Exploring the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in motivation and burnout among marathon runners: A mixed methods study

Exploring the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in motivation and burnout among marathon runners: A mixed methods study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Exploring the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in motivation and burnout among marathon runners: A mixed methods study Eda Parlak, Gonca Yıldırım This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction: Marathon runners often use dietary supplements and sports foods to enhance performance and recovery. This study explores their effects not only on physical performance but also on psychological factors such as motivation and burnout. Methods: A mixed methods design was used. Quantitatively, 84 adult marathon runners completed surveys on demographics, supplement and sports food use, motivation (Sport Motivation Scale-6), and burnout (Athlete Burnout Questionnaire). Multiple regression analyses assessed predictors of motivation and burnout. Qualitatively, in-depth interviews with selected runners examined the physiological and psychological impacts of these products on motivation and burnout. Results: Sixty-three percent used sports foods and 76% used dietary supplements. Sports foods use (B = 3.665; β = 0.407; p = 0.001) and the number of marathons in the past two years (B = –0.216; β = –0.257; p = 0.038) significantly predicted motivation (R² = 0.189). No significant predictors emerged for burnout (p > 0.05). Qualitative findings identified two main themes: physiological benefits (weight management, endurance improvement, recovery acceleration, injury prevention) and psychological benefits (self-confidence support, competitiveness, ignition). Conclusion: Sports foods positively influence motivation among marathon runners, supporting both physical and mental readiness. However, these factors did not explain burnout levels, indicating a need for further research on burnout determinants. marathon dietary supplements sports nutrition sports foods motivation burnout 1. Background Running is extremely popular and can be done over various distances, including 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 5km, 10 km, half-marathon (21.1 km), marathon (42.2 km), and various ultra marathon (≥ 50 km) distances. 1 These participants can range from amateurs and recreational runners to professional athletes. 2 While running is widely popular around the world, there is also a growing interest in high-intensity running, which requires excellent physical fitness and substantial mental preparation. The uniqueness and specific demands of endurance races have captured the attention of scientists from various fields, ranging from social sciences to sports medicine. 3 It is crucial to comprehend the various needs and traits of different types of runners (such as recreational, moderately-trained, and highly-trained), and the research community aims to explore the field of running from diverse performance-related angles (like anthropometry, training, physiology, and biomechanics). 4 The psychological impacts of prolonged endurance exercise and the mental characteristics of athletes who excel in it are clearly of significant interest to sport psychologists and exercise scientists. 5 A psychological profile of marathon runners has been developed based on studies that compare them to the general population. The most significant factors representing the psychological state of marathon runners were cognitive anxiety, arousal, self-confidence, motivation, and the perception of physical condition. 6 Motivation plays a crucial role in sports psychology. In various sports, athletes with strong motivation often perform at levels surpassing what would be expected based on medical assessments. 3 Understanding the factors motivating runners helps in creating more effective training goals and tailoring strategies for individual athletes based on race distance. Since the most important and final goal during a marathon is to complete the race, the absence of pain and injury, proper nutrition, and the lack of feelings of burnout motivate the runner to achieve this goal. 7 Burnout, physical or mental exhaustion and a diminished sense of achievement, leading to a devaluation of sport. Burnout is a component of a continuum that also encompasses overreaching and overtraining syndrome. Minimizing the risk of overtraining requires addressing both stress and recovery. For runners, it is important to promote adequate nutrition, proper use of dietary supplements and sleep to enhance recovery, while also identifying and managing various stressors that may exacerbate the physical stress induced by training. 8 Based on the finding of research in the literature, athletes tend to consume dietary supplements more frequently than the general population. 9 Athletes often use dietary supplements for various reasons, including enhancing performance, improving health, and preventing injuries. Dietary supplements may include a range of ingredients such as vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, concentrates, metabolites, compounds, extracts, or a combination of these elements. Sports foods (sports drinks, sports bars, sports gels, electrolyte supplements, protein supplements and liquid meal supplements) are considered safe and effective options, especially when whole foods are not readily available, particularly before, during, and immediately after training. Athletes commonly need to use sports foods to enhance performance during training and competitions, aid in recovery, and support overall health. 10 Nutrition and dietary supplements can play a crucial role in both preventing and treating burnout. They helps athletes reduce the likelihood of burnout and, when used properly, enhance recovery and physical performance. 11 Additionally, a decline in the quality of food consumed by runners may be linked to decreased motivation and emotional eating patterns such as eating driven by boredom or anxiety. 12 Building on the frequent use of dietary supplements and sports foods in marathon running to boost aerobic capacity and recovery, this study aims to examine not only their effects on performance but also their impact on psychological factors like motivation and burnout. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study design and participants This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were collected and analysed in the first phase, followed by qualitative data collection to further explore and clarify the quantitative findings. Both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained from adult female and male marathon runners between February and April 2024. The inclusion criteria were: voluntary participation, being 18 years of age or older, having completed at least one marathon, and actively training for marathon events. Participation in the study was voluntary, and all participants signed a written informed consent form. The research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Toros University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Decision No: 13, dated 29.12.2022). 2.2 Procedure 2.2.1 Quantitative phase Sample size was estimated using the G*Power software. Based on a power of 80%, an alpha level of 0.05, and a medium effect size (d = 0.5), a minimum of 26 participants was determined to be sufficient. Marathon runners were recruited via an online platform using a snowball sampling strategy. The data collection tool included items assessing demographic characteristics, marathon history, self-reported height and weight, and the use of sports foods and dietary supplements. Motivation for sport was measured using the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6), while athlete burnout was assessed using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. The Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) was originally developed by Mallett et al. (2007) 13 to assess individuals' emotional responses and motivational orientations toward sport and sport participation. In the present study, two subscales were used to examine whether the use of sports foods or dietary supplements contributes to enjoyment (i.e., intrinsic motivation) or mitigates motivational deficits (i.e., amotivation). Specifically, we included the 4-item “Intrinsic Motivation” subscale and the 4-item “Amotivation” subscale. Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in sport for the inherent pleasure, interest, or satisfaction derived from the activity itself, without the influence of external rewards or pressures. In contrast, amotivation reflects a lack of intention or motivation to engage in sport, often stemming from feelings of incompetence or a loss of control. The Turkish adaptation of the scale was conducted by Demir (2022). 14 Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a good model fit, and the internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for the subscales were above 0.70, demonstrating acceptable reliability. The burnout status of marathon runners was assessed using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ). The original version of the scale, developed by Raedeke and Smith (2001) 15 , conceptualizes burnout as a syndrome composed of three dimensions: emotional/physical exhaustion (feelings of emotional and physical fatigue), reduced sense of accomplishment (perceived decline in achievement and effectiveness), and sport devaluation (a sense of detachment or indifference towards sport). In the present study, two subscales—emotional/physical exhaustion and reduced sense of accomplishment—were evaluated, as they were considered psychological domains potentially influenced using sports foods and dietary supplements. The sport devaluation subscale, on the other hand, was excluded from the assessment tool, as it was deemed to reflect a broader attitudinal stance toward sport, which was not directly relevant to the primary objective of this study. 2.2.2 Qualitative phase Following the quantitative analyses, in-depth interviews were conducted with a subgroup of marathon runners to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and meanings underlying the statistical findings. This approach aimed to enhance the explanatory power of the numerical data through individual narratives and contextual interpretation. Participants were selected using purposive sampling, with attention to maximum variation across characteristics such as age, sex, and running history. Table 1 displays the demographic characteristics of the participants included in the qualitative phase. All participants were informed prior to inclusion that their participation was voluntary, that they could withdraw from the study at any time, and that any associated interview data would be deleted in such cases. Verbal and audio-recorded consent was obtained at the start of each interview phone-call. The interview guide was developed by the first author based on the key findings from the quantitative phase and was piloted in a rehearsal interview with the second author. The guide included two open-ended core questions, and follow-up questions were asked when needed to explore themes such as motivation, the use of sports foods, and training routines. Interviews continued until data saturation was reached—when new responses no longer provided additional insights. All interviews lasted approximately 25 minutes, were audio-recorded, and were conducted by the second author, who has expertise in qualitative research. The first author provided technical support and transcribed the interviews. 2.3 Analysis of the data 2.3.1 Quantitative data Quantitative data were presented as descriptive statistics (frequencies [n] and percentages [%], mean [M], and standard deviation [SD]). The normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Differences in scale scores between product users and non-users were examined using the independent samples t-test. Subsequently, the subscales of the Sport Motivation Scale and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire —including intrinsic motivation, amotivation, reduced sense of accomplishment, and emotional/physical exhaustion—were analysed as dependent variables using multiple linear regression analysis. Each model was adjusted for potential confounders: sex, BMI, education level, weekly running distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries. To assess the validity of the regression models, assumptions of linearity, normality of residuals, homoscedasticity, and independence of observations were checked. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 24 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA), and the level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. 2.3.2 Qualitative data Qualitative data were analysed using qualitative content analysis based on the method described by Graneheim and Lundman (2004). 16 The first and second authors independently conducted open coding using Microsoft Excel by identifying and labelling meaning units. Codes were then compared and reconciled through discussion to ensure consistency. To establish thematic coherence, the researchers collaboratively reviewed the codes and reached agreement on higher-order themes. The analysis followed a deductive approach guided by the quantitative findings, while also allowing for the inductive emergence of new codes and themes. Data saturation was achieved when no new information or themes emerged from the interviews. 3. Results 3.1 Participant characteristics After excluding incomplete or erroneous data, 84 marathon runners (40.5% females, 59.5% males) with complete datasets were included in the analysis. The mean age of the participants was 39.2 ± 9.6 years. Participants were either exclusive half-marathon runners or athletes who participated in both half and ultra-marathon events, with an average running history of 4.1 ± 5.2 years. The minimum educational level was high school or equivalent, and the majority of participants (60.7%; n = 51) held a bachelor's degree. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated as 23.9 ± 2.8 kg/m². The characteristics of the marathon runners are presented in Table 1. Table 1 The characteristics of the marathon runners Variable Value Age (years) † 39.2 ± 9.6 (min: 23.0 – max: 60.0) Sex ‡ Male: 50 (59.5%) Female: 34 (40.5%) Education level [n (%)] ‡ High school or equivalent: 12 (14.3%) Bachelor’s degree: 51 (60.7%) Master’s degree: 17 (20.2%) Doctorate: 4 (4.8%) BMI (kg/m²) † 23.9 ± 2.8 Years of marathon running † 4.1 ± 5.2 (1.0–25.0) Marathon group ‡ Both half and ultra-marathon runners: 54 (64.3%) Only half-marathon runners: 30 (35.7%) Weekly running distance (km) † 40.3 ± 47.3 (3.0–320.0) Number of races participated in the past 2 years § 6.0 (0.0–30.0) Running-related injuries in the past 2 years § 0.0 (0.0– 5.0) Users of sports foods ‡ 53.0 (63.1%) Users of dietary supplements ‡ 64.0 (76.2%) Note : † Mean ± standard deviation; ‡ Frequency and percentage; § Median (minimum – maximum). Abbreviations : BMI, Body Mass Index. A total of 63.1% of participants (n=53) reported using sports foods and 76.2% (n=64) of the participants stated that they used at least one type of dietary supplements. Based on usage frequency, energy and performance-enhancing supplements (such as caffeine, L-carnitine, creatine, and hydroxymethyl butyrate) were the most commonly used, followed by electrolyte and mineral supplements (e.g., magnesium, zinc, salt tablets, electrolyte effervescent tablets), antioxidant supplements (vitamins, minerals, and related products), protein and amino acid supplements (including branched-chain amino acids, glutamine, arginine, lysine, ornithine), and other supplements (e.g., glucosamine, chondroitin sulphate, bee pollen). 3.2 Motivation and burnout status Independent samples t-test results indicated that users of sports foods had significantly higher intrinsic motivation scores compared to non-users (17.09 ± 3.13 vs. 14.84 ± 4.28; p = 0.007). No significant group differences were observed for amotivation (6.85 ± 3.02 vs. 6.13 ± 1.89; p = 0.235), reduced sense of accomplishment (9.92 ± 1.94 vs. 10.26 ± 2.29; p = 0.480), or emotional/physical exhaustion (8.43 ± 3.73 vs. 7.38 ± 2.31; p = 0.163). Similarly, no significant differences were found between users and non-users of dietary supplements across any of the subscales, including intrinsic motivation (16.63 ± 3.30 vs. 15.10 ± 4.80; p = 0.112). Following the initial group comparisons, separate multiple linear regression analyses were conducted for each subscale—intrinsic motivation, amotivation, reduced sense of accomplishment, and emotional/physical exhaustion. Sports foods use and dietary supplements use were included as primary independent variables, and all models were adjusted for potential confounders, including sex, BMI, education level, weekly training distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries. This analytical approach enabled the examination of independent associations while controlling demographic and training-related covariates. Results showed that sports foods use remained a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation (β 0.342 CI [0.866 – 4.401] p = 0.004) after adjustment. No significant predictors were identified for amotivation or either burnout subscale. (Table 2). Table 2 Results of multiple linear regression analyses examining the association between use of sports foods or dietary supplements and motivation and burnout subscale scores. Independent Variable Dependent Variable β p 95% CI Sports Foods Use Intrinsic Motivation 0.342 <0.01 * [0.866 – 4.401] Amotivation 0.186 0.12 [–0.283 – 2.325] Reduced Sense of Accomplishment –0.122 0.34 [–1.605 – 0.567] Emotional/Physical Exhaustion 0.143 0.26 [–0.757 – 2.701] Dietary Supplements Use Intrinsic Motivation 0.116 0.31 [–0.970 – 2.992] Amotivation –0.016 0.88 [–1.565 – 1.360] Reduced Sense of Accomplishment 0.036 0.77 [–1.042 – 1.394] Emotional/Physical Exhaustion –0.024 0.84 [–2.125 – 1.752] Note: Modal is adjusted for sex, BMI, education level, weekly training distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries. * p < 0.05. 3.3 Qualitative Results To gain a deeper understanding of how the use of sports foods contributes to motivation, two core questions were asked, focusing on the physiological (somatic) and cognitive (mental) components of motivation: “Can you describe the physiological effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?” “Can you describe the mental effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?” Follow-up questions were asked based on participants’ initial responses. Table 3 presents the themes that emerged from the interviews, the frequency of each theme, and illustrative participant quotes associated with each theme. Table 3 Qualitative themes on the motivational impact of sports foods Questions Theme Frequency An illustrative quote “Can you describe the physiological effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?” Weight management 2 As a runner, I need to keep my weight in check, but during intense training periods, I also need a lot of carbs and protein. Trying to get all of that just from regular meals can sometimes lead to weight gain or digestive issues. That’s why, especially when my energy needs are higher, I use things like bars and gels to help keep everything balanced. Endurance improvement 3 Our carb stores have a limit, and it’s possible to estimate how long they’ll last. Once you learn that and go through the experience yourself, you start to see how using supplements to make up for what’s lost can really help you keep up your performance for longer. Recovery acceleration 5 Especially during recovery periods, I find myself needing more low-calorie, high-protein foods, so I turn to these kinds of products. I feel like they really help with muscle repair. Injury prevention 2 During marathon season, my training load increases a lot, which makes me more vulnerable to injuries because my body is under a lot of stress. Normally, pushing myself this hard would almost definitely lead to an injury, but during the times I’ve used these products for support, I’ve managed to stay injury-free. “Can you describe the mental effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?” Self-confidence support 3 I figured out roughly when the product would kick in and timed it that way. On the run afterward, I felt so good, it was like winning a match by knockout. Competitiveness 4 If I want to stay competitive at my age, I can’t afford to cut corners, and these products are one of those things I won’t compromise on. I tend to use them more often leading up to a marathon because I really want to feel their performance benefits on race day. Ignition 2 For me, it works like a mental booster. I drink it before a workout and suddenly I’m switched on and more focused, more driven. Participants reported that the use of these products, which are known to support carbohydrate oxidation during exercise and help preserve muscle glycogen stores, contributed to increased endurance and, consequently, enhanced motivation for sport. Similarly, the subjective recovery process—defined as the athlete's self-perceived physical and psychological well-being following training—was described as being supported by these products through modulation of the body's response to training load, thereby promoting physical motivation. Interestingly, participants also noted motivational benefits from effects not typically associated with the primary intended use of these products, such as body weight and composition management and injury prevention. They stated that the nutritional composition of these products facilitated the achievement of dietary goals, which in turn enhanced their motivation by helping them maintain an ideal body composition. Furthermore, by compensating for nutritional deficiencies, these products were perceived to contribute to injury prevention and management strategies, ultimately supporting physiological aspects of motivation. Within the mental subthemes of motivation, three key themes were identified: enhanced self-confidence, increased engagement in competition, and psychological activation (“mental ignition”). While the relationship between self-confidence and performance is well-documented, it was noteworthy that marathon runners attributed an increase in self-confidence—and, consequently, additional motivation—to the use of sports foods. Participants reported that these products helped them “stay in the race” and facilitated their ability to compete. Their responses suggested that the motivational effect was associated more with a reduction in performance-related competitive anxiety rather than with improvements in focus or concentration. Finally, the products were described as functioning like a psychological "booster," motivating athletes to initiate and sustain their training. 4. Discussion This study aimed to explore the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in shaping motivation and burnout among marathon runners using a mixed methods approach. The quantitative results revealed that sports food use was a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation, whereas dietary supplements showed no significant effects. No independent predictors were found for burnout. The qualitative data further illuminated these findings by uncovering runners’ lived experiences, highlighting both physiological and psychological mechanisms that may underlie the motivational effects of sports foods. The positive relationship between sports food consumption and intrinsic motivation aligns with findings from the broader literature on self-determined motivation in endurance sports. Previous studies have shown that athletes with higher levels of intrinsic motivation tend to exhibit greater persistence and satisfaction in training and competition settings. 17,18 Our results extend this understanding by indicating that the use of sports foods may enhance feelings of competence and preparedness, both of which are known to support intrinsic motivation. This was echoed in qualitative interviews where participants described how sports foods contributed to confidence building, performance assurance, and mental readiness. Sports foods were perceived as reliable aids in managing physiological demands—supporting energy availability, accelerating recovery, and preventing injuries—especially during periods of high training load. These perceptions mirror previous research noting that consistent carbohydrate availability and muscle glycogen preservation contribute not only to performance but also to psychological comfort during prolonged exercise. 19 Additionally, the mental effects reported—such as enhanced focus, increased confidence, and competitive drive—suggest that sports foods may act as both physiological and psychological performance enhancers. Interestingly, despite the well-documented role of nutritional support in athlete well-being, our study did not find a significant relationship between the use of either dietary supplements or sports foods and burnout scores. This contrasts with some theoretical frameworks that posit nutritional adequacy as a buffer against psychological fatigue and exhaustion. 20 A plausible explanation is that burnout is a multifactorial phenomenon, more strongly influenced by factors such as overtraining, lack of psychological coping mechanisms, sleep disturbances, or injury, which were not fully accounted for in our models. Moreover, the disconnect between perceived motivational benefits and burnout outcomes may reflect athletes' own framing of these products. The interviews revealed that runners primarily associate sports food use with performance optimization rather than emotional or psychological recovery. This echoes previous observations that endurance athletes often view nutrition in instrumental terms—serving physical needs—rather than as a component of mental well-being. 21 The value of a mixed methods approach in this context is evident. While quantitative analyses confirmed the statistical link between sports food use and motivation, the qualitative findings contextualized this relationship, revealing a richer understanding of the psychological and experiential dimensions. In line with recommendations by Stroud et al. (2020), 18 integrating numeric trends with subjective narratives provides a more holistic understanding of athlete behavior. 4.1 Limitations and Future Directions The study is not without limitations. Its cross-sectional nature precludes causal inference, and the self-selected sample—composed mainly of experienced runners—may limit generalizability. Social desirability bias could have influenced self-reported data, particularly concerning motivation and burnout. Additionally, potential moderators such as training load, perceived stress, and coping style were not directly assessed. Future studies should consider longitudinal designs to track how changes in nutrition, motivation, and burnout unfold over time. Experimental trials comparing sports food use alone versus in combination with psychological support interventions could help clarify whether these products can contribute to burnout prevention when embedded within broader athlete care strategies. 5. Conclusion This study provides evidence that sports food use contributes meaningfully to intrinsic motivation among marathon runners, both through physiological benefits and enhanced psychological preparedness. However, these effects do not appear to translate into protection against burnout. These findings underscore the importance of holistic, multidisciplinary strategies that combine nutrition, recovery planning, and psychological support to promote sustainable well-being in endurance athletes. 6. Perspective This study highlights the importance of understanding the factors that motivate marathon runners to set effective training goals and tailor strategies based on race distance. Motivation is a key driver not only during races but also throughout demanding training periods. Imbalances between training load and recovery can negatively impact performance, and decreased performance may signal burnout despite adequate nutrition and recovery. Nutrition and dietary supplements play an important non-pharmacological role in preventing overtraining syndrome, supporting recovery, and enhancing performance. These findings emphasize the need for holistic approaches combining training, nutrition, and psychological support for endurance athletes. Abbreviations ABQ: Athlete Burnout Questionnaire BMI: Body mass index M: Mean SD: standard deviation SMS-6: Sport Motivation Scale-6 Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate. Ethical approval for the study (Decision No: 13, dated 29.12.2022) was obtained from the Non-Interventional Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Toros University. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. Consent for publication Not Applicable Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding This study received no external funding. Authors' contributions EP and GY contributed equally to study. Acknowledgements The authors thank the participants for their contributions. Author details 1 Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Toros University, Mersin, Türkiye Data availability The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical constraints. Public sharing of participant data was not included in the informed consent of the study. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to Eda PARLAK, [email protected] . References Friedrich M, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, et al. A Comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics between female and male half-marathoners and the relationship to race time. Asian J Sports Med . 2014;5(1):10-20. doi:10.5812/asjsm.34175 Kosendiak A, Król M, Ligocka M, Kepinska M. Eating habits and nutritional knowledge among amateur ultrarunners. Front Nutr . 2023;10:1137412. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1137412 Waśkiewicz Z, Nikolaidis PT, Chalabaev A, et al. Motivation in ultra-marathon runners. Psychol Res Behav Manag . 2018;12:31-37. Published 2018 Dec 27. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S189061 Ogueta-Alday A, Morante JC, Gómez-Molina J, García-López J. Similarities and differences among half-marathon runners according to their performance level. PLoS One . 2018;13(1):e0191688. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191688 Roebuck GS, Fitzgerald PB, Urquhart DM, et al. (2018). The psychology of ultra-marathon runners: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2018;37, 43–58. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.004 Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. A brief review of personality in marathon runners: the role of sex, age and performance level. Sports (Basel) . 2018;6(3):99. doi:10.3390/sports6030099 Krouse RZ, Ransdell LB, Lucas SM, Pritchard ME. Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women ultrarunners. J Strength Cond Res . 2011;25(10):2835-2842. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318204caa0 Brenner JS, Watson A; Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in young athletes. Pediatrics . 2024;153(2):e2023065129. doi:10.1542/peds.2023-065129 Ulery JA, Melton BF, Bland H, Riggs AJ. Associations between health status, training level, motivations for exercise, and supplement use among recreational runners. J Diet Suppl . 2022;19(5):640-655. doi:10.1080/19390211.2021.1910395 Ibrahim AT. Prevalence and frequency of supplement use and sports foods: a comparison between collegiate and high school endurance runners [master’s thesis]. Califor­nia State University, Long Beach; 2019. la Torre ME, Monda A, Messina A, et al. The potential role of nutrition in overtraining syndrome: a narrative review. Nutrients . 2023;15(23):4916. doi:10.3390/nu15234916 Bazett-Jones DM, Garcia MC, Taylor-Haas JA, et al. Changes in motivation, socialization, wellness and mental health in youth long-distance runners during COVID-19 social distancing restrictions. Front Sports Act Living . 2021;3:696264. doi:10.3389/fspor.2021.696264 Mallett CJ, Kawabata M, Newcombe P, et al. (2007). Sport Motivation Scale‑6 (SMS‑6): A revised six‑factor sport motivation scale. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2007;8 :600–614. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.12.005 Demir H. Validity and reliability of motivation scale in sports: Turkish adaptation study. Spormetre The Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences . 2022;20(4):56-68. doi:10.33689/spormetre.1062454 Raedeke TD, Smith AL. Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. J Sport Exerc Psychol . 2001;23(4):281-306. doi:10.1123/jsep.23.4.281 Graneheim UH, Lundman B. Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Educ Today . 2004;24(2):105-112. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001 Furnham A, Cuppello S. Personality, intrinsic and extrinsic work motivation, and satisfaction. Psychology. 2025;16:26-38. doi:10.4236/psych.2025.161003 Stroud L, Green E, Cronje J. A revision process that bridges qualitative and quantitative assessment. Psychology. 2020;11: 436-444. doi:10.4236/psych.2020.113029 Jeukendrup AE. Nutrition for endurance sports: marathon, triathlon, and road cycling. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2011;29(Suppl 1):91–99. doi:10.1080/02640414.2011.610348 Gustafsson H, Kenttä G, Hassmén P, Lundqvist C. Prevalence of burnout in competitive adolescent athletes. The Sport Psychologist. 2007;21 (1):21-37. doi:10.1123/tsp.21.1.21 Dinç A. The relationship between nutritional behavior and mental well-being levels of sports science students. Progress in Nutrition. 2022;24 (2):e2022077. doi:10.23751/pn.v24i2.10722 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 08 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 13 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 12 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 12 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8079099","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":557414964,"identity":"ffc36cd3-35b0-40e4-85bd-a681dbdb1d9f","order_by":0,"name":"Eda Parlak","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIie3OMWvCQBTA8RcOkuVJ1isU/QqXRToE8lVeEOLiEAg4OaQIuqTO8WNkceoQCGSKuGaSlIKTQ1xaJ7ERinS4NGOh9x8evDt+8ABUqj8Z3eYjIEu/n0QngoC6G94JdSJodSOmMaqYP9ujGRWf1enVdsCYb7h23kvJQ3QQLM4D5NuX5Dk+eG6I+ZQDBVIiShIMdULY9ZI5phkBnwy/iPwypxzXDC+Egx2+NcSBwbGdCD4RrLcgFNtIa4gWcmwnvDj62XpFaBW5tY5Tz12gFzyRJyfmcpy8+x/U7xejqq5T2zGNLClrW06ash+b3ox2AMB++VepVKr/3hUvSVAbdThJ+QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Toros University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eda","middleName":"","lastName":"Parlak","suffix":""},{"id":557414965,"identity":"424d71c7-4b74-4b7e-a4af-e90f577ac45f","order_by":1,"name":"Gonca Yıldırım","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Toros University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gonca","middleName":"","lastName":"Yıldırım","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-10 16:23:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97789721,"identity":"87ed0801-c40c-412a-b30c-39c91b6cca4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 11:35:44","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":47602,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"v2manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/75177e0966e98650c5a63c05.docx"},{"id":97789719,"identity":"115712b7-1e7d-45d0-86d8-c445745ba059","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 11:35:44","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4417,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"88e52527175f4c018b5cb483a1a24448.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/ca40d7a7e7f5c3596151b5f3.json"},{"id":97789720,"identity":"3e5f9813-b844-4d8c-a64d-7e33f56eaa8f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 11:35:44","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":79992,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"88e52527175f4c018b5cb483a1a244481enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/c179c10175c896607c0caffc.xml"},{"id":97897922,"identity":"292135ba-4d30-4794-a228-c4cc0f13751b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:38:28","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":79239,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"88e52527175f4c018b5cb483a1a244481structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/ecbaff8e149bd54a3083a888.xml"},{"id":97789724,"identity":"4ed815bf-e52f-4357-b7f0-bdc92e014828","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 11:35:44","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":87861,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/e9e75467c86a97c00b252f76.html"},{"id":97903000,"identity":"3c1e1906-52c0-440d-b66a-4aff210d7f43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-10 15:54:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":660347,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8079099/v1/26523621-41d0-4cc9-91eb-9141ed58037a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Exploring the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in motivation and burnout among marathon runners: A mixed methods study","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eRunning is extremely popular and can be done over various distances, including 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 5km, 10 km, half-marathon (21.1 km), marathon (42.2 km), and various ultra marathon (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;50 km) distances.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e These participants can range from amateurs and recreational runners to professional athletes.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While running is widely popular around the world, there is also a growing interest in high-intensity running, which requires excellent physical fitness and substantial mental preparation. The uniqueness and specific demands of endurance races have captured the attention of scientists from various fields, ranging from social sciences to sports medicine.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e It is crucial to comprehend the various needs and traits of different types of runners (such as recreational, moderately-trained, and highly-trained), and the research community aims to explore the field of running from diverse performance-related angles (like anthropometry, training, physiology, and biomechanics).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe psychological impacts of prolonged endurance exercise and the mental characteristics of athletes who excel in it are clearly of significant interest to sport psychologists and exercise scientists.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A psychological profile of marathon runners has been developed based on studies that compare them to the general population. The most significant factors representing the psychological state of marathon runners were cognitive anxiety, arousal, self-confidence, motivation, and the perception of physical condition.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Motivation plays a crucial role in sports psychology. In various sports, athletes with strong motivation often perform at levels surpassing what would be expected based on medical assessments.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Understanding the factors motivating runners helps in creating more effective training goals and tailoring strategies for individual athletes based on race distance. Since the most important and final goal during a marathon is to complete the race, the absence of pain and injury, proper nutrition, and the lack of feelings of burnout motivate the runner to achieve this goal.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Burnout, physical or mental exhaustion and a diminished sense of achievement, leading to a devaluation of sport. Burnout is a component of a continuum that also encompasses overreaching and overtraining syndrome. Minimizing the risk of overtraining requires addressing both stress and recovery. For runners, it is important to promote adequate nutrition, proper use of dietary supplements and sleep to enhance recovery, while also identifying and managing various stressors that may exacerbate the physical stress induced by training.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the finding of research in the literature, athletes tend to consume dietary supplements more frequently than the general population.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Athletes often use dietary supplements for various reasons, including enhancing performance, improving health, and preventing injuries. Dietary supplements may include a range of ingredients such as vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, concentrates, metabolites, compounds, extracts, or a combination of these elements. Sports foods (sports drinks, sports bars, sports gels, electrolyte supplements, protein supplements and liquid meal supplements) are considered safe and effective options, especially when whole foods are not readily available, particularly before, during, and immediately after training. Athletes commonly need to use sports foods to enhance performance during training and competitions, aid in recovery, and support overall health.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Nutrition and dietary supplements can play a crucial role in both preventing and treating burnout. They helps athletes reduce the likelihood of burnout and, when used properly, enhance recovery and physical performance.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Additionally, a decline in the quality of food consumed by runners may be linked to decreased motivation and emotional eating patterns such as eating driven by boredom or anxiety.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Building on the frequent use of dietary supplements and sports foods in marathon running to boost aerobic capacity and recovery, this study aims to examine not only their effects on performance but also their impact on psychological factors like motivation and burnout.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003ch4\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Study design and participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. Quantitative data were collected and analysed in the first phase, followed by qualitative data collection to further explore and clarify the quantitative findings. Both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained from adult female and male marathon runners between February and April 2024. The inclusion criteria were: voluntary participation, being 18 years of age or older, having completed at least one marathon, and actively training for marathon events.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipation in the study was voluntary, and all participants signed a written informed consent form. The research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Toros University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Decision No: 13, dated 29.12.2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2.1 Quantitative phase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample size was estimated using the G*Power software. Based on a power of 80%, an alpha level of 0.05, and a medium effect size (d = 0.5), a minimum of 26 participants was determined to be sufficient. Marathon runners were recruited via an online platform using a snowball sampling strategy. The data collection tool included items assessing demographic characteristics, marathon history, self-reported height and weight, and the use of sports foods and dietary supplements. Motivation for sport was measured using the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6), while athlete burnout was assessed using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) was originally developed by Mallett et al. (2007)\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e to assess individuals' emotional responses and motivational orientations toward sport and sport participation. In the present study, two subscales were used to examine whether the use of sports foods or dietary supplements contributes to enjoyment (i.e., intrinsic motivation) or mitigates motivational deficits (i.e., amotivation). Specifically, we included the 4-item “Intrinsic Motivation” subscale and the 4-item “Amotivation” subscale. Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in sport for the inherent pleasure, interest, or satisfaction derived from the activity itself, without the influence of external rewards or pressures. In contrast, amotivation reflects a lack of intention or motivation to engage in sport, often stemming from feelings of incompetence or a loss of control. The Turkish adaptation of the scale was conducted by Demir (2022).\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a good model fit, and the internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) for the subscales were above 0.70, demonstrating acceptable reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe burnout status of marathon runners was assessed using the Athlete Burnout\u0026nbsp;Questionnaire\u0026nbsp;(ABQ). The original version of the scale, developed by Raedeke and Smith (2001)\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e, conceptualizes burnout as a syndrome composed of three dimensions: emotional/physical exhaustion (feelings of emotional and physical fatigue), reduced sense of accomplishment (perceived decline in achievement and effectiveness), and sport devaluation (a sense of detachment or indifference towards sport). In the present study, two subscales—emotional/physical exhaustion and reduced sense of accomplishment—were evaluated, as they were considered psychological domains potentially influenced using\u0026nbsp;sports foods and dietary supplements. The sport devaluation subscale, on the other hand, was excluded from the assessment tool, as it was deemed to reflect a broader attitudinal stance toward sport, which was not directly relevant to the primary objective of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2.2 Qualitative phase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the quantitative analyses, in-depth interviews were conducted with a subgroup of marathon runners to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and meanings underlying the statistical findings. This approach aimed to enhance the explanatory power of the numerical data through individual narratives and contextual interpretation. Participants were selected using purposive sampling, with attention to maximum variation across characteristics such as age, sex, and running history. Table 1 displays the demographic characteristics of the participants included in the qualitative phase. All participants were informed prior to inclusion that their participation was voluntary, that they could withdraw from the study at any time, and that any associated interview data would be deleted in such cases. Verbal and audio-recorded consent was obtained at the start of each interview phone-call.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interview guide was developed by the first author based on the key findings from the quantitative phase and was piloted in a rehearsal interview with the second author. The guide included two open-ended core questions, and follow-up questions were asked when needed to explore themes such as motivation, the use of sports foods, and training routines. Interviews continued until data saturation was reached—when new responses no longer provided additional insights. All interviews lasted approximately 25 minutes, were audio-recorded, and were conducted by the second author, who has expertise in qualitative research. The first author provided technical support and transcribed the interviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Analysis of the data\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3.1 Quantitative data\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were presented as descriptive statistics (frequencies [n] and percentages [%], mean [M], and standard deviation [SD]). The normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Differences in scale scores between product users and non-users were examined using the independent samples t-test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubsequently, the subscales of the Sport Motivation Scale and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire —including intrinsic motivation, amotivation, reduced sense of accomplishment, and emotional/physical exhaustion—were analysed as dependent variables using multiple linear regression analysis. Each model was adjusted for potential confounders: sex, BMI, education level, weekly running distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the validity of the regression models, assumptions of linearity, normality of residuals, homoscedasticity, and independence of observations were checked. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 24 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA), and the level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3.2 Qualitative data\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative data were analysed using qualitative content analysis based on the method described by Graneheim and Lundman (2004).\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e The first and second authors independently conducted open coding using Microsoft Excel by identifying and labelling meaning units. Codes were then compared and reconciled through discussion to ensure consistency. To establish thematic coherence, the researchers collaboratively reviewed the codes and reached agreement on higher-order themes. The analysis followed a deductive approach guided by the quantitative findings, while also allowing for the inductive emergence of new codes and themes. Data saturation was achieved when no new information or themes emerged from the interviews.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Participant characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter excluding incomplete or erroneous data, 84 marathon runners (40.5% females, 59.5% males) with complete datasets were included in the analysis. The mean age of the participants was 39.2 \u0026plusmn; 9.6 years. Participants were either exclusive half-marathon runners or athletes who participated in both half and ultra-marathon events, with an average running history of 4.1 \u0026plusmn; 5.2 years. The minimum educational level was high school or equivalent, and the majority of participants (60.7%; n = 51) held a bachelor\u0026apos;s degree. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated as 23.9 \u0026plusmn; 2.8 kg/m\u0026sup2;. The characteristics of the marathon runners are presented in Table 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe characteristics of the marathon runners\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValue\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.2 \u0026plusmn; 9.6 (min: 23.0 \u0026ndash; max: 60.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSex\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale: 50 (59.5%)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Female: 34 (40.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation level [n (%)]\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh school or equivalent: 12 (14.3%)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree: 51 (60.7%)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Master\u0026rsquo;s degree: 17 (20.2%)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Doctorate: 4 (4.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBMI (kg/m\u0026sup2;)\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.9 \u0026plusmn; 2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYears of marathon running\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1 \u0026plusmn; 5.2 (1.0\u0026ndash;25.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarathon group\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoth half and ultra-marathon runners: 54 (64.3%)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Only half-marathon runners: 30 (35.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeekly running distance (km)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.3 \u0026plusmn; 47.3 (3.0\u0026ndash;320.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of races participated in the past 2 years\u003csup\u003e\u0026sect;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0 (0.0\u0026ndash;30.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRunning-related injuries in the past 2 years\u003csup\u003e\u0026sect;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0 (0.0\u0026ndash; 5.0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsers of sports foods\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.0 (63.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsers of dietary supplements\u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.0 (76.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: \u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation; \u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003eFrequency and percentage; \u003csup\u003e\u0026sect;\u003c/sup\u003eMedian (minimum \u0026ndash; maximum).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbbreviations\u003c/em\u003e: BMI, Body Mass Index.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 63.1% of participants (n=53) reported using sports foods and 76.2% (n=64) of the participants stated that they used at least one type of dietary supplements. Based on usage frequency, energy and performance-enhancing supplements (such as caffeine, L-carnitine, creatine, and hydroxymethyl butyrate) were the most commonly used, followed by electrolyte and mineral supplements (e.g., magnesium, zinc, salt tablets, electrolyte effervescent tablets), antioxidant supplements (vitamins, minerals, and related products), protein and amino acid supplements (including branched-chain amino acids, glutamine, arginine, lysine, ornithine), and other supplements (e.g., glucosamine, chondroitin sulphate, bee pollen).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Motivation and burnout status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-test results indicated that users of sports foods had significantly higher intrinsic motivation scores compared to non-users (17.09 \u0026plusmn; 3.13 vs. 14.84 \u0026plusmn; 4.28; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.007). No significant group differences were observed for amotivation (6.85 \u0026plusmn; 3.02 vs. 6.13 \u0026plusmn; 1.89; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.235), reduced sense of accomplishment (9.92 \u0026plusmn; 1.94 vs. 10.26 \u0026plusmn; 2.29; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.480), or emotional/physical exhaustion (8.43 \u0026plusmn; 3.73 vs. 7.38 \u0026plusmn; 2.31; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.163). Similarly, no significant differences were found between users and non-users of dietary supplements across any of the subscales, including intrinsic motivation (16.63 \u0026plusmn; 3.30 vs. 15.10 \u0026plusmn; 4.80; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.112).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the initial group comparisons, separate multiple linear regression analyses were conducted for each subscale\u0026mdash;intrinsic motivation, amotivation, reduced sense of accomplishment, and emotional/physical exhaustion. Sports foods use and dietary supplements use were included as primary independent variables, and all models were adjusted for potential confounders, including sex, BMI, education level, weekly training distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries. This analytical approach enabled the examination of independent associations while controlling demographic and training-related covariates. Results showed that sports foods use remained a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation (\u0026beta; 0.342 CI [0.866 \u0026ndash; 4.401] \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.004) after adjustment. No significant predictors were identified for amotivation or either burnout subscale. (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eResults of multiple linear regression analyses examining the association between use of sports foods or dietary supplements and motivation and burnout subscale scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndependent Variable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDependent Variable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95% CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSports Foods Use\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntrinsic Motivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.342\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[0.866 \u0026ndash; 4.401]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.186\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;0.283 \u0026ndash; 2.325]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReduced Sense of Accomplishment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;1.605 \u0026ndash; 0.567]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional/Physical Exhaustion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;0.757 \u0026ndash; 2.701]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 29px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDietary Supplements Use\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntrinsic Motivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;0.970 \u0026ndash; 2.992]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmotivation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;1.565 \u0026ndash; 1.360]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReduced Sense of Accomplishment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;1.042 \u0026ndash; 1.394]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional/Physical Exhaustion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[\u0026ndash;2.125 \u0026ndash; 1.752]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eModal is adjusted for sex, BMI, education level, weekly training distance, number of marathons completed in the past two years, and number of running-related injuries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003ep \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Qualitative Results\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo gain a deeper understanding of how the use of sports foods contributes to motivation, two core questions were asked, focusing on the physiological (somatic) and cognitive (mental) components of motivation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026ldquo;Can you describe the physiological effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u0026ldquo;Can you describe the mental effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollow-up questions were asked based on participants\u0026rsquo; initial responses.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Table 3 presents the themes that emerged from the interviews, the frequency of each theme, and illustrative participant quotes associated with each theme.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 Qualitative themes on the motivational impact of sports foods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 128px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQuestions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTheme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFrequency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAn illustrative quote\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 128px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Can you describe the physiological effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeight management\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs a runner, I need to keep my weight in check, but during intense training periods, I also need a lot of carbs and protein. Trying to get all of that just from regular meals can sometimes lead to weight gain or digestive issues. That\u0026rsquo;s why, especially when my energy needs are higher, I use things like bars and gels to help keep everything balanced.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEndurance improvement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOur carb stores have a limit, and it\u0026rsquo;s possible to estimate how long they\u0026rsquo;ll last. Once you learn that and go through the experience yourself, you start to see how using supplements to make up for what\u0026rsquo;s lost can really help you keep up your performance for longer.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRecovery acceleration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEspecially during recovery periods, I find myself needing more low-calorie, high-protein foods, so I turn to these kinds of products. I feel like they really help with muscle repair.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInjury prevention\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring marathon season, my training load increases a lot, which makes me more vulnerable to injuries because my body is under a lot of stress. Normally, pushing myself this hard would almost definitely lead to an injury, but during the times I\u0026rsquo;ve used these products for support, I\u0026rsquo;ve managed to stay injury-free.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 128px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ldquo;Can you describe the mental effects of using sports foods that enhance your motivation?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-confidence support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI figured out roughly when the product would kick in and timed it that way.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;On the run afterward, I felt so good, it was like winning a match by knockout.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompetitiveness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIf I want to stay competitive at my age, I can\u0026rsquo;t afford to cut corners, and these products are one of those things I won\u0026rsquo;t compromise on. I tend to use them more often leading up to a marathon because I really want to feel their performance benefits on race day.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIgnition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 87px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 268px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor me, it works like a mental booster. I drink it before a workout and suddenly I\u0026rsquo;m switched on and more focused, more driven.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants reported that the use of these products, which are known to support carbohydrate oxidation during exercise and help preserve muscle glycogen stores, contributed to increased endurance and, consequently, enhanced motivation for sport. Similarly, the subjective recovery process\u0026mdash;defined as the athlete\u0026apos;s self-perceived physical and psychological well-being following training\u0026mdash;was described as being supported by these products through modulation of the body\u0026apos;s response to training load, thereby promoting physical motivation. Interestingly, participants also noted motivational benefits from effects not typically associated with the primary intended use of these products, such as body weight and composition management and injury prevention. They stated that the nutritional composition of these products facilitated the achievement of dietary goals, which in turn enhanced their motivation by helping them maintain an ideal body composition. Furthermore, by compensating for nutritional deficiencies, these products were perceived to contribute to injury prevention and management strategies, ultimately supporting physiological aspects of motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the mental subthemes of motivation, three key themes were identified: enhanced self-confidence, increased engagement in competition, and psychological activation (\u0026ldquo;mental ignition\u0026rdquo;). While the relationship between self-confidence and performance is well-documented, it was noteworthy that marathon runners attributed an increase in self-confidence\u0026mdash;and, consequently, additional motivation\u0026mdash;to the use of sports foods. Participants reported that these products helped them \u0026ldquo;stay in the race\u0026rdquo; and facilitated their ability to compete. Their responses suggested that the motivational effect was associated more with a reduction in performance-related competitive anxiety rather than with improvements in focus or concentration. Finally, the products were described as functioning like a psychological \u0026quot;booster,\u0026quot; motivating athletes to initiate and sustain their training.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.\tDiscussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to explore the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in shaping motivation and burnout among marathon runners using a mixed methods approach. The quantitative results revealed that sports food use was a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation, whereas dietary supplements showed no significant effects. No independent predictors were found for burnout. The qualitative data further illuminated these findings by uncovering runners’ lived experiences, highlighting both physiological and psychological mechanisms that may underlie the motivational effects of sports foods.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe positive relationship between sports food consumption and intrinsic motivation aligns with findings from the broader literature on self-determined motivation in endurance sports. Previous studies have shown that athletes with higher levels of intrinsic motivation tend to exhibit greater persistence and satisfaction in training and competition settings.\u003csup\u003e17,18\u003c/sup\u003e Our results extend this understanding by indicating that the use of sports foods may enhance feelings of competence and preparedness, both of which are known to support intrinsic motivation. This was echoed in qualitative interviews where participants described how sports foods contributed to confidence building, performance assurance, and mental readiness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSports foods were perceived as reliable aids in managing physiological demands—supporting energy availability, accelerating recovery, and preventing injuries—especially during periods of high training load. These perceptions mirror previous research noting that consistent carbohydrate availability and muscle glycogen preservation contribute not only to performance but also to psychological comfort during prolonged exercise.\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e Additionally, the mental effects reported—such as enhanced focus, increased confidence, and competitive drive—suggest that sports foods may act as both physiological and psychological performance enhancers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, despite the well-documented role of nutritional support in athlete well-being, our study did not find a significant relationship between the use of either dietary supplements or sports foods and burnout scores. This contrasts with some theoretical frameworks that posit nutritional adequacy as a buffer against psychological fatigue and exhaustion.\u003csup\u003e20\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eA plausible explanation is that burnout is a multifactorial phenomenon, more strongly influenced by factors such as overtraining, lack of psychological coping mechanisms, sleep disturbances, or injury, which were not fully accounted for in our models.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the disconnect between perceived motivational benefits and burnout outcomes may reflect athletes' own framing of these products. The interviews revealed that runners primarily associate sports food use with performance optimization rather than emotional or psychological recovery. This echoes previous observations that endurance athletes often view nutrition in instrumental terms—serving physical needs—rather than as a component of mental well-being.\u003csup\u003e21\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe value of a mixed methods approach in this context is evident. While quantitative analyses confirmed the statistical link between sports food use and motivation, the qualitative findings contextualized this relationship, revealing a richer understanding of the psychological and experiential dimensions. In line with recommendations by Stroud et al. (2020),\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e integrating numeric trends with subjective narratives provides a more holistic understanding of athlete behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Limitations and Future Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study is not without limitations. Its cross-sectional nature precludes causal inference, and the self-selected sample—composed mainly of experienced runners—may limit generalizability. Social desirability bias could have influenced self-reported data, particularly concerning motivation and burnout. Additionally, potential moderators such as training load, perceived stress, and coping style were not directly assessed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture studies should consider longitudinal designs to track how changes in nutrition, motivation, and burnout unfold over time. Experimental trials comparing sports food use alone versus in combination with psychological support interventions could help clarify whether these products can contribute to burnout prevention when embedded within broader athlete care strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides evidence that sports food use contributes meaningfully to intrinsic motivation among marathon runners, both through physiological benefits and enhanced psychological preparedness. However, these effects do not appear to translate into protection against burnout. These findings underscore the importance of holistic, multidisciplinary strategies that combine nutrition, recovery planning, and psychological support to promote sustainable well-being in endurance athletes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Perspective","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the importance of understanding the factors that motivate marathon runners to set effective training goals and tailor strategies based on race distance. Motivation is a key driver not only during races but also throughout demanding training periods. Imbalances between training load and recovery can negatively impact performance, and decreased performance may signal burnout despite adequate nutrition and recovery. Nutrition and dietary supplements play an important non-pharmacological role in preventing overtraining syndrome, supporting recovery, and enhancing performance. These findings emphasize the need for holistic approaches combining training, nutrition, and psychological support for endurance athletes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eABQ: Athlete Burnout Questionnaire\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBMI: Body mass index\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM: Mean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSD: standard deviation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSMS-6: Sport Motivation Scale-6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for the study (Decision No: 13, dated 29.12.2022) was obtained from the Non-Interventional Clinical Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Toros University. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEP and GY contributed equally to study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the participants for their contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor details\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1 Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Toros University, Mersin, Türkiye\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical constraints. Public sharing of participant data was not included in the informed consent of the study. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to Eda PARLAK, [email protected].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFriedrich M, R\u0026uuml;st CA, Rosemann T, et al. A Comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics between female and male half-marathoners and the relationship to race time. \u003cem\u003eAsian J Sports Med\u003c/em\u003e. 2014;5(1):10-20. doi:10.5812/asjsm.34175\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKosendiak A, Kr\u0026oacute;l M, Ligocka M, Kepinska M. Eating habits and nutritional knowledge among amateur ultrarunners. \u003cem\u003eFront Nutr\u003c/em\u003e. 2023;10:1137412. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1137412\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaśkiewicz Z, Nikolaidis PT, Chalabaev A, et al. Motivation in ultra-marathon runners. \u003cem\u003ePsychol Res Behav Manag\u003c/em\u003e. 2018;12:31-37. Published 2018 Dec 27. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S189061\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOgueta-Alday A, Morante JC, G\u0026oacute;mez-Molina J, Garc\u0026iacute;a-L\u0026oacute;pez J. Similarities and differences among half-marathon runners according to their performance level. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e. 2018;13(1):e0191688. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191688\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoebuck GS, Fitzgerald PB, Urquhart DM, et al. (2018). The psychology of ultra-marathon runners: A systematic review. \u003cem\u003ePsychology of Sport and Exercise. 2018;37,\u003c/em\u003e43\u0026ndash;58. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. A brief review of personality in marathon runners: the role of sex, age and performance level. \u003cem\u003eSports (Basel)\u003c/em\u003e. 2018;6(3):99. doi:10.3390/sports6030099\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKrouse RZ, Ransdell LB, Lucas SM, Pritchard ME. Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women ultrarunners. \u003cem\u003eJ Strength Cond Res\u003c/em\u003e. 2011;25(10):2835-2842. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318204caa0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrenner JS, Watson A; Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in young athletes. \u003cem\u003ePediatrics\u003c/em\u003e. 2024;153(2):e2023065129. doi:10.1542/peds.2023-065129\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUlery JA, Melton BF, Bland H, Riggs AJ. Associations between health status, training level, motivations for exercise, and supplement use among recreational runners. \u003cem\u003eJ Diet Suppl\u003c/em\u003e. 2022;19(5):640-655. doi:10.1080/19390211.2021.1910395\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIbrahim AT. Prevalence and frequency of supplement use and sports foods: a comparison between collegiate and high school endurance runners [master\u0026rsquo;s thesis]. Califor\u0026shy;nia State University, Long Beach; 2019. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ela Torre ME, Monda A, Messina A, et al. The potential role of nutrition in overtraining syndrome: a narrative review. \u003cem\u003eNutrients\u003c/em\u003e. 2023;15(23):4916. doi:10.3390/nu15234916\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBazett-Jones DM, Garcia MC, Taylor-Haas JA, et al. Changes in motivation, socialization, wellness and mental health in youth long-distance runners during COVID-19 social distancing restrictions. \u003cem\u003eFront Sports Act Living\u003c/em\u003e. 2021;3:696264. doi:10.3389/fspor.2021.696264\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMallett CJ, Kawabata M, Newcombe P, et al. (2007).\u003c/strong\u003eSport Motivation Scale‑6 (SMS‑6): A revised six‑factor sport motivation scale. \u003cem\u003ePsychology of Sport and Exercise. 2007;8\u003c/em\u003e:600\u0026ndash;614. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.12.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDemir H. Validity and reliability of motivation scale in sports: Turkish adaptation study. \u003cem\u003eSpormetre The Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences\u003c/em\u003e. 2022;20(4):56-68. doi:10.33689/spormetre.1062454\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaedeke TD, Smith AL. Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. \u003cem\u003eJ Sport Exerc Psychol\u003c/em\u003e. 2001;23(4):281-306. doi:10.1123/jsep.23.4.281\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGraneheim UH, Lundman B. Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. \u003cem\u003eNurse Educ Today\u003c/em\u003e. 2004;24(2):105-112. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFurnham A, Cuppello S. Personality, intrinsic and extrinsic work motivation, and satisfaction. \u003cem\u003ePsychology.\u003c/em\u003e 2025;16:26-38. doi:10.4236/psych.2025.161003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStroud L, Green E, Cronje J. A revision process that bridges qualitative and quantitative assessment. \u003cem\u003ePsychology.\u003c/em\u003e 2020;11: 436-444. doi:10.4236/psych.2020.113029\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJeukendrup AE. Nutrition for endurance sports: marathon, triathlon, and road cycling. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Sports Sciences.\u003c/em\u003e 2011;29(Suppl 1):91\u0026ndash;99. doi:10.1080/02640414.2011.610348\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGustafsson H, Kentt\u0026auml; G, Hassm\u0026eacute;n P, Lundqvist C. Prevalence of burnout in competitive adolescent athletes. \u003cem\u003eThe Sport Psychologist. 2007;21\u003c/em\u003e(1):21-37. doi:10.1123/tsp.21.1.21\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDin\u0026ccedil; A. The relationship between nutritional behavior and mental well-being levels of sports science students. \u003cem\u003eProgress in Nutrition. 2022;24\u003c/em\u003e(2):e2022077. doi:10.23751/pn.v24i2.10722\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"marathon, dietary supplements, sports nutrition, sports foods, motivation, burnout","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntroduction:\u003c/strong\u003e Marathon runners often use dietary supplements and sports foods to enhance performance and recovery. This study explores their effects not only on physical performance but also on psychological factors such as motivation and burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003e A mixed methods design was used. Quantitatively, 84 adult marathon runners completed surveys on demographics, supplement and sports food use, motivation (Sport Motivation Scale-6), and burnout (Athlete Burnout Questionnaire). Multiple regression analyses assessed predictors of motivation and burnout. Qualitatively, in-depth interviews with selected runners examined the physiological and psychological impacts of these products on motivation and burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Sixty-three percent used sports foods and 76% used dietary supplements. Sports foods use (B = 3.665; β = 0.407; p = 0.001) and the number of marathons in the past two years (B = –0.216; β = –0.257; p = 0.038) significantly predicted motivation (R² = 0.189). No significant predictors emerged for burnout (p \u0026gt; 0.05). Qualitative findings identified two main themes: physiological benefits (weight management, endurance improvement, recovery acceleration, injury prevention) and psychological benefits (self-confidence support, competitiveness, ignition).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e Sports foods positively influence motivation among marathon runners, supporting both physical and mental readiness. However, these factors did not explain burnout levels, indicating a need for further research on burnout determinants.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring the role of dietary supplements and sports foods in motivation and burnout among marathon runners: A mixed methods study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-09 11:35:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8079099/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-08T07:16:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-13T10:51:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-12T11:15:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-12T11:14:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","date":"2025-11-10T16:15:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-sports-science-medicine-and-rehabilitation","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssmr","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation](http://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ssmr/default.aspx","title":"BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ecdd8843-c031-4d24-8434-03567860df4b","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-09T11:35:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-09 11:35:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8079099","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8079099","identity":"rs-8079099","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}