Assessment of Serum Urea, Creatinine and Magnesium of Female Undergraduate Students Using Cosmetics in Edo State University, Iyamho

Assessment of Serum Urea, Creatinine and Magnesium of Female Undergraduate Students Using Cosmetics in Edo State University, Iyamho | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment of Serum Urea, Creatinine and Magnesium of Female Undergraduate Students Using Cosmetics in Edo State University, Iyamho Ijeoma Evangeline Umeche, Matthew Folaranmi Olaniyan, Phebean Onosen Ozolua, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Cosmetics are increasingly popular among people, particularly women, due to their ability to enhance physical appearance and boost confidence. These products are composed of chemical compounds derived from either natural or synthetic sources. However, several studies have revealed that some cosmetics may contain toxic chemicals with potential negative health effects, including kidney-related risks. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among female undergraduate students using cosmetic products at Edo State University Uzairue. Methods: A total of 199 female participants were recruited and categorized into two groups: the test group (cosmetic product users) and the control group (non-users). Blood samples were collected intravenously and placed in lithium heparin containers. The samples were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 3 minutes to obtain plasma. Serum urea was determined using the Urease-Berthelot’s method, creatinine using the Jaffe-Slot method, and magnesium using the Xylidyl Blue method. All assays were performed spectrophotometrically following standard protocols. Results: Cosmetic users had significantly (p < 0.05) higher serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels compared to non-users. Binary logistic regression indicated that individuals with elevated levels of these parameters were less likely to be non-cosmetic users, with odds ratios of 0.992 for urea, 0.257 for creatinine, and 0.103 for magnesium. Additionally, individuals who had used cosmetics for three or more years had significantly (p < 0.05) higher serum parameter levels than those with shorter usage durations. Conclusion: Long-term use of cosmetic products may negatively impact kidney function and pose risks to overall health, as indicated by elevated serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels in users. Users should be vigilant about the active ingredients in cosmetic products. Public awareness campaigns are necessary to educate the population on the health risks associated with prolonged cosmetic use, particularly regarding kidney health. Regulatory agencies should enhance monitoring and control over the use of potentially toxic chemicals in cosmetic manufacturing in Nigeria. cosmetics toxins chemicals urea creatinine INTRODUCTION Cosmetics are widely used across the globe, particularly among women, due to their perceived benefits in enhancing physical appearance and self-esteem. These products are composed of a wide array of chemical substances derived from both natural and synthetic sources. While generally considered safe when properly regulated, emerging evidence suggests that prolonged or excessive use of certain cosmetic products may lead to adverse health effects, especially due to the presence of potentially harmful chemical additives [ 1 ] . Among the various health concerns linked to cosmetic use is the potential for renal dysfunction. Some cosmetic formulations include magnesium-containing compounds such as magnesium sulfate and magnesium stearate, which, when absorbed systemically in large quantities, may disrupt electrolyte balance and contribute to kidney impairment [ 2 ] . Additionally, urea, a common ingredient in moisturizers and exfoliating products due to its hydrating and keratolytic properties, can influence serum urea levels when absorbed in excess through the skin [ 3 ] . Elevated serum urea and creatinine levels are well-established biomarkers of impaired kidney function and may signal early signs of renal stress or damage. Given the growing popularity of cosmetics and the limited local data on their systemic effects, especially in young female populations, there is a need to investigate potential renal implications associated with long-term cosmetic use. This study, therefore, aims to assess serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among female undergraduate students at Edo State University Uzairue who use cosmetic products, in order to evaluate any possible health risks related to kidney function. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design This was a cross-sectional comparative study involving female undergraduate students using and not using cosmetic products in Edo State University Iyamho. Study population A total of 199 female undergraduate students at Edo State University Iyamho, who provided their consent were recruited for the study. INCLUSION CRITERIA Individuals who provided informed consent, female undergraduate students associated with long-term cosmetic use and individuals without a history of kidney disease, were included. EXCLUSION CRITERIA Individuals with a history of kidney disease, individuals who withdrew their consent, and individuals currently on any medication or supplementation. Data Analysis Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS v 25. Independent t-tests and binary logistic regression were used, with significance set at p < 0.05. RESULTS Table 1 shows the age and serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium of the participants in the test and control groups. The results revealed that age and the serum urea, creatinine and magnesium contents ranged from 19.98 ± 1.57–20.37 ± 2.16 years, 40.67 ± 10.99–45.97 ± 12.49 mg/dL, 0.59 ± 0.28–0.78 ± 0.34 mg/dL, and 1.92 ± 0.31–2.30 ± 0.56 mg/dL respe tively. The test participants had significantly (p < 0.05) higher serum urea, creatinine and magnesium levels than did the control participants. Table 1 Age, urea, creatinine and magnesium levels of test and control participants . Parameter Test Control p-value Age (years) 20.37 ± 2.16 a 19.98 ± 1.57 a 0.269 Urea (mg/dL) 45.97 ± 12.49 a 40.67 ± 10.99 b 0.015* Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.78 ± 0.34 a 0.59 ± 0.28 b 0.001* Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.30 ± 0.56 a 1.92 ± 0.31 b 0.000* The data are presented as the means ± standard deviations. Values in the same row with different alphabetic superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different. where a= (p 0.05), and * indicates clinical significance. Table 2 : Table showing the relationships between the serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium, and the use of cosmetics, as analyzed via binary linear logistic regression. The p-value of 0.696 indicates that serum urea levels do not significantly predict cosmetic use. The odds ratio (Exp(B)) of 0.992 suggests a minimal effect, with the confidence interval (0.955–1.031) crossing 1, confirming that there is no significant association. The p-value of 0.075 suggests a marginal but not statistically significant association between serum creatinine levels and cosmetic use. The odds ratio (0.257) implies a potentially protective relationship, but the wide confidence interval (0.057–1.146) reflects considerable uncertainty. The p-value of 0.001 indicates a statistically significant association between serum magnesium levels and cosmetics use. The odds ratio (0.103) indicates that individuals with high magnesium levels are less likely to be non-users, suggesting an association between cosmetic use and elevated magnesium. Table 2 Relationships between serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium, and cosmetic use via binary linear logistic regression Parameter Sig (p-value) Exp (B) 95% C.I for EXP (B) Lower Upper Urea 0.696 0.992 0.955 1.031 Creatinine 0.075 0.257 0.057 1.146 Magnesium 0.001* 0.103 0.027 0.390 Where * indicates clinical significance. Table 3 shows the effects of cosmetic duration on the serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium. The result revealed that the serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium in the cosmetic users ranged from 36.84 ± 12.35–54.65 ± 6.84 mg/dL, 0.63 ± 0.27–1.01 ± 0.30 mg/dL and 2.10 ± 0.41–2.60 ± 0.63 mg/dL respectively. The levels of these serum parameters in individuals who had used cosmetic products for three or more years were significantly (p < 0.05) greater than those in individuals who had used cosmetic products for a shorter duration. Table 3 Effect of cosmetic duration usage on serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium Parameter Duration of usage 1 year 2 years 3 years or more Urea (mg/dL) 36.84 ± 12.35 a 42.47 ± 10.54 a 54.65 ± 6.84 b Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.63 ± 0.27 a 0.69 ± 0.22 a 1.01 ± 0.30 b Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.10 ± .41 a 2.30 ± 0.29 a 2.60 ± 0.63 b The data are presented as the means ± standard deviations. Values in the same row with different alphabetic superscripts are significantly (p < 0.0) different. where a= (p < 0.02) and b= (p < 0.01). DISCUSSION This study investigated the biochemical implications of cosmetic use by analyzing serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels among female undergraduates. While age differences between users and non-users were not significant, cosmetic use was associated with statistically significant increases in all three serum biomarkers, suggesting possible physiological effects. Urea levels were significantly elevated in cosmetic users (45.97 ± 12.49 mg/dL vs. 40.67 ± 10.99 mg/dL; p = 0.015). Urea is often included in cosmetics for its moisturizing and exfoliating properties but may be absorbed transdermally [ 4 ] . Though typically considered safe [ 5 ] , chronic exposure might burden renal clearance pathways, especially when combined with increased protein metabolism [ 6 ] . Creatinine levels were also higher in users (0.78 ± 0.34 mg/dL) than non-users (0.59 ± 0.28 mg/dL; p = 0.001). Creatinine reflects glomerular filtration and renal function, and elevated levels may indicate early renal stress [ 7 ] . This may result from exposure to nephrotoxic substances like parabens, phthalates, and heavy metals found in some cosmetic products [ 8 ] . Magnesium levels showed the greatest disparity, with users exhibiting significantly higher levels (2.30 ± 0.56 mg/dL vs. 1.92 ± 0.31 mg/dL; p < 0.001). Magnesium-based ingredients (e.g., magnesium stearate and sulfate) are widely used in cosmetics [ 9 ] . While dermal exposure is generally safe, systemic absorption over time, particularly with compromised skin may lead to elevated serum levels and potential complications [ 10 ] . Logistic regression analysis further clarified these associations. Only magnesium remained significantly associated with cosmetic use ( p = 0.001), suggesting it as a reliable biochemical marker of exposure. Creatinine approached significance ( p = 0.075), while urea did not ( p = 0.696), possibly due to dietary and metabolic confounders [ 6 ] . A time-dependent analysis revealed that duration of cosmetic use strongly correlated with increasing biomarker levels. Urea rose from 36.84 mg/dL in one-year users to 54.65 mg/dL in those with three or more years of use ( p < 0.01), suggesting cumulative systemic absorption (Man et al., 2020). Similarly, creatinine rose with usage duration, from 0.63 mg/dL (1 year) to 1.01 mg/dL (≥ 3 years), possibly indicating declining glomerular function over time. Magnesium levels also rose progressively, reinforcing concerns about bioaccumulation and mineral imbalance [ 10 ] . Overall, these findings align with literature showing that long-term exposure to endocrine-disrupting and nephrotoxic agents in cosmetics may affect renal biomarkers and systemic physiology [ 11 ] . The study underscores the importance of tighter regulation and public awareness regarding cosmetic ingredients and potential systemic effects. CONCLUSION The findings from this study underscore the potential health risks associated with long-term and frequent use of cosmetic products, particularly in relation to renal function biomarkers. Elevated serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among cosmetic users suggest that chronic dermal exposure to certain cosmetic ingredients such as urea, parabens, phthalates, and magnesium compounds may contribute to early renal stress or systemic bioaccumulation. These biochemical alterations were more pronounced with increasing duration of cosmetic use, indicating a possible dose-dependent relationship. Given the widespread and routine use of cosmetic products, especially among young women, these results raise public health concerns. Many consumers are unaware of the potential toxicological implications of the chemicals in the products they apply daily. This calls for greater vigilance from both consumers and regulatory agencies. End users should be educated to scrutinize ingredient labels and limit prolonged exposure to potentially harmful compounds. Meanwhile, regulatory bodies in Nigeria and similar contexts must enforce stricter controls over the formulation and labeling of cosmetic products, ensuring that manufacturers adhere to safety standards that protect human health. Ultimately, the responsibility for minimizing risk lies with both producers who must prioritize safer formulations and authorities, who must implement and enforce comprehensive cosmetic safety regulations. Further research with larger and more diverse populations is recommended to explore the long-term systemic effects of cosmetic ingredients, particularly their cumulative impact on renal and metabolic health. Limitations of the study i. Limited generalizability : The study population was restricted to female undergraduate students from a single university in Nigeria. As a result, the findings may not be generalizable to broader populations with different sociodemographic or geographical backgrounds. ii. Cross-sectional design : The study employed a cross-sectional approach, which captures data at a single point in time. As such, it cannot establish a causal relationship between cosmetic use and elevated serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium. Longitudinal studies are necessary to confirm causality and track changes over time. iii. Potential influence of other environmental exposures : Participants might have been exposed to other environmental or occupational nephrotoxic substances outside of cosmetics, which were not evaluated or controlled for in this study. RECOMMENDATION There is a need for regulatory agencies to monitor the use of toxic chemicals in the production of cosmetic products within Nigeria. Additionally, laboratory diagnosis of biochemical parameters such as magnesium should be performed alongside other electrolytes in routine tests for kidney function so as to ensure proper patient management and well-being and to check for mineral imbalance. Furthermore, awareness programs should be organized to educate people on the effects of long-term cosmetics use on the kidneys, risk factors and how to seek medical attention among many others. Declarations Conflicts of interest/competing interests I declare that the authors have no competing interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper. Ethical approval Ethical approval was obtained from Health Research Ethic Committee (HREC) Edo University Iyamho ethical approval Committee, Edo state. Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all the participants, in accordance with Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000, voluntariness and confidentiality were maintained throughout the study. Funding The study was not funded or sponsored. Author Contribution IEU: Conception, design of the work, wrote the manuscript, analysis, and interpretation of data.MFO: Design of the work, acquisition, drafted the work and substantively revised the workP.O: Acquisition, interpretation of data and reviewed the workE.A.E: Literature review, data analysis, interpretation of data, and reviewed the workI.P.A: Literature review, interpretation of data revised the work Data Availability Data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to reasons of sensitivity and confidentiality, and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Engwa GA, Ferdinand PU, Nwalo FN, Unachukwu MN. (2019). Mechanism and health effects of heavy metal toxicity in humans. In O. Karcioglu & B. Arslan, editors, Poisoning in the modern world—New tricks for an old dog? (pp. 77–99). IntechOpen. Horii Y, Tanida M, Shen J, Fujisaki Y, Fuyuki R, Hashimoto K, Niijima A, Nakashima T, Nagai K. Skin application of urea-containing cream affected cutaneous arterial sympathetic nerve activity, blood flow, and water evaporation. Skin Res Technol. 2011;17(1):75–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0846.2010.00469.x . Balali-Mood M, Naseri K, Tahergorabi Z, Khazdair MR, Sadeghi M. Toxic mechanisms of five heavy metals: Mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:643972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.643972 . Pan TL, Wang PW, Aljuffali IA, Huang CT, Fang JY. Dermal absorption and toxicology of cosmetic ingredients: A review. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14(2):145. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14020145 . Draelos ZD. Cosmetic Dermatology: Products and Procedures. 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2018. Sabatine MS. Pocket Medicine: The Massachusetts General Hospital Handbook of Internal Medicine. 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012. Gowda S, Desai PB, Kulkarni SS, Hull VV, Math AAK, Vernekar SN. Markers of renal function tests. North Am J Med Sci. 2010;2(4):170–3. https://doi.org/10.4297/najms.2010.2170 . Giulivo M, Lopez de Alda M, Capri E, Barceló D. Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds: Their role in reproductive systems, metabolic syndrome and breast cancer. Environ Res. 2016;151:251–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.011 . Yang B, Man MQ, Elias PM, Man MQ. Applications of magnesium compounds in skin care: A review. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2020;19(3):648–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.13215 . Pham PCT, Pham PMT, Pham SV, Miller JM, Pham PTT. Hypomagnesemia in patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(5):744–53. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.10091013 . Mínguez-Alarcón L, Gaskins AJ, Chiu YH, Messerlian C, Williams PL, Hauser R. Urinary concentrations of parabens and reproductive outcomes among women from a fertility center. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124(4):481–7. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409588 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6757427","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":475968159,"identity":"b2586d85-0c8b-4a31-ac87-f7be2d387545","order_by":0,"name":"Ijeoma Evangeline Umeche","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABW0lEQVRIie2QMWvCQBSAXwjEDhddU9T6F04CKaXS/JUTIV3SViiIg0NAiEuKa4TS9ifYxTnhaCbRrUQCxe4OFqG0g7aXKGgwOBeaD+7e4+4+3nsHkJLyR+HZQpwRpk2IohPmAmz3A8pwVxEOK2s4c63AtsC+gl+pu6g3ocB32i/974dKsStduRQ139RsycIwb1A4zT3FlECr5e0ha8zytMndQJN79jWhaHhbNQWEOXtE4cyexhVd4UWTKbau+OKAVvu+jt2eSYjAFHZFAftOXLn55MUVUx5nymR5/7NRVkSNlGWSogu8aIRVkBKIhhMpzodBuLAxnguVsbGrHAeanEeexGbRtKDg1eSeNcPO3CNsFq3uWqNLhP3Yj2WD2vsCtSpquUO9yax1UexmdHlOWkQttenz9KtxfoLHscY2SFA29k+PcPgWgUQSFIBSwllmuo65pCopKSkp/4df139+3R793dUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Edo State University Iyahmo","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ijeoma","middleName":"Evangeline","lastName":"Umeche","suffix":""},{"id":475968160,"identity":"6e007d8e-d1eb-45e1-aa0f-5fe6cc235c68","order_by":1,"name":"Matthew Folaranmi Olaniyan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Edo State University Iyahmo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Matthew","middleName":"Folaranmi","lastName":"Olaniyan","suffix":""},{"id":475968161,"identity":"35cded99-80a4-4b00-8bde-e60f0df88d55","order_by":2,"name":"Phebean Onosen Ozolua","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Edo State University Iyahmo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Phebean","middleName":"Onosen","lastName":"Ozolua","suffix":""},{"id":475968162,"identity":"53ee3ccf-2f64-48c4-9d41-25d651b383b1","order_by":3,"name":"Ebuka Anthony Emekwisie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ahmadu Bello University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ebuka","middleName":"Anthony","lastName":"Emekwisie","suffix":""},{"id":475968163,"identity":"1a5fd683-588e-4f8b-b84b-fb3b8611d28a","order_by":4,"name":"Ighovie-Efe Praise Akpoesiri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Edo State University Iyahmo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ighovie-Efe","middleName":"Praise","lastName":"Akpoesiri","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-27 08:53:39","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":92910400,"identity":"359e2624-49fb-4dff-a529-c9d68b8c66e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 03:16:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":675283,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6757427/v1/fea0c8d8-d212-4cf0-b4f1-9ca59e679fa6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAssessment of Serum Urea, Creatinine and Magnesium of Female Undergraduate Students Using Cosmetics in Edo State University, Iyamho\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eCosmetics are widely used across the globe, particularly among women, due to their perceived benefits in enhancing physical appearance and self-esteem. These products are composed of a wide array of chemical substances derived from both natural and synthetic sources. While generally considered safe when properly regulated, emerging evidence suggests that prolonged or excessive use of certain cosmetic products may lead to adverse health effects, especially due to the presence of potentially harmful chemical additives \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the various health concerns linked to cosmetic use is the potential for renal dysfunction. Some cosmetic formulations include magnesium-containing compounds such as magnesium sulfate and magnesium stearate, which, when absorbed systemically in large quantities, may disrupt electrolyte balance and contribute to kidney impairment \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, urea, a common ingredient in moisturizers and exfoliating products due to its hydrating and keratolytic properties, can influence serum urea levels when absorbed in excess through the skin \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Elevated serum urea and creatinine levels are well-established biomarkers of impaired kidney function and may signal early signs of renal stress or damage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the growing popularity of cosmetics and the limited local data on their systemic effects, especially in young female populations, there is a need to investigate potential renal implications associated with long-term cosmetic use. This study, therefore, aims to assess serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among female undergraduate students at Edo State University Uzairue who use cosmetic products, in order to evaluate any possible health risks related to kidney function.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis was a cross-sectional comparative study involving female undergraduate students using and not using cosmetic products in Edo State University Iyamho.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy population\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e A total of 199 female undergraduate students at Edo State University Iyamho, who provided their consent were recruited for the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eINCLUSION CRITERIA\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e Individuals who provided informed consent, female undergraduate students associated with long-term cosmetic use and individuals without a history of kidney disease, were included.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEXCLUSION CRITERIA\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividuals with a history of kidney disease, individuals who withdrew their consent, and individuals currently on any medication or supplementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was conducted using SPSS v 25. Independent t-tests and binary logistic regression were used, with significance set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the age and serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium of the participants in the test and control groups. The results revealed that age and the serum urea, creatinine and magnesium contents ranged from 19.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.57\u0026ndash;20.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.16 years, 40.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.99\u0026ndash;45.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.49 mg/dL, 0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u0026ndash;0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34 mg/dL, and 1.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u0026ndash;2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56 mg/dL respe tively. The test participants had significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) higher serum urea, creatinine and magnesium levels than did the control participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge, urea, creatinine and magnesium levels of test and control participants\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.16\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.57\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.49\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.99\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreatinine (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.000*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data are presented as the means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations. Values in the same row with different alphabetic superscripts are significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) different. where a= (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), b= (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), and * indicates clinical significance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e: Table showing the relationships between the serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium, and the use of cosmetics, as analyzed via binary linear logistic regression. The p-value of 0.696 indicates that serum urea levels do not significantly predict cosmetic use. The odds ratio (Exp(B)) of 0.992 suggests a minimal effect, with the confidence interval (0.955\u0026ndash;1.031) crossing 1, confirming that there is no significant association. The p-value of 0.075 suggests a marginal but not statistically significant association between serum creatinine levels and cosmetic use. The odds ratio (0.257) implies a potentially protective relationship, but the wide confidence interval (0.057\u0026ndash;1.146) reflects considerable uncertainty. The p-value of 0.001 indicates a statistically significant association between serum magnesium levels and cosmetics use. The odds ratio (0.103) indicates that individuals with high magnesium levels are less likely to be non-users, suggesting an association between cosmetic use and elevated magnesium.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRelationships between serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium, and cosmetic use via binary linear logistic regression\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig (p-value)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExp (B)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% C.I for EXP (B)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.696\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.992\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.955\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreatinine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.257\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.390\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e indicates clinical significance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the effects of cosmetic duration on the serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium. The result revealed that the serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium in the cosmetic users ranged from 36.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.35\u0026ndash;54.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.84 mg/dL, 0.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u0026ndash;1.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30 mg/dL and 2.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u0026ndash;2.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63 mg/dL respectively. The levels of these serum parameters in individuals who had used cosmetic products for three or more years were significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) greater than those in individuals who had used cosmetic products for a shorter duration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of cosmetic duration usage on serum levels of urea, creatinine and magnesium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of usage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 years or more\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.35\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.54\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.84\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreatinine (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.30\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium (mg/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.63\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data are presented as the means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviations. Values in the same row with different alphabetic superscripts are significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0) different. where a= (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.02) and b= (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the biochemical implications of cosmetic use by analyzing serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels among female undergraduates. While age differences between users and non-users were not significant, cosmetic use was associated with statistically significant increases in all three serum biomarkers, suggesting possible physiological effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea levels were significantly elevated in cosmetic users (45.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.49 mg/dL vs. 40.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.99 mg/dL; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). Urea is often included in cosmetics for its moisturizing and exfoliating properties but may be absorbed transdermally \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Though typically considered safe \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, chronic exposure might burden renal clearance pathways, especially when combined with increased protein metabolism \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreatinine levels were also higher in users (0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34 mg/dL) than non-users (0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28 mg/dL; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Creatinine reflects glomerular filtration and renal function, and elevated levels may indicate early renal stress \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This may result from exposure to nephrotoxic substances like parabens, phthalates, and heavy metals found in some cosmetic products \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium levels showed the greatest disparity, with users exhibiting significantly higher levels (2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56 mg/dL vs. 1.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31 mg/dL; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Magnesium-based ingredients (e.g., magnesium stearate and sulfate) are widely used in cosmetics \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. While dermal exposure is generally safe, systemic absorption over time, particularly with compromised skin may lead to elevated serum levels and potential complications \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLogistic regression analysis further clarified these associations. Only magnesium remained significantly associated with cosmetic use (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), suggesting it as a reliable biochemical marker of exposure. Creatinine approached significance (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.075), while urea did not (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.696), possibly due to dietary and metabolic confounders \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA time-dependent analysis revealed that duration of cosmetic use strongly correlated with increasing biomarker levels. Urea rose from 36.84 mg/dL in one-year users to 54.65 mg/dL in those with three or more years of use (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), suggesting cumulative systemic absorption (Man et al., 2020). Similarly, creatinine rose with usage duration, from 0.63 mg/dL (1 year) to 1.01 mg/dL (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3 years), possibly indicating declining glomerular function over time. Magnesium levels also rose progressively, reinforcing concerns about bioaccumulation and mineral imbalance \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, these findings align with literature showing that long-term exposure to endocrine-disrupting and nephrotoxic agents in cosmetics may affect renal biomarkers and systemic physiology \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The study underscores the importance of tighter regulation and public awareness regarding cosmetic ingredients and potential systemic effects.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study underscore the potential health risks associated with long-term and frequent use of cosmetic products, particularly in relation to renal function biomarkers. Elevated serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among cosmetic users suggest that chronic dermal exposure to certain cosmetic ingredients such as urea, parabens, phthalates, and magnesium compounds may contribute to early renal stress or systemic bioaccumulation. These biochemical alterations were more pronounced with increasing duration of cosmetic use, indicating a possible dose-dependent relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the widespread and routine use of cosmetic products, especially among young women, these results raise public health concerns. Many consumers are unaware of the potential toxicological implications of the chemicals in the products they apply daily. This calls for greater vigilance from both consumers and regulatory agencies. End users should be educated to scrutinize ingredient labels and limit prolonged exposure to potentially harmful compounds. Meanwhile, regulatory bodies in Nigeria and similar contexts must enforce stricter controls over the formulation and labeling of cosmetic products, ensuring that manufacturers adhere to safety standards that protect human health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltimately, the responsibility for minimizing risk lies with both producers who must prioritize safer formulations and authorities, who must implement and enforce comprehensive cosmetic safety regulations. Further research with larger and more diverse populations is recommended to explore the long-term systemic effects of cosmetic ingredients, particularly their cumulative impact on renal and metabolic health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLimitations of the study\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ei. \u003cb\u003eLimited generalizability\u003c/b\u003e: The study population was restricted to female undergraduate students from a single university in Nigeria. As a result, the findings may not be generalizable to broader populations with different sociodemographic or geographical backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eii. \u003cb\u003eCross-sectional design\u003c/b\u003e: The study employed a cross-sectional approach, which captures data at a single point in time. As such, it cannot establish a causal relationship between cosmetic use and elevated serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium. Longitudinal studies are necessary to confirm causality and track changes over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eiii. \u003cb\u003ePotential influence of other environmental exposures\u003c/b\u003e: Participants might have been exposed to other environmental or occupational nephrotoxic substances outside of cosmetics, which were not evaluated or controlled for in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRECOMMENDATION\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a need for regulatory agencies to monitor the use of toxic chemicals in the production of cosmetic products within Nigeria. Additionally, laboratory diagnosis of biochemical parameters such as magnesium should be performed alongside other electrolytes in routine tests for kidney function so as to\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eensure proper patient management and well-being and to check for mineral imbalance. Furthermore, awareness programs should be organized to educate people on the effects of long-term cosmetics use on the kidneys, risk factors and how to seek medical attention among many others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of interest/competing interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI declare that the authors have no competing interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthical approval\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval was obtained from Health Research Ethic Committee (HREC) Edo University Iyamho ethical approval Committee, Edo state.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all the participants, in accordance with Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000, voluntariness and confidentiality were maintained throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was not funded or sponsored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIEU: Conception, design of the work, wrote the manuscript, analysis, and interpretation of data.MFO: Design of the work, acquisition, drafted the work and substantively revised the workP.O: Acquisition, interpretation of data and reviewed the workE.A.E: Literature review, data analysis, interpretation of data, and reviewed the workI.P.A: Literature review, interpretation of data revised the work\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to reasons of sensitivity and confidentiality, and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEngwa GA, Ferdinand PU, Nwalo FN, Unachukwu MN. 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Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(5):744\u0026ndash;53. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.10091013\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2215/CJN.10091013\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eM\u0026iacute;nguez-Alarc\u0026oacute;n L, Gaskins AJ, Chiu YH, Messerlian C, Williams PL, Hauser R. Urinary concentrations of parabens and reproductive outcomes among women from a fertility center. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124(4):481\u0026ndash;7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409588\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1289/ehp.1409588\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"cosmetics, toxins, chemicals, urea, creatinine","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCosmetics are increasingly popular among people, particularly women, due to their ability to enhance physical appearance and boost confidence. These products are composed of chemical compounds derived from either natural or synthetic sources. However, several studies have revealed that some cosmetics may contain toxic chemicals with potential negative health effects, including kidney-related risks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjectives:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess the serum levels of urea, creatinine, and magnesium among female undergraduate students using cosmetic products at Edo State University Uzairue.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 199 female participants were recruited and categorized into two groups: the test group (cosmetic product users) and the control group (non-users). Blood samples were collected intravenously and placed in lithium heparin containers. The samples were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 3 minutes to obtain plasma. Serum urea was determined using the Urease-Berthelot\u0026rsquo;s method, creatinine using the Jaffe-Slot method, and magnesium using the Xylidyl Blue method. All assays were performed spectrophotometrically following standard protocols.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCosmetic users had significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) higher serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels compared to non-users. Binary logistic regression indicated that individuals with elevated levels of these parameters were less likely to be non-cosmetic users, with odds ratios of 0.992 for urea, 0.257 for creatinine, and 0.103 for magnesium. Additionally, individuals who had used cosmetics for three or more years had significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) higher serum parameter levels than those with shorter usage durations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term use of cosmetic products may negatively impact kidney function and pose risks to overall health, as indicated by elevated serum urea, creatinine, and magnesium levels in users. Users should be vigilant about the active ingredients in cosmetic products. Public awareness campaigns are necessary to educate the population on the health risks associated with prolonged cosmetic use, particularly regarding kidney health. Regulatory agencies should enhance monitoring and control over the use of potentially toxic chemicals in cosmetic manufacturing in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of Serum Urea, Creatinine and Magnesium of Female Undergraduate Students Using Cosmetics in Edo State University, Iyamho","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-26 08:03:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6757427/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7c1824b3-aaa7-41f8-8262-5a9c0f454b5c","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-07T03:08:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-26 08:03:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6757427","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6757427","identity":"rs-6757427","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}