, and fruits. Local food systems are widely considered a sustainable solution to the environmental and socioeconomic issues caused by industrialized and specialized agriculture, such as loss of biodiversity, environmental pollution, rural depopulation, and marginalization of small farmers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. However, conflict often disrupts this system due to the destruction of farmland, storage facilities, and displacement of people, leading to food insecurity and malnutrition, especially among women and children. In refugee camps, food supply organizations are often complex, but growing food for self-consumption through home gardening or community farming initiatives is a sustainable approach [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The shortage of staple crops (maize, peanuts and potatoes) has far-reaching implications. These crops are often primary sources of calories and nutrients, and their absence could lead to malnutrition and related health problems. The scarcity of specific vegetables (\u003cem\u003eSolanum\u003c/em\u003e spp. and legumes) is particularly concerning as these are not just sources of vitamins and minerals, but also hold cultural and economic significances for Asian cultures along with the Myanmar refugees [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Their absence could lead to dietary deficiencies and a sense of cultural loss. The extreme lack of fruit diversity, with only papaya available, further compounds the nutritional deficiencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA balanced diet requires a variety of fruits and vegetables to ensure adequate intake of essential vitamins and minerals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. This limited availability suggests a severe restriction in dietary options, potentially impacting the health and well-being of the camp's residents. Seasonal availability and seed availability are the factors that determine the common garden vegetables cultivated in the camp. Winter melon is a good source of vitamins C and B1, while eggplant is a good source of dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Bird's eye chili, a common spice in many Southeast Asian food recipes, including Thai and Burmese, was also abundant in the camp [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. It is an important crop for smallholder farmers, especially in rural areas, as it is relatively easy to grow and has a high yield, making it a valuable source of income. The cultivation of these crops provides refugees with an opportunity to generate income within the camp. They can sell surplus produce in local markets, thereby contributing to economic growth and promoting decent work opportunities for themselves and other camp residents. It could also stimulate the development of local markets and trade within the community [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. These practices align well with the UN sustainable Development Goal (SDG 8) - Decent Work and Economic Growth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe persistent emergency status in refugee camps is represented in a food basket based primarily on the overall calorie intake rather than the variable of food choices. It is worth highlighting that in the conflict-affected regions, preserving and revitalising local food systems is critical not only for food security but also for broader sustainable development goals (SDGs) set out by the United Nations (UN) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. The local food systems contribute to achieving zero hunger (SDG2) by enhancing food security and reducing dependence on external food aid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. They provide a sustainable source of nutrition, particularly crucial for vulnerable groups like women and children. The prevalence of anemia and acute malnutrition, notably among these vulnerable groups, emerges as a severe and pressing concern [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. In this context, protein assumes a pivotal role in sustaining the well-being of the camp residents. Primary sources of protein, encompassing meat, fish, and eggs, stand as indispensable staples of daily sustenance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The significance of protein in mitigating malnutrition and anemia cannot be overstated, as these conditions bear far-reaching health implications. As such, there is an essential need for comprehensive strategies that not only ensure the availability of protein-rich foods but also address underlying factors contributing to nutritional deficiencies. Access to adequate and nutritious animal feed is often limited. Refugees may rely on locally available vegetation, which may lack essential nutrients, impacting animal health and productivity. The quality of feed may be inconsistent, leading to malnutrition and disease in livestock. Seasonal fluctuations in vegetation availability exacerbate feed scarcity, particularly during the dry season. This increases the risk of disease outbreaks among livestock, leading to animal losses and impacting protein availability. The lack of preventative care (vaccinations, parasite control) further compromises animal health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. In relevant with partnership for the goals (SDG17), humanitarian organisations and agencies are actively involved in addressing nutritional challenges within refugee camps. There is a pressing need for coordinated, integrated, and collaborative responses at all levels - international, national, and subnational. These responses should involve various stakeholders, including humanitarian agencies, governments, and civil society. It is essential to tailor these efforts to the specific needs of both displaced and host populations, considering their socio-cultural contexts and realities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. During the military takeover, the pandemic caused significant shocks to the staple food supply. To address potential social protection issues, the country's interventions included in-kind transfers of rice and food vouchers for a diversified basket of rice and non-staple foods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. The nutritional challenges identified in refugee diets, particularly regarding protein adequacy, are further compounded by concerns about food safety and hygiene practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood hygiene, otherwise known as food safety, are generally a concern in the refugee camp, particularly after the overpopulation, unsanitary conditions and limited access to clean water and proper facility. In this trip, we were able to classify the two possible food safety issues in the refugee camp. Firstly, food contaminations of both physical and biological types. Improper handling of raw materials prior to consumption might result in dangers due to soil, rock, or dirt especially when food is stored in the open area or containers. Perishable food items including meat, dairy products, fish, and prepared meals undergo accelerated deterioration when stored at ambient temperatures, with this process significantly intensified in tropical climatic conditions in this camp. The consumption of inadequately refrigerated foodstuffs substantially elevates the probability of foodborne illness, potentially manifesting as gastrointestinal distress including diarrhea and emesis, pyrexia, and various additional adverse health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. More importantly, inadequate sanitation among the migrants and foodborne contamination are also regarded as important [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. If personal hygiene care has not been given enough attention, an outbreak could develop and spread across the camp [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The refugee camp experiences a tropical monsoon climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Water sources in the refugee camp are likely to include rainwater harvesting and from Moei River. The availability of these sources may fluctuate significantly depending on the season. During the dry season, reliance on limited groundwater or river sources may increase. Regular monitoring for microbial contaminants (e.g., \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and coliform bacteria) is essential to prevent waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid. This is especially crucial in refugee camps, where overcrowding and poor sanitation increase the risk of disease outbreaks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. As to comply with SDG 6 - Clean Water and Sanitation, the following interventions could be addressed. Implementing comprehensive hygiene education programs within the camp involves training camp residents, particularly community leaders and caregivers, on the significance of personal hygiene, safe food handling practices, and preventing foodborne illnesses. Camp residents should be encouraged and empowered to assume a leading role in upholding sanitation within the camp. This entails establishing community committees tasked with overseeing waste management, the construction and maintenance of sanitary facilities, and conducting regular cleaning campaigns. Finally, the refugee camp leader should collaborate with humanitarian organisations and local authorities to enhance the camp's sanitation infrastructures.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on our observations, we strongly recommend implementing comprehensive training and education programs within the refugee camps. These initiatives can be transformative, equipping displaced individuals with skills for survival and self-sufficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, educational programs focused on local plant food conservation and utilisation should be implemented. These programs should provide instruction on cultivating, collecting germplasm, and conserving indigenous plant resources, thereby ensuring sustainable food availability. Introducing diverse food crop varieties will further promote self-sufficiency and nutritional balance within the community. Crucially, facilitating knowledge transfer from older generations will preserve traditional plant food utilisation practices, safeguarding cultural heritage and valuable ecological wisdom. Secondly, infrastructure development is paramount. Installing adequate utilities, including clean water supply, electricity, and refrigerated appliances, will significantly improve living conditions and food hygiene. Collaboration with humanitarian aid organizations is vital to support these infrastructural upgrades. Thirdly, hygiene and food safety education must be prioritised. Training on personal hygiene and safe food preparation practices will minimise the risk of food contamination and disease outbreaks. Finally, establishing sustainable animal farming initiatives, such as egg-laying hens, cows, and fish farms, will provide reliable and nutritious protein sources, reducing dependence on potentially dangerous external procurement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese programs not only secure the camp's food supply and act as income generators but also promote sustainable resource management and environmental conservation. They build resilience against climate fluctuations, market changes, and other challenges, strengthening the camp community's ability to withstand crises. Beyond tangible benefits, these initiatives foster food safety knowledge, improve health, empower refugees, strengthen social bonds, preserve cultural heritage, and enable long-term planning. Ultimately, these programs offer a pathway to a brighter future within the camp, contributing to peaceful coexistence and reducing the likelihood of conflict. Critically, agricultural programs within refugee camps have the potential to significantly contribute to a more peaceful environment. By directly increasing food availability, these initiatives mitigate competition and conflict over scarce resources. Empowering refugees to cultivate their own food fosters a sense of ownership and control, shifting the dynamic from competition to cooperation. Furthermore, the shared labor and communal benefits inherent in agricultural projects cultivate a collective identity and purpose, effectively reducing social fragmentation. This empowerment extends to economic spheres, as self-sufficiency diminishes dependence on aid, thereby lessening frustration and resentment. Finally, education on sustainable agricultural practices promotes responsible resource management, minimising environmental degradation and the potential for disputes over land and water. This holistic approach, integrating food security, economic empowerment, and environmental stewardship, directly addresses key drivers of conflict, fostering a more harmonious and stable camp environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"10. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the precarious situation in Myanmar, characterised by persistent violence and political instability, has precipitated a severe humanitarian crisis. This crisis manifests as acute limitations in access to food, clean water, and healthcare, with far-reaching consequences for the regional economy and agricultural systems, leading to the erosion of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. Our findings underscore the critical role of integrating local food systems, hygiene, and educational initiatives within refugee camps to mitigate these challenges. Specifically, securing livelihoods through sustainable practices like animal farming and crop cultivation, coupled with comprehensive nutrition support and educational programs, is paramount. These initiatives not only enhance food security but also foster resilience and self-sufficiency. Furthermore, the provision of adequate utilities, such as clean water and refrigerated appliances, alongside education on personal hygiene and safe food preparation, is essential for preventing disease outbreaks and maintaining public health. The importance of preserving and transmitting traditional knowledge of plant food utilisation, particularly through intergenerational engagement, cannot be overstated, as it ensures the continuity of valuable cultural and ecological practices. Ultimately, this article serves as a call to action for collaborative partnerships between humanitarian organizations and governments to implement holistic interventions that address the interconnected needs of refugees in Myanmar. By prioritising integrated approaches that combine food security, hygiene, and education, we can contribute to a more sustainable and peaceful future for these vulnerable populations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was partially supported by Chiang Mai University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFundings\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research project is part of the output under the memorandum of Understanding on the cooperation on projects of the Mekong Lancang Cooperation Special Fund 2022 (Sustainable conservation and value adding locally edible floral species in the Mekong regions).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eS.R.R.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Reviewing and Editing. P.T.: Investigation and Visualization. T.T., M.W., C.L., and P.P.: Investigation Writing- Reviewing and Editing. S.H.L.: Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo data was used for the research described in the article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe protocol was approved by Chiang Mai University Research Ethics Committee (Certificate of Exemption: COE No. 031/67) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, International Conference on Harmonization in Good Clinical Practice (ICH- GCP) and The Belmont Report.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eC\u0026aacute;rdenas ML, Olivius E. 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Food safety challenges in refugee camps: What do we know? \u003cem\u003eJournal of Food Protection\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 84\u003c/em\u003e(5), 876-884. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"food insecurity, foodscape, food safety, staple food, military coup","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5705635/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5705635/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines food security within a Myanmar refugee camp near Mae Sot District, Tak Province, Thailand. Employing qualitative observations from residents and medical staff, alongside photographic documentation, we assessed the accessibility and sufficiency of dietary resources and food safety. Findings reveal significant limitations in food diversity, particularly concerning staple crops and culturally important vegetables like those from the \u003cem\u003eSolanum\u003c/em\u003e spp. and legumes which are exacerbated by restricted seed availability. The absence of elders capable of transmitting food knowledge, combined with limited resource availability within the camp, directly impacted the preservation and practice of traditional plant food utilisation knowledge. Furthermore, animal farming, while serving as a primary protein source, raised concerns about sufficiency. Food handling practices were also a concern, as improper handling may lead to cross-contamination and possibly induce gastrointestinal diseases. This research underscores the urgent need for enhanced humanitarian supports, including diversifying food sources, improving supply chain management, and providing training on safe animal husbandry practices. The study highlighted the critical role of accessible and culturally appropriate food resources in maintaining the well-being and stability of refugee communities in challenging border regions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Issues of Food Security and Safety: Insights from a Myanmar Refugee Camp","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-14 13:24:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5705635/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-22T14:35:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-12T14:48:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-02T14:53:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-23T17:27:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"88038341486299532919094351946655332427","date":"2025-04-21T05:17:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-14T12:15:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"93510938496661293241523595833523048595","date":"2025-04-14T11:41:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"311492794694684331832661900063103420192","date":"2025-04-11T13:06:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-11T11:44:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-08T11:59:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2025-03-24T11:53:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"20a20fc2-3fc6-4525-8139-ad558af2f443","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-29T16:00:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5705635","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01885-4","journal":{"identity":"discover-sustainability","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Sustainability"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-26 15:56:58","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 26th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-14 13:24:17","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s43621-025-01885-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01885-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5705635","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5705635","identity":"rs-5705635","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}