Analysis of kidney stones using Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) to determine the concentrations of elements

Analysis of kidney stones using Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) to determine the concentrations of elements | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Analysis of kidney stones using Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) to determine the concentrations of elements Safa Raheem, Sami Habana, Alaa H. Ali This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The chemical structure of kidney stones was studied using single pulse laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (SP-LIBS). This approach present the use of a high-resolution (CCD) spectrometer that covered a spectrum range of 165-820nm with an optical resolution of 0.5nm. The kidney stones were stimulated by a passively Q-Switch Nd:YAG laser operating at a pulse duration of 10 ns and a fundamental wavelength of 1,064nm. The electron temperature (Te) and plasma density (ne) for the SP-LIBS system were investigated for all elements in the sample. A novel statistical method was employed to calculate the concentration of each element. This technique presented a straight forward and efficient approach for estimating the rate of concentration for each element. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy Kidney stones Plasma parameters Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Kidney stones are concretions that develop in the kidneys as a result of the accumulation of minerals and salts found in urine. Renal calculi can exhibit a range of dimensions and elicit intense discomfort during their traversal through the urinary system [ 1 ]. The presence of specific substances, including calcium, oxalate, and uric acid, can play a role in the development of kidney stones [ 2 ]. Dehydration, dietary choices, genetic factors, and specific medical conditions can also elevate the likelihood of developing kidney stones [ 3 ]. The analysis of kidney stone compounds can be performed using various techniques, including Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Computed Tomography (CT) scan, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for identifying chemical bonds and functional groups, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Raman spectroscopy. The feasibility of employing Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) as a method for analyzing kidney stones has been investigated. The LIBS technology, depicted in Fig. (1), is a spectroscopic technique that utilizes a high peak power laser to generate plasma on the sample's surface. The resulting broad spectrum emitted by the plasma is subsequently analyzed to ascertain the elemental composition of the material [ 6 ]. Multiple studies have investigated the application of LIBS for the identification and characterization of kidney stones. The studies have primarily concentrated on examining the elemental composition of the stones, which can offer insights into their chemical makeup and assist in comprehending their origin and potential approaches for treatment. The use of SP-LIBS has demonstrated potential in distinguishing between various types of kidney stones by analyzing their elemental composition. Analysis utilizing the LIBS technique was employed to differentiate between calcium oxalate monohydrate and calcium oxalate dihydrate stones, which exhibit distinct crystal structures and properties. Additionally, it has been employed to distinguish calcium-based stones from uric acid stones by analyzing their elemental compositions [ 7 ][ 8 ]. The benefit of using LIBS for analyzing kidney stones is its non-destructive nature, quick analysis time, and potential for on-site analysis. In addition, LIBS has the capability to offer both qualitative and quantitative data on multiple elements concurrently [ 9 ][ 10 ]. The advantages of SP-LIBS, particularly in terms of sample quantity and preparation, as well as the capability to perform simultaneous elemental analysis and classification of kidney stones, are discussed in comparison to other analytical techniques like XRD and XRF. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that although SP-LIBS exhibit potential, it remains a nascent technique in the realm of kidney stone analysis. Additional investigation is required to enhance the LIBS parameters, establish standardized analytical protocols, and verify the outcomes against established techniques such as infrared spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction [ 11 ][ 12 ][ 13 ]. Experimental setup Passively Q-switch Nd:YAG with fundamental wavelength 1064 nm was employed at 100 mJ laser pulse energy and 10 ns pulse width. The laser radiations were focused via (100 mm) double-sided convex quartz lens onto a certain location on the kidney stone to produce the plasma, using an optical quartz convex lens with (5 mm) focal length Fig. (2) . The test sample was fixed on a base of laser holder. The light emitted by the plasma plume was collected by a miniature lens fixed inside the head of multimode silica fiber optic. This fiber optic was located at a suitable distance (100mm) relative to the laser generated plasma plume. The plasma emission was collected at 45◦ angle as an optimum angle relative to the stone. The plasma emission was transmitted through fiber optics to a CCD spectrometer model (UVA800-Mux) with spectrum range (165-800nm) and (0.5nm) optical resolution; A SpectroGryph1.2 spectroscope software had use to record and analyst the optical emission spectrum, Fig. (3) show the experiment setup.. Plasma parameter The plasma parameter typically refers to describe the behavior of plasma, which is a state of matter composed of charged particles; the basic plasma parameters are calculated assuming Local Thermal Equilibrium (LTE) of the formed plasma, these parameters provide the basis for knowing the concentrations of elements in the plasma dome [ 14 ][ 15 ][ 16 ]. Electron Temperature (T e ) The electron temperature refers to the characteristic temperature of the plasma formed during the laser-induced breakdown process. It provides insights into the thermodynamic properties of the plasma and is an important parameter for understanding the excitation and emission processes occurring in LIBS [ 17 ]. The electron temperature in plasma spectroscopy is typically determined through spectroscopic measurements [ 18 ]. When the laser pulse interacts with the sample, it generates a plasma plume consisting of highly energetic electrons. These electrons collide with atoms and ions in the plasma, causing excitation and emission of light at characteristic wavelengths. By analyzing the intensity ratios of specific spectral lines emitted by the plasma, it is possible to estimate the electron temperature [ 19 ]. It is important to note that the electron temperature in LIBS can vary depending on several factors, including laser parameters (e.g., energy, pulse duration), sample composition, and experimental conditions. Additionally, the electron temperature may not be uniform throughout the plasma plume, and spatial variations can occur. Overall, the determination of the electron temperature in LIBS is a valuable tool for understanding the plasma dynamics and excitation mechanisms in the laser-induced breakdown process. The plasma temperature of stone sample was calculated using Saha equation [ 20 ]. \({T_e}=\frac{{({E_2} - {E_1})}}{{K\ln (\frac{{I\lambda }}{{{A_{ki}}{g_k}}})}}\) -------- (1) Where T e : electron Temperature unit K, E 1 : lower state of energy E 2 : upper state of energy I: line intensity, g 2 : statistical weight, K: Boltzmann constant, A ki : represents the transition probability. This requires the plasma to be in the state of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE). Electron density (n e ) The electron density refers to the concentration of free electrons present in the plasma generated during the breakdown process. The electron density is an important parameter that provides insights into the plasma's properties, such as its excitation and ionization state, as well as its ability to emit and absorb radiation. It is important to note that the electron density in LIBS can vary spatially and temporally within the plasma plume. Factors such as the laser parameters, sample composition, and experimental conditions can influence the electron density distribution [ 21 ]. In conclusion, determining the electron density in LIBS is essential for understanding the plasma properties and its interaction with the sample. While it can be challenging due to the dynamic nature of the plasma, various techniques and methods can be employed to estimate the electron density based on experimental measurements. These measurements contribute to the interpretation of LIBS spectra and aid in the quantification of elemental concentrations in samples. In most papers the McWhirter criterion has been widely used to justify the existence of LTE [ 22 ]. This can be mathematically represented as. \({n}_{e}\ge 1.6\times {10}^{12}{T}^{\raisebox{1ex}{$1$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.}{\left(\varDelta E\right)}^{3}\) ------ (2) Results and Discussion The characterization of the laser-produced-plasma, we measured the spectral lines under laser flounce by scanning the spectrometer in the (165–800 nm) region and after optimization of all parameters like focusing of incident laser beam, optimum collection of plasma emission, gate width and delay-time. After achieving the optimal experimental conditions, the SP-LIBS spectra were recorded. The identification of the atomic transition lines was carried out using NIST spectral database. As clear from Fig. (4) Figure (4) LIBS spectra of a kidney stone The spectral marker lines of these elements were used for the calibration and quantifications of these elements. This identified spectrum is due to emission of the neutral or singly ionized transitions of Iron (Fe), Silicon (Si), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), Sodium (Na) and Oxygen (O). The presence of (Na, Si, K and Ca) atomic lines in the spectra proves our prediction of the existence of as most of the constituents in the kidney stones. The percentage concentration of various elements in kidney stones was calculated via using a modern statistical method that was applied by us for the first time. The electron temperature (T e ) and then the plasma density (n e ) were calculated for each spectral line to calculate the total plasma density (N eT ) for all emission lines and found the construction of each element, This technique gave easy and simple method to calculate concentration rate of each element in the sample with higher accuracy and error rate less than 8.45%.. Table (1) Data of the Spectral Lines for the Examined kidney stone sample No element Wavelength(nm) intensit E i (ev) E k (ev) A ki (s -1 ) g k T e (K) n e (cm -3 ) Mean T e Mean n e 1 CaII 393.55 39919 40.352 43.506 1.21e+07 5 27146.05 8.27E+15 8617.8 1.02E+16 422.84 16115 43.074 46.005 2.9e+08 9 5718.47 3.04E+15 430.39 4332.5 43.506 46.387 3.1e+08 7 4736.08 2.63E+15 487.98 1076.1 2.709 5.249 1.88e+07 7 5336.19 1.91E+15 526.74 4060.4 2.521 4.876 1.5e+07 3 8971.05 1.97E+15 535.01 784.14 42.540 44.856 5.6e+07 3 4485.04 1.33E+15 559.22 4919.9 2.522 4.738 3.8e+07 5 6072.47 1.35E+15 370.7 2990.8 3.123 6.467 8.8e+07 2 7658.31 5.2E+15 373.76 5139.5 3.150 6.467 1.7e+08 2 7436.76 5.03E+15 2 MgII 280.44 168.03 0.000 4.422 2.57e+08 2 5519.61 1.02E+16 5671.01 5.95E+15 518.18 2766.4 2.716 5.107 5.61e+07 3 5822.41 1.66E+15 3 FeII 249.17 165.99 7.945 12.920 1.1e+07 6 7828.32 1.74E+16 7828.32 1.74E+16 4 NaII 251.64 89.051 36.354 41.282 2.25e+07 5 6711.36 1.56E+16 21361.02 1.42E+16 261.11 57.756 6.354 41.100 2.2e+08 5 36010.67 1.27E+16 5 KII 399.93 2122.4 39.395 42.495 1.76e+08 6 5048.35 3.38E+15 3.37E+04 5.18E+15 404.79 869.63 0.000 3.062 1.07e+06 2 19687.96 6.44E+15 480.2 1493.4 1.617 4.197 1.6e+05 6 102651.21 8.80E+15 500.66 14071 20.238 22.714 1.11e+08 3 7452.01 2.09E+15 6 SI 415.19 496.3 6.860 9.845 1.48e+06 3 11282.74 4.52E+15 11282.74 4.52E+15 7 SiI 221.85 187.7 0.027 5.615 1.09e+07 5 9035.77 2.65E+16 1.45E+04 1.34E+16 262.98 1191.5 13.092 17.807 1.21e+06 4 19988.98 3.58E+14 8 CII 723.76 128.26 16.333 18.045 4.18e+07 6 2514.37 4.02E+14 2514.37 4.02E+14 9 OII 777.69 1987.9 28.856 30.471 2.29e+06 2 17257.09 8.85E+14 9.90E+03 5.38E+15 407.81 1790.9 25.638 28.677 5.21e+07 4 6237.95 3.54E+15 273.47 182.29 25.285 29.820 5.93e+07 4 6215.26 1.17E+16 Table (2) Calculate the concentration of each spectral line for the kidney stone elements No element N eT Concentration (%) 1 Ca 1.57E+17 12 2 Mg 7.5 3 Fe 11 6 Na 18 7 K 13 8 S 2.8 9 Si 17 10 C 0.25 11 O 10 Total (%) 91.55 Total error rate (%) 8.45 Conclusion Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is applicable for the analysis of kidney stones. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a method that utilizes a powerful laser to evaporate a small section of the kidney stone, resulting in the formation of plasma. The light emitted by this plasma is subsequently examined to ascertain the elemental composition of the stone. This technique facilitates the identification of the chemical composition of the kidney stone, thereby assisting in comprehending its formation and ascertaining suitable treatment alternatives. The detection of atomic lines from (Na, Si, K, and Ca) in the spectra confirms our hypothesis regarding the composition of kidney stones, as these elements are found to be the primary constituents. The utilization of Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy technology offers a suitable method for addressing kidney stones. The single-pulse laser offers a convenient method for analyzing and diagnosing all components of the sample. This is because the technology will mitigate any alterations to the physical characteristics of the model caused by repetitive laser pulses. By manipulating the integration time of the spectrometer during the recording of emission lines, we enhance our capability to obtain the optimal spectrum using the single pulse technique. The statistical technique entailed calculating the plasma density ratios of the elements to determine the concentration ratios of elements in the sample. The approach involved assessing the main plasma parameters while assuming local thermal equilibrium, resulting in satisfactory and acceptable results. Declarations Author Contribution Safa 50%Sami 25%Alaa 25% References K. F. Test, “Dldar Salih Ismahil.” Polytechnic University, (2022). S. Gupta and S. K. Shamsher, “Kidney stones: Mechanism of formation, pathogenesis and possible treatments,” J. Biomol. Biochem , vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–5, (2018). N. H. Sofia, T. M. Walter, and T. Sanatorium, “Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone,” Glob. J. Res. Anal. , vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 183–187, (2016). A. K. Mukherjee, “Human kidney stone analysis using X-ray powder diffraction,” J. Indian Inst. Sci. , vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 35–44, (2014). A. Basiri, M. Taheri, and F. Taheri, “What is the state of the stone analysis techniques in urolithiasis?,” Urol. J. , vol. 9, no. 2, p. 445, (2012). X. Hou and B. T. Jones, “Inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectrometry,” Encyclopedia of analytical chemistry , vol. 2000. John Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK, pp. 9468–9485, (2000). V. K. Singh, B. S. Jaswal, J. Sharma, and P. K. Rai, “Analysis of stones formed in the human gall bladder and kidney using advanced spectroscopic techniques,” Biophys. Rev. , vol. 12, pp. 647–668, (2020). G. Deshpande et al. , “Detection of the mineral constituents in human renal calculi by vibrational spectroscopic analysis combined with allied techniques powder XRD, TGA, SEM, IR imaging and TXRF,” Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. , vol. 270, p. 120867, (2022). A. Kumar, L. Phagna, S. Rawat, and N. Gupta, “Analysis of Gall Bladder & Kidney Stone Using Spectroscopic Technique: A Review,” in 2023 4th International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication (ICSPC) , IEEE, pp. 11–15, (2023). M. A. Almessiere, R. Altuwiriqi, M. A. Gondal, R. K. AlDakheel, and H. F. Alotaibi, “Qualitative and quantitative analysis of human nails to find correlation between nutrients and vitamin D deficiency using LIBS and ICP-AES,” Talanta , vol. 185, pp. 61–70, (2018). A. Kubala‐Kukuś et al. , “Application of TXRF and XRPD techniques for analysis of elemental and chemical composition of human kidney stones,” X‐Ray Spectrom. , vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 412–420, (2017). B. G. Oztoprak et al. , “Analysis and classification of heterogeneous kidney stones using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS),” Appl. Spectrosc. , vol. 66, no. 11, pp. 1353–1361, (2012). J. Kaiser et al. , “Trace elemental analysis by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy—Biological applications,” Surf. Sci. Rep. , vol. 67, no. 11–12, pp. 233–243, (2012). O. Barthélemy et al. , “Investigation of the state of local thermodynamic equilibrium of a laser-produced aluminum plasma,” Appl. Spectrosc. , vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 529–536, (2005). R. Fitzpatrick, Plasma physics: an introduction . Crc Press, (2022). S. Ichimaru, Basic principles of plasma physics: a statistical approach . CRC Press, (2018). F. J. Fortes, J. Moros, P. Lucena, L. M. Cabalín, and J. J. Laserna, “Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy,” Anal. Chem. , vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 640–669, (2013). H.-J. Kunze, Introduction to plasma spectroscopy , vol. 56. Springer Science & Business Media, (2009). R. Noll and R. Noll, Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy . Springer, (2012). S. T. Islam, W. Ma, J. G. Michopoulos, and K. Wang, “Fluid-solid coupled simulation of hypervelocity impact and plasma formation,” Int. J. Impact Eng. , p. 104695, (2023). K. Elsayed, W. Tawfik, A. E. M. Khater, T. S. Kayed, and M. Fikry, “Fast determination of phosphorus concentration in phosphogypsum waste using calibration-free LIBS in air and helium,” Opt. Quantum Electron. , vol. 54, pp. 1–14, (2022). K. Sasaki and K. Maruyama, “Quantitative laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy based on corona equilibrium for estimating atomic composition in powdered milk,” Appl. Phys. A , vol. 128, no. 8, p. 736, (2022). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4366134","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":299156421,"identity":"475c43b3-a159-43f9-aeaa-74b50e4a81ce","order_by":0,"name":"Safa Raheem","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Babylon","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Safa","middleName":"","lastName":"Raheem","suffix":""},{"id":299156423,"identity":"b667988d-400c-4082-9363-fcc944440dac","order_by":1,"name":"Sami Habana","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Al-Mustaqbal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sami","middleName":"","lastName":"Habana","suffix":""},{"id":299156425,"identity":"d9e14a84-2f13-4712-bc20-f60135ecf43c","order_by":2,"name":"Alaa H. Ali","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdmTOxwYQydh4AK8WZhiDDah2ZgODBJBqIF4LMy9YCwMDXi38zcwPPzD8uSPHP7/34WPbHTZ1uu2HgbbU2ETj0iJxmM1YgrHtmbHEMXZj49wzaRJmZxKBWo6l5Tbg0nOYwUCCseFw4gY2Njbp3LbDEmYHgFqAIji1yB9m//yD4c/herAWS5CW8w/xazE4zGMmwcB2OMEApIURpOUGAVsMD/OUWSS2PTOccSyN2bC3LU1y2w2gLQl4/CJ3vH3zjQ9/7sjzNx9jfPCzzYbf7Hz6wwcfamxwex8EEjAiIgGfcghA1zIKRsEoGAWjAAkAAClnXV8mEaIHAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alaa","middleName":"H.","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-03 23:23:36","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":56151833,"identity":"92e58dab-a22d-4db4-992c-200473699768","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-09 07:21:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":529419,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLIBS technique\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4366134/v1/b14dc057808b1f2837a2048f.png"},{"id":56150244,"identity":"e7a0f696-033a-4116-9a8b-c3dc28a1b83e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-09 06:57:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":198873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFiber optics collimating lens\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4366134/v1/1f6cb4f66c6b8d4ba07eefbe.png"},{"id":56151189,"identity":"f381e884-cdc7-4e97-be34-b37f827e3c2c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-09 07:13:30","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":550729,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSP-LIBS experiment setup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4366134/v1/a8452615d3db07205baaa52e.png"},{"id":56150239,"identity":"1c859689-a563-4b48-82e7-16cf631c513c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-09 06:57:30","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134924,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLIBS spectra of a kidney stone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4366134/v1/4c7b3f24e828932991653afd.png"},{"id":56258232,"identity":"401012df-8075-4079-a26a-1fc6d0b219c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-10 14:04:55","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2947707,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4366134/v1/0b306bb5-f34a-40b5-824c-6adab651d5d5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Analysis of kidney stones using Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) to determine the concentrations of elements","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eKidney stones are concretions that develop in the kidneys as a result of the accumulation of minerals and salts found in urine. Renal calculi can exhibit a range of dimensions and elicit intense discomfort during their traversal through the urinary system [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The presence of specific substances, including calcium, oxalate, and uric acid, can play a role in the development of kidney stones [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Dehydration, dietary choices, genetic factors, and specific medical conditions can also elevate the likelihood of developing kidney stones [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. The analysis of kidney stone compounds can be performed using various techniques, including Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Computed Tomography (CT) scan, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for identifying chemical bonds and functional groups, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Raman spectroscopy. The feasibility of employing Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) as a method for analyzing kidney stones has been investigated. The LIBS technology, depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;(1), is a spectroscopic technique that utilizes a high peak power laser to generate plasma on the sample\u0026apos;s surface. The resulting broad spectrum emitted by the plasma is subsequently analyzed to ascertain the elemental composition of the material [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Multiple studies have investigated the application of LIBS for the identification and characterization of kidney stones. The studies have primarily concentrated on examining the elemental composition of the stones, which can offer insights into their chemical makeup and assist in comprehending their origin and potential approaches for treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe use of SP-LIBS has demonstrated potential in distinguishing between various types of kidney stones by analyzing their elemental composition. Analysis utilizing the LIBS technique was employed to differentiate between calcium oxalate monohydrate and calcium oxalate dihydrate stones, which exhibit distinct crystal structures and properties. Additionally, it has been employed to distinguish calcium-based stones from uric acid stones by analyzing their elemental compositions [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe benefit of using LIBS for analyzing kidney stones is its non-destructive nature, quick analysis time, and potential for on-site analysis. In addition, LIBS has the capability to offer both qualitative and quantitative data on multiple elements concurrently [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe advantages of SP-LIBS, particularly in terms of sample quantity and preparation, as well as the capability to perform simultaneous elemental analysis and classification of kidney stones, are discussed in comparison to other analytical techniques like XRD and XRF.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that although SP-LIBS exhibit potential, it remains a nascent technique in the realm of kidney stone analysis. Additional investigation is required to enhance the LIBS parameters, establish standardized analytical protocols, and verify the outcomes against established techniques such as infrared spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eExperimental setup\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePassively Q-switch Nd:YAG with fundamental wavelength 1064 nm was employed at 100 mJ laser pulse energy and 10 ns pulse width. The laser radiations were focused via (100 mm) double-sided convex quartz lens onto a certain location on the kidney stone to produce the plasma, using an optical quartz convex lens with (5 mm) focal length Fig. (2) .\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe test sample was fixed on a base of laser holder. The light emitted by the plasma plume was collected by a miniature lens fixed inside the head of multimode silica fiber optic. This fiber optic was located at a suitable distance (100mm) relative to the laser generated plasma plume. The plasma emission was collected at 45◦ angle as an optimum angle relative to the stone. The plasma emission was transmitted through fiber optics to a CCD spectrometer model (UVA800-Mux) with spectrum range (165-800nm) and (0.5nm) optical resolution; A SpectroGryph1.2 spectroscope software had use to record and analyst the optical emission spectrum, Fig. (3) show the experiment setup..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePlasma parameter\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe plasma parameter typically refers to describe the behavior of plasma, which is a state of matter composed of charged particles; the basic plasma parameters are calculated assuming Local Thermal Equilibrium (LTE) of the formed plasma, these parameters provide the basis for knowing the concentrations of elements in the plasma dome [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e][\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eElectron Temperature (T\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe electron temperature refers to the characteristic temperature of the plasma formed during the laser-induced breakdown process. It provides insights into the thermodynamic properties of the plasma and is an important parameter for understanding the excitation and emission processes occurring in LIBS [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe electron temperature in plasma spectroscopy is typically determined through spectroscopic measurements [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. When the laser pulse interacts with the sample, it generates a plasma plume consisting of highly energetic electrons. These electrons collide with atoms and ions in the plasma, causing excitation and emission of light at characteristic wavelengths. By analyzing the intensity ratios of specific spectral lines emitted by the plasma, it is possible to estimate the electron temperature [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that the electron temperature in LIBS can vary depending on several factors, including laser parameters (e.g., energy, pulse duration), sample composition, and experimental conditions. Additionally, the electron temperature may not be uniform throughout the plasma plume, and spatial variations can occur.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall, the determination of the electron temperature in LIBS is a valuable tool for understanding the plasma dynamics and excitation mechanisms in the laser-induced breakdown process. The plasma temperature of stone sample was calculated using Saha equation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({T_e}=\\frac{{({E_2} - {E_1})}}{{K\\ln (\\frac{{I\\lambda }}{{{A_{ki}}{g_k}}})}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e -------- (1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhere T\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e: electron Temperature unit K, E\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e: lower state of energy E\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e : upper state of energy I: line intensity, g\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e: statistical weight, K: Boltzmann constant, A\u003csub\u003eki\u003c/sub\u003e: represents the transition probability. This requires the plasma to be in the state of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eElectron density (n\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe electron density refers to the concentration of free electrons present in the plasma generated during the breakdown process. The electron density is an important parameter that provides insights into the plasma\u0026apos;s properties, such as its excitation and ionization state, as well as its ability to emit and absorb radiation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that the electron density in LIBS can vary spatially and temporally within the plasma plume. Factors such as the laser parameters, sample composition, and experimental conditions can influence the electron density distribution [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, determining the electron density in LIBS is essential for understanding the plasma properties and its interaction with the sample. While it can be challenging due to the dynamic nature of the plasma, various techniques and methods can be employed to estimate the electron density based on experimental measurements. These measurements contribute to the interpretation of LIBS spectra and aid in the quantification of elemental concentrations in samples. In most papers the McWhirter criterion has been widely used to justify the existence of LTE [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. This can be mathematically represented as.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({n}_{e}\\ge 1.6\\times {10}^{12}{T}^{\\raisebox{1ex}{$1$}\\!\\left/ \\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\\right.}{\\left(\\varDelta E\\right)}^{3}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e ------ (2)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe characterization of the laser-produced-plasma, we measured the spectral lines under laser flounce by scanning the spectrometer in the (165\u0026ndash;800 nm) region and after optimization of all parameters like focusing of incident laser beam, optimum collection of plasma emission, gate width and delay-time. After achieving the optimal experimental conditions, the SP-LIBS spectra were recorded. The identification of the atomic transition lines was carried out using NIST spectral database. As clear from Fig.\u0026nbsp;(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;(4)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLIBS spectra of a kidney stone\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe spectral marker lines of these elements were used for the calibration and quantifications of these elements. This identified spectrum is due to emission of the neutral or singly ionized transitions of Iron (Fe), Silicon (Si), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), Sodium (Na) and Oxygen (O). The presence of (Na, Si, K and Ca) atomic lines in the spectra proves our prediction of the existence of as most of the constituents in the kidney stones.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe percentage concentration of various elements in kidney stones was calculated via using a modern statistical method that was applied by us for the first time. The electron temperature (T\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e) and then the plasma density (n\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e) were calculated for each spectral line to calculate the total plasma density (N\u003csub\u003eeT\u003c/sub\u003e) for all emission lines and found the construction of each element, This technique gave easy and simple method to calculate concentration rate of each element in the sample with higher accuracy and error rate less than 8.45%..\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable (1)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData of the Spectral Lines for the Examined kidney stone sample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"left\" width=\"720\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.986149584487535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.06371191135734%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eelement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.526315789473685%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWavelength(nm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.894736842105263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eintensit\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.894736842105263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e(ev)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.894736842105263%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e(ev)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.526315789473685%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003csub\u003eki\u003c/sub\u003e(s\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.2631578947368425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eg\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.526315789473685%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e(K)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e(cm\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean T\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean n\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"4.986149584487535%\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n 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width=\"10.526315789473685%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e27146.05\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.27E+15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8617.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.02E+16\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e422.84\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e16115\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n 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\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4332.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e43.506\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e46.387\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1e+08\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.5546719681908545%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4736.08\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.121272365805169%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.63E+15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e487.98\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1076.1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.709\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.249\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.88e+07\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.5546719681908545%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5336.19\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.121272365805169%\"\u003e\n 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\u003ctd width=\"5.2631578947368425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.526315789473685%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e17257.09\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.85E+14\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.90E+03\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.141274238227147%\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.38E+15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e407.81\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1790.9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.638\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28.677\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.21e+07\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.5546719681908545%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6237.95\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.121272365805169%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.54E+15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e273.47\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e182.29\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.285\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.332007952286283%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e29.820\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.93e+07\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"7.5546719681908545%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.109343936381709%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6215.26\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.121272365805169%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.17E+16\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable (2) Calculate the concentration of each spectral line for the kidney stone elements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"310\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.67741935483871%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eelement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.87096774193548%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u003csub\u003eeT\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.45161290322581%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConcentration (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.67741935483871%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.87096774193548%\" rowspan=\"9\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.57E+17\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.45161290322581%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMg\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFe\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eK\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSi\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.634146341463415%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.24390243902439%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"55.1219512195122%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"63.54838709677419%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.45161290322581%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e91.55\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"63.54838709677419%\" colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal error rate (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"36.45161290322581%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.45\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eLaser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is applicable for the analysis of kidney stones. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a method that utilizes a powerful laser to evaporate a small section of the kidney stone, resulting in the formation of plasma. The light emitted by this plasma is subsequently examined to ascertain the elemental composition of the stone. This technique facilitates the identification of the chemical composition of the kidney stone, thereby assisting in comprehending its formation and ascertaining suitable treatment alternatives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe detection of atomic lines from (Na, Si, K, and Ca) in the spectra confirms our hypothesis regarding the composition of kidney stones, as these elements are found to be the primary constituents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe utilization of Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy technology offers a suitable method for addressing kidney stones. The single-pulse laser offers a convenient method for analyzing and diagnosing all components of the sample. This is because the technology will mitigate any alterations to the physical characteristics of the model caused by repetitive laser pulses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy manipulating the integration time of the spectrometer during the recording of emission lines, we enhance our capability to obtain the optimal spectrum using the single pulse technique.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe statistical technique entailed calculating the plasma density ratios of the elements to determine the concentration ratios of elements in the sample. The approach involved assessing the main plasma parameters while assuming local thermal equilibrium, resulting in satisfactory and acceptable results.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSafa 50%Sami 25%Alaa 25%\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eK. F. Test, \u0026ldquo;Dldar Salih Ismahil.\u0026rdquo; Polytechnic University, (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. Gupta and S. K. Shamsher, \u0026ldquo;Kidney stones: Mechanism of formation, pathogenesis and possible treatments,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eJ. Biomol. Biochem\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1\u0026ndash;5, (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN. H. Sofia, T. M. Walter, and T. Sanatorium, \u0026ldquo;Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eGlob. J. Res. Anal.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 183\u0026ndash;187, (2016).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. K. Mukherjee, \u0026ldquo;Human kidney stone analysis using X-ray powder diffraction,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eJ. Indian Inst. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 35\u0026ndash;44, (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. Basiri, M. Taheri, and F. Taheri, \u0026ldquo;What is the state of the stone analysis techniques in urolithiasis?,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eUrol. 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Spectrosc.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 270, p. 120867, (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. Kumar, L. Phagna, S. Rawat, and N. Gupta, \u0026ldquo;Analysis of Gall Bladder \u0026amp; Kidney Stone Using Spectroscopic Technique: A Review,\u0026rdquo; in \u003cem\u003e2023 4th International Conference on Signal Processing and Communication (ICSPC)\u003c/em\u003e, IEEE, pp. 11\u0026ndash;15, (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM. A. Almessiere, R. Altuwiriqi, M. A. Gondal, R. K. AlDakheel, and H. F. Alotaibi, \u0026ldquo;Qualitative and quantitative analysis of human nails to find correlation between nutrients and vitamin D deficiency using LIBS and ICP-AES,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTalanta\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 185, pp. 61\u0026ndash;70, (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. 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Phys. A\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 128, no. 8, p. 736, (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Kidney stones, Plasma parameters","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe chemical structure of kidney stones was studied using single pulse laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (SP-LIBS). This approach present the use of a high-resolution (CCD) spectrometer that covered a spectrum range of 165-820nm with an optical resolution of 0.5nm. The kidney stones were stimulated by a passively Q-Switch Nd:YAG laser operating at a pulse duration of 10 ns and a fundamental wavelength of 1,064nm. The electron temperature (Te) and plasma density (ne) for the SP-LIBS system were investigated for all elements in the sample. A novel statistical method was employed to calculate the concentration of each element. This technique presented a straight forward and efficient approach for estimating the rate of concentration for each element.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Analysis of kidney stones using Single Pulse Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (SP-LIBS) to determine the concentrations of elements","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-09 06:57:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4366134/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"15bee368-1337-42fb-80ec-0196b76feb2b","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 9th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-10T14:03:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-09 06:57:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4366134","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4366134","identity":"rs-4366134","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}