Information literacy and problem-solving ability in Chinese college students: The chain mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking

Information literacy and problem-solving ability in Chinese college students: The chain mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Information literacy and problem-solving ability in Chinese college students: The chain mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking Chong Li This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8308301/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Problem-solving ability is widely regarded as a pivotal component of higher-order cognition essential for university students' success. This study examined the influence of information literacy on problem-solving ability within the Chinese higher education context, specifically investigating the underlying psychological mechanisms. Utilizing a serial mediation framework, the research explored how learning engagement and critical thinking mediate this relationship. A sample of 1,031 college students completed standardized measures assessing information literacy, problem-solving competence, learning engagement, and critical thinking. Data analysis using SPSS and PROCESS revealed that information literacy was significantly and positively correlated with all study variables. Crucially, the mediation analysis demonstrated that information literacy acts as a robust predictor of problem-solving ability through both a direct pathway and three indirect pathways: via the independent mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking, respectively, and through a serial mediation chain where information literacy is positively associated with engagement, which subsequently relates to critical thinking, contributing to better problem-solving outcomes. These findings suggest that higher education institutions should cultivate students’ problem-solving competence by integrating information literacy training with pedagogical strategies that simultaneously foster active learning engagement and critical thinking. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Problem-solving ability Information literacy Learning engagement Critical thinking College students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction The ability for problem-solving is a cornerstone of higher-order cognition, fostering essential life-relevant skills including adaptability, creativity, and productivity (Lazakidou & Retalis, 2010 ; Sahin et al., 1993 ). It is often defined as a cognitive process of comprehending and resolving issues via cognitive processing when an immediate answer is not possible (Wang et al., 2024 ). In an era defined by rapid technological change and complex societal difficulties, problem-solving skills are in high demand, serving as a critical prerequisite for navigating changing workplace environments and contributing positively to society. Given that the university setting is a primary incubator for these advanced skills, it is crucial to investigate the underlying mechanisms that are positively associated with this ability among college students. A primary antecedent in this process is information literacy, the ability to identify, evaluate, and effectively use information (Johnston & Webber, 2003 ). Information literacy is among the most crucial abilities for learning in the twenty-first century, fostering not only innovation skills but also career and life skills. While numerous studies, often in the context of problem-based learning (Smith Macklin, 2001 ), have linked information literacy to academic success (Liu et al., 2022 ), the specific psychological pathways linking information literacy to problem-solving ability remain underexplored. Based on a comprehensive literature review, the exact mechanisms that contribute to an increase in problem-solving abilities as a result of increased information literacy remain a research gap. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the association between information literacy and problem-solving ability among university students, and to explore the mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking. 1.1 The association between information literacy and problem-solving ability Information literacy has been extensively studied, often within library science (Hepworth, 2000 ), but its cognitive implications are profound. Cognitive Load Theory provides a robust theoretical framework for this link (Sweller, 1976 , 1988 ). The complex cognitive process of problem-solving requires a substantial commitment of cognitive resources. High information literacy may function by optimizing cognitive load; it allows learners to efficiently and psychologically integrate different sources of mutually referenced information (Chandler & Sweller, 1991 ), rather than expending mental resources on ineffective search strategies, which can generate a heavy cognitive load (Hostetler & Luo, 2021 ). Empirical evidence supports this direct connection. Problem-based learning modules that integrate information literacy provide students a more comprehensive experience, shifting their focus from merely finding sources to using information to develop knowledge (Diekema et al., 2011 ). Students motivated by solving real problems learn to apply more complex assessment strategies and become more metacognitive in their thinking (Diekema et al., 2011 ). This link is well-documented in science education (Chen et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2022 ). Conversely, many university students lack deep research abilities, often relying on simple searches rather than academic databases, and seldom interact with information specialists (Asher et al., 2010 ; Head & Eisenberg, 2009 ). This evidence suggests that developing information literacy is crucial for equipping students with the skills to effectively manage information and, subsequently, solve complex problems. Accordingly, we hypothesize that information literacy is directly and positively correlated with problem-solving ability. 1.2 The mediating role of learning engagement The current study propose learning engagement as a primary psychological mechanism in this relationship. Learning engagement is receiving increasing attention, representing a potential remedy for declines in learning motivation. It is defined as a positive, fulfilling, and learning-related mental state characterized by vitality, dedication, and complete focus (Schaufeli et al., 2002a ). We posit that information literacy acts as an antecedent to learning engagement. According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 ), individuals are more invested in learning when they perceive themselves as having agency. By enhancing their capacity to locate, assess, and apply knowledge, students with higher information literacy are more motivated to study and better able to focus on academic tasks (Heidari et al., 2021 ; Mughari et al., 2024 ). This ability to effectively seek and apply information allows students to overcome resource disparities and engage more actively in their studies. In turn, learning engagement is a robust predictor of problem-solving outcomes. Students’ perceptions of engagement are strongly linked to their academic achievement and problem-solving skills (Benjamin, 2024 ). Guo et al. ( 2016 ) also revealed that classroom engagement has a significant effect on students’ problem-solving, a finding that deepens our understanding of how cognitive engagement levels influence successful problem-solving (Li et al., 2021 ). Students who are able to actively engage with their learning and make effective use of information may also acquire the skills necessary to deal with complex problems. This suggests information literacy does not just provide a skill, but also a motivational improved, fostering the engagement required to solve problems. Drawing on the above evidence, we propose that learning engagement mediates the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability. 1.3 The mediating role of critical thinking The present study propose critical thinking as a second, distinct mediating pathway. Developing students’ critical thinking skills—defined as the “ability to evaluate, analyze, and reason in order to resolve complicated issues” (Facione, 1990 )—is a top educational priority. Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for university students, requiring complex cognitive abilities (Halpern, 2013 ) that allow them to reflect on and control their own thought processes (Henri & Dillon, 1992 ). Information literacy and critical thinking are deeply interdependent (Henri & Dillon, 1992 ). Information literacy provides the input for critical thinking; one must first evaluate information to subsequently reason with it. Persons who are highly information literate are better able to assess and analyze other viewpoints, which prevents them from falling victim to the “information cocoon” effect (Goodsett, 2020 ; Peng & Liu, 2021 ; Yuan & Wang, 2022 ). This analytical talent is the foundation of critical thought. As a bridge between information literacy and problem-solving abilities, critical thinking helps students access and apply precise cognitive resources. According to Dwyer et al. ( 2017 ), people who possess critical thinking are better able to solve problems in a variety of settings. Critical thinking is characterized by core problem-solving components, including verbal reasoning, argument analysis, and hypothesis testing (Ku, 2009 ). Empirical literature supports the idea that critical thinking can be learned and transferred to solve real-world problems (Halpern & Dunn, 2021 ). Research by Kong ( 2014 ) and Liu et al. ( 2022 ) shows that students’ cognitive capacities and learning performance are enhanced when students learn to think critically while also being literate with knowledge. Building on prior empirical findings, we hypothesize that critical thinking mediates the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability. 1.4 The serial mediating role of learning engagement and critical thinking Beyond these parallel pathways, the current study propose that these mediators operate sequentially: information literacy is associated with learning engagement, which in turn builds critical thinking. Learning engagement paves the way for the growth of critical thinking, which in turn is linked to the development of analytical and problem-solving abilities. Fostering critical thinking is not a passive process; it requires active participation, reflective thinking, and the ability to recognize and evaluate information (Yeh et al., 2023 ). According to Gretter and Yadav ( 2016 ), students must engage in today’s “participatory culture”—which entails being knowledge makers rather than passive consumers—in order to acquire 21st-century abilities, including critical thinking. Research supports this directional link: learning motivation, cooperativity, and peer interaction (all components of engagement) have a direct positive impact on students’ critical thinking (Almulla, 2023 ). Thus, we hypothesize that information literacy is linked to the motivation of learning engagement, and this participation in turn builds the cognitive skill of critical thinking. This logical ordering, however, has not received enough attention in past studies. Base on this, we propose that learning engagement and critical thinking sequentially mediate the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability. 1.5 The present study In conclusion, the current study has two primary aims. First, we aimed to investigate the direct association between information literacy and problem-solving ability (hypothesis 1). Second, we aimed to examine the possible mechanisms underlying this association. Based on the theoretical relationships and empirical evidence among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability, we proposed a sequential mediation model (see Fig. 1 ). The conceptual model hypothesized that higher information literacy would be related to greater learning engagement, which would then be associated with stronger critical thinking skills; the stronger critical thinking would, in turn, be related to higher problem-solving ability. Specifically, information literacy may correlate with problem-solving ability through both a direct pathway and three indirect mediating pathways: (1) via learning engagement (hypothesis 2), (2) via critical thinking (hypothesis 3), and (3) via the sequential pathway of learning engagement and then critical thinking (hypothesis 4). The hypothesized model was tested using a cross-sectional survey administered to a large sample of college students. [Insert Fig. 1 Here] 2. Method 2.1 Participants A convenience sampling strategy was employed to recruit participants from six universities in the Southwest China. These institutions were selected based on an established research collaboration with the corresponding author’s institution. According to information provided by local education authorities, the participating universities are considered reasonably representative of typical higher education institutions in the region. A total of 1,068 students completed the survey. Following data screening, 37 responses (3.46%) were removed for invalid response patterns (e.g., consistent responding across items) or for having missing data on the study’s core variables. The final analytic sample comprised 1,031 university students (valid response rate = 96.54%). Participants’ ages ranged from 17 to 22 years. The sample consisted of 413 male students (40.06%) and 618 female students (59.94%). Regarding academic year, the sample included 570 first-year (55.29%), 363 second-year (35.21%), and 98 third-year (9.51%) students. Fourth-year students (i.e., graduating seniors) were intentionally excluded from participation to avoid interfering with their preparations for postgraduate entrance examinations or employment. 2.2 Measures 2.2.1 Problem-solving ability Individuals’ perceptions of their problem-solving abilities were assessed by the Chinese Problem Solving Inventory (CPSI; Chan, 2001 ) with 35 items (e.g., “when faced with a novel situation, I have confidence that I can handle problems that may arise.”). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly agree ) to 6 ( strongly disagree ), with lower scores indicating higher perceived problem-solving ability. The reliability and validity of this inventory have been supported in Chinese populations (Chan, 2001 ). The Cronbach’s coefficient α in the present study was 0.80. 2.2.2 Information literacy Information literacy was assessed using a questionnaire developed based on the Information Literacy Competency Standards issued by the Association of College & Research Libraries (Iannuzzi, 2000 ) with 22 items (e.g., “I can quickly and accurately identify the scope of information needed based on research topics and tasks.”). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly agree ) to 6 ( strongly disagree ), with lower scores indicating higher information literacy. The Cronbach’s coefficient α in the present study was 0.95. 2.2.3 Learning engagement Learning engagement was assessed by the Learning Engagement Scale (LEC; Schaufeli et al., 2002b ; adapted by Liao, 2011 ) with 20 items (e.g., “I can manage my study time effectively.”). Participants were asked to rate each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 5 ( strongly agree ). Higher scores indicate higher levels of learning engagement. The scale has been validated in Chinese college students with good reliability and validity (Liao, 2011 ). The Cronbach’s coefficient α in the present study was 0.96. 2.2.4 Critical thinking Critical thinking was assessed by the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory—Chinese Version (CTDI-CV; Peng et al., 2004 ) with 28 items (e.g., “When making decisions, others expect me to establish applicable criteria.”). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 6 ( strongly agree ). After reverse-scoring 9 items, higher total scores indicate a higher disposition toward critical thinking. The validity of this inventory has been supported in Chinese college students (Peng et al., 2004 ). The Cronbach’s coefficient α in the present study was 0.82. 2.3 Procedure Data were collected via an online questionnaire. Five university counselors assisted the researchers by distributing the participation appeal and survey link to their students. Prior to beginning the survey, all participants were presented with an online informed consent form. This form outlined the voluntary nature of their participation, guaranteed the confidentiality of their responses, and affirmed their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Access to the questionnaire was granted only after participants affirmatively indicated their consent. 2.4 Statistical analyses First, reliability analyses, common method bias test, descriptive statistics, and Pearson correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0 (IBM Corp, 2019 ). Second, Model 6 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS, compiled by Hayes ( 2017 ), was employed to test the proposed chain mediation model. In this model, information literacy was specified as the independent variable, problem-solving ability as the dependent variable, learning engagement as the first mediator, and critical thinking as the second mediator. Gender and grade were included as control variables in the analysis. To assess the significance of the direct and indirect effects, 5,000 bootstrap samples and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. An indirect effect was considered statistically significant if its 95% confidence interval did not contain 0. The significance level α was set at 0.05 for all analyses. 3. Results 3.1 Common method bias test To mitigate potential common method bias stemming from the use of self-report data, several procedural remedies were implemented, such as ensuring participant anonymity and counterbalancing the order of the measures. Furthermore, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted as a statistical check. All items from the present study’s scales were entered into an unrotated exploratory factor analysis. The results indicated that 13 factors yielded eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor explaining only 16.55% of the total variance. As this is substantially lower than the 40% critical value (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ), it was concluded that common method bias did not pose a significant threat to the validity of the findings. 3.2 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for all study variables are presented in Table 1 . As indicated by the Pearson correlation analysis, significant positive correlations emerged among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability. [Insert Table 1 Here] Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations (N = 1031) M SD 1 2 3 4 1. Problem-solving ability 107.37 13.33 1 2. Information literacy 92.26 15.63 0.260 *** 1 3. Critical thinking 109.37 12.45 0.255 *** 0.268 *** 1 4. Learning engagement 69.81 12.89 0.237 *** 0.205 *** 0.243 *** 1 Note . SD = standard deviation. *** p < 0.001. 3.3 The chain mediating effects analysis The correlation analysis (see Table 1 ) indicated that information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability were all significantly inter-correlated, meeting the statistical prerequisite for mediation analysis. We subsequently tested the sequential mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking using Model 6 of the PROCESS macro (v3.3) for SPSS (Hayes, 2013 ). The analysis was conducted controlling for gender and grade, and all variables were standardized. A 5,000-sample bootstrap procedure was used to generate 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals. The regression results for the mediation model are presented in Table 2 and visualized in Fig. 2 . First, the total effect analysis showed that information literacy significantly and positively predicted problem-solving ability (β = 0.222, p < 0.001). After the mediators were introduced into the model, the individual path coefficients were examined. Information literacy significantly predicted both learning engagement (β = 0.169, p < 0.001) and critical thinking (β = 0.181, p < 0.001). Learning engagement, in turn, significantly predicted critical thinking (β = 0.189, p < 0.001) and problem-solving ability (β = 0.164, p < 0.001). Furthermore, critical thinking also significantly predicted problem-solving ability (β = 0.180, p < 0.001). Crucially, after accounting for the mediators, the direct effect of information literacy on problem-solving ability remained significant (β = 0.156, p < 0.001), indicating a partial mediation. [Insert Table 2 Here] Table 2 The chain Mediation Analysis (N = 1031) Regression Model Index Coefficients Dependent variable Independent variable R 2 F β t Learning engagement Information literacy 0.042 44.93 *** 0.169 6.703 *** Critical thinking Information literacy 0.109 62.63 *** 0.181 7.574 *** Learning engagement 0.189 6.517 *** Problem-solving ability Information literacy 0.128 50.18 *** 0.156 5.979 *** Learning engagement 0.164 5.219 *** Critical thinking 0.180 5.429 *** Note . *** p < 0.001. All variables were standardized. [Insert Fig. 2 Here] The specific mediating effects, detailed in Table 3 , confirmed that learning engagement and critical thinking played significant mediating roles. The total indirect effect value was 0.066 (95% CI [0.0428, 0.0921]), accounting for 29.73% of the total effect. This total indirect effect was composed of three specific pathways, all of which were statistically significant as their 95% CIs did not contain zero. The first pathway (Information literacy→Learning engagement→Problem-solving ability) yielded an indirect effect value of 0.028 (95% CI [0.0145, 0.0428]), accounting for 12.61% of the total effect. The second pathway (Information literacy→Critical thinking→Problem-solving ability) contributed an indirect effect value of 0.033 (95% CI [0.0176, 0.0500]), which accounted for 14.86% of the total effect. Finally, the sequential chain mediation pathway (Information literacy→Learning engagement→Critical thinking→Problem-solving ability) had an indirect effect value of 0.005 (95% CI [0.0027, 0.0100]), accounting for 2.25% of the total effect. [Insert Table 3 Here] Table 3 Total, Direct, and Indirect Effects of Information Literacy on Problem-solving Ability via Learning Engagement and Critical Thinking (N = 1031) Path Effect Boot SE Boot 95%CI Effect Size Total effect 0.222 0.026 [0.1716, 0.2723] 100% Direct effect 0.156 0.026 [0.1048, 0.2072] 70.27% Total indirect effects 0.066 0.012 [0.0428, 0.0921] 29.73% Indirect effect 1 0.028 0.007 [0.0145, 0.0428] 12.61% Indirect effect 2 0.033 0.008 [0.0176, 0.0500] 14.86% Indirect effect 3 0.005 0.002 [0.0027, 0.0100] 2.25% Note . Boot SE = Boot standard error, Boot 95%CI = Boot 95% confidence interval. Indirect effect 1: Information literacy→Learning engagement→Problem-solving ability; Indirect effect 2: Information literacy→Critical thinking→Problem-solving ability; Indirect effect 3: Information literacy→Learning engagement→Critical thinking→Problem-solving ability. 4. Discussion This study aimed to explore the influence of information literacy on university students’ problem-solving ability from the perspective of Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988 ), with a focus on the sequential mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking. The findings revealed that information literacy significantly and positively predicted problem-solving ability among university students. Both the direct and indirect effects—mediated through learning engagement and critical thinking—were statistically significant, indicating that information literacy not only directly influenced problem-solving ability but also exerted its impact indirectly through these two mediators. The current findings are consistent with previous studies demonstrating the significant interdependence of these cognitive and behavioral factors (Diekema et al., 2011 ; Liu et al., 2022 ). The findings advance our comprehension of the psychological and cognitive mechanisms that underpin the association between information literacy and problem-solving. The results could facilitate the design of more effective pedagogical interventions aimed at fostering students’ problem-solving capacities. 4.1 Information literacy and problem-solving ability This research offered evidence that information literacy positively predicted university students’ problem-solving capacity. The results supported our first hypothesis. As a vital competence, information literacy enables university students to apply information to the problem at hand (Johnston & Webber, 2003 ; Smith Macklin, 2001 ). This direct positive relationship is strongly supported by Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988 ). Higher information literacy may correspond to lower extraneous cognitive overload and helps university students, particularly those new to the expectations of research in higher education, to effectively allocate their finite cognitive resources to problem-solving activities. This mechanism is in line with the cognitive load theory (Hostetler & Luo, 2021 ; Sweller, 1988 ). By possessing the schemas to efficiently locate, evaluate, and synthesize information, students reduce the cognitive burden associated with information management, thereby freeing resources for the more demanding, germane processes of problem-solving. 4.2 The mediating role of learning engagement Secondly, the findings highlight the importance of learning engagement as a mediator. The results also supported our second hypothesis. Learning engagement encompasses behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of academic involvement (Schaufeli et al., 2002a ). The results indicate that problem-solving skills can be enhanced when students are actively involved in their learning as a result of higher information literacy (Dekhane et al., 2013 ; Tang et al., 2023 ). Previous studies found that students who were engaged were more likely to apply strategies for solving problems and maintain their attention throughout the course of the learning process (Benjamin, 2024 ; Karaoglan-Yilmaz et al., 2024 ). This research lends credence to such findings. Information literacy appears to function as an essential predictor of long-term academic involvement. When students feel competent in their ability to manage information, their intrinsic motivation and active participation in learning tasks increase, which subsequently provides more opportunities to develop and refine problem-solving skills. 4.3 The mediating role of critical thinking Our third hypothesis was also validated in the study. By improving students’ skills involved in judging information, evaluating alternative evidence, and arguing with solid reasons, critical thinking also mediated the link between information literacy and problem-solving skills. The findings support earlier research demonstrating the importance of critical thinking for sound decision-making and problem-solving (Facione, 1990 ; Henri & Dillon, 1992 ; Ku, 2009 ). The results bolster the claim that information literacy promotes critical thinking by encouraging analytical and reflective thought processes (Goodsett, 2020 ). This suggests that the development of critical thinking depends on students’ capacity to interact deeply with information and learning resources (Goodsett, 2020 ; Yuan & Wang, 2022 ). Information literacy provides the necessary foundation (i.e., access to and evaluation of information) upon which critical thinking processes can operate. 4.4 The serial mediating role of learning engagement and critical thinking Most interestingly, the study revealed the sequential mediation effect, which holds that information literacy is linked to learning engagement, which in turn is associated with the growth of critical thinking, ultimately improving problem-solving skills. This sequential pathway suggests a developmental cascade. According to Huang et al. ( 2022 ), this bolsters the claim that high learning engagement promotes deeper cognitive processing, improving students’ higher-order thinking skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity. Research has shown that enhancing information literacy programs, including digital and critical literacy, can equip students to effectively navigate information-rich environments and use information to solve problems (Kim et al., 2022 ; Rosli et al., 2022 ). Targeted instructional interventions that emphasize learning engagement and the development of critical thinking skills can further maximize problem-solving abilities and overall learning outcomes (Abrami et al., 2008 ). Educators should consider using problem-based learning strategies and technology-assisted personalized teaching to provide an all-encompassing learning environment that encourages participation and critical thinking among adult learners. Although this pathway was supported, the relationships between learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving are complicated. Some studies have begun to propose bidirectional relationships between them (Anggraeni et al., 2023 ). Future studies should investigate the relationship mechanism using a longitudinal research design. The sequential mediation model stresses the need for a more all-encompassing learning environment that involves timely information and student-centred pedagogy. 4.5 Theoretical and practical implications This study contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive understanding of the mediating roles played by learning engagement and critical thinking in the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving abilities. First, Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988 ) finds practical application in the findings. By demonstrating that information literacy is positively associated with university students’ meta-cognitive capacity to manage information, it allows them to make effective use of their limited cognitive resources to comprehend and address problems. Additionally, the results align with Self-Determination Theory, which stresses the importance of autonomy, relatedness, and competence in fostering motivation and engagement in learning. Students are more likely to engage in learning activities due to intrinsic motivation when they have faith in their ability to properly locate, evaluate, and apply information (i.e., perceived competence). This theory is particularly useful for understanding university students who may face challenges such as limited access to instructional resources or technological tools. The study’s practical implications highlight the critical need to enhance information literacy education in universities, particularly in regions with relatively underdeveloped educational support systems or where students may encounter financial difficulties and digital disparities. First, students need individualized instruction and smart learning environments that teach them how to retrieve, evaluate, and use digital resources effectively. Second, schools can encourage students to apply what they’ve learned by using case-based and problem-based learning methodologies that blend information literacy training with authentic problems. Multiple instructional strategies, including inquiry-based assignments and collaborative learning, may help teachers foster critical thinking and greater creative engagement with curricular material. Universities and other high education institutions should fund internship programs, stimulating lectures, and other forms of experiential learning that put students’ information literacy and critical thinking abilities to the test in real-world contexts; this will help them become better problem solvers overall. Furthermore, it is essential to foster a supportive and effective learning atmosphere that encourages students to take an active role in their own education and develops a growth mindset that values continuous learning. 4.6 Limitations and future directions This study also has some limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design poses challenges in establishing causal relationships among the four study variables. We cannot rule out the possibility of reverse causality. For instance, students with stronger problem-solving abilities might be more motivated to engage in learning and acquire information literacy skills. Future longitudinal or experimental research is needed to verify the directional paths proposed in our model. Second, the findings may not be as accurate as they may be due to social desirability response bias and recall bias in self-reported data. Future research should combine self-reports with objective data, such as performance-based assessments, to increase reliability. Third, the study mostly concentrated on the theoretical aspects of problem-solving abilities and paid little attention to how these skills are actually used in real-world contexts. Future research should include assessments of theoretical and practical problem-solving skills to provide a more holistic picture. Additionally, although the study did focus on critical thinking and learning engagement as mediators, further information might be provided by other factors such as cognitive load management, learning motivation, and collaborative learning. Finally, it’s possible that the findings are not applicable outside of the specific context of this study. The sample was drawn from a particular university population with its own sociocultural and educational backgrounds. Future study should examine other locations and contexts to determine the extent to which these connections hold true in diverse educational environments and cultural backgrounds. 5. Conclusion The present study provides important empirical evidence for the underlying pathway of information literacy to problem-solving abilities among college students, contributing to the understanding of the roles played by learning engagement and critical thinking. Findings of this study revealed that information literacy was positively associated with problem-solving abilities both directly and indirectly, and learning engagement and critical thinking mediated this association in sequential manners. This study highlights the significant relationship among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities among university students, particularly where learning resources are limited. Incorporating digital literacy programs and encouraging inquiry-based projects can equip students to tackle modern challenges. Declarations Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to the editor and reviewers of this journal for their insightful comments and constructive suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper. Funding declaration This research was funded by the University Students Mental Health Education Feature Project of the Xizang University of Tibetan Medicine, China (Project ID. 2024XLJKZD02). Ethical approval and informed consent Ethical approval for this study was waived by the Ethics Committee of Xizang University of Tibetan Medicine, as the research did not involve any procedures that could cause physical or psychological harm to the students. The study strictly adhered to ethical research principles, ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of participants. Prior to data collection, all students were provided with detailed information about the study’s objectives and procedures. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, confirming their voluntary participation and the right to withdraw at any time without consequences. Disclosure statement The author reported no potential conflict of interest. Data availability statement The data is available on request from the first author. Author contribution Chong Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. References Abrami, P. C. et al. Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 78 (4), 1102–1134. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308326084 (2008). Almulla, M. A. Constructivism learning theory: A paradigm for students’ critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving to affect academic performance in higher education. 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Information literacy competency standards for higher education. Community Junior Coll. Libr. 9 (4), 63–67 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1300/J107v09n04_09 IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 26.0) [Computer software]. (2019). Johnston, B. & Webber, S. Information literacy in higher education: a review and case study. Stud. High. Educ. 28 (3), 335–352 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070309295 Karaoglan-Yilmaz, F. G., Zhang, K., Ustun, A. B. & Yilmaz, R. Transactional distance perceptions, student engagement, and course satisfaction in flipped learning: A correlational study. Interact. Learn. Environ. 32 (2), 447–462 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2091603 Kim, N. J., Vicentini, C. R. & Belland, B. R. Influence of scaffolding on information literacy and argumentation skills in virtual field trips and problem-based learning for scientific problem solving. Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 20 (2), 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-020-10145-y (2022). Kong, S. C. Developing information literacy and critical thinking skills through domain knowledge learning in digital classrooms: An experience of practicing flipped classroom strategy. Comput. Educ. 78 , 160–173 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.05.009 Ku, K. Y. L. Assessing students’ critical thinking performance: Urging for measurements using multi-response format. Think. Skills Creativity . 4 (1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2009.02.001 (2009). Lazakidou, G. & Retalis, S. Using computer supported collaborative learning strategies for helping students acquire self-regulated problem-solving skills in mathematics. Comput. Educ. 54 (1), 3–13 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.020 Li, S., Lajoie, S. P., Zheng, J., Wu, H. & Cheng, H. Automated detection of cognitive engagement to inform the art of staying engaged in problem-solving. Comput. Educ. 163 , 104114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104114 (2021). Liao, Y. Preparation and Current Situation Investigation of College Students’ Learning Engagement Questionnaire. J. Jimei Univ. (Educational Sci. Edition) . 12 (2), 39–44 (2011). Liu, C., Lai, C., Hwang, G. J. & Tu, Y. F. Effects of ASQE-based learning on the information literacy, problem-solving and critical thinking of students with different growth mindsets. Electron. Libr. 40 (3), 269–290 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1108/EL-11-2021-0205 Mughari, S., Naveed, M. A. & Rafique, G. M. Information literate students are more engaged and successful: Role of information literacy in higher education. Online Inf. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-09-2023-0478 (2024). Peng, H. & Liu, C. Breaking the information cocoon: When do people actively seek conflicting information? Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology , 58 (1), 801–803. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.567 Peng, M. et al. Study on the reliability and validity of critical thinking ability scale. Chin. J. Nurs. 39 (9), 7–10 (2004). Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y. & Podsakoff, N. P. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88 (5), 879–903 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 Rosli, M. S., Saleh, N. S., Md. Ali, A., Bakar, A. & S Self-determination theory and online learning in university: Advancements, future direction and research gaps. Sustainability 14 (21), 14655 (2022). Sahin, N., Sahin, N. H. & Heppner, P. P. Psychometric properties of the problem solving inventory in a group of Turkish university students. Cogn. Therapy Res. 17 , 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01177661 (1993). Schaufeli, W. B., Martínez, I. M., Pinto, A. M., Salanova, M. & Bakker, A. B. Burnout and Engagement in University Students: A Cross-National Study. J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 33 (5), 464–481 (2002a). https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022102033005003 Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V. & Bakker, A. B. The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. J. Happiness Stud. 3 , 71–92 (2002b). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326 Smith Macklin, A. Integrating information literacy using problem-based learning. Ref. Serv. Rev. 29 (4), 306–314 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000006493 Sweller, J. The effect of task complexity and sequence on rule learning and problem solving. Br. J. Psychol. 67 (4), 553–558 (1976). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1976.tb01546.x Sweller, J. Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cogn. Sci. 12 (2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 (1988). Tang, H., Dai, M., Du, X., Hung, J. L. & Li, H. Understanding college students’ cognitive engagement in online collaborative problem-solving: A multimodal data analysis. Distance Educ. 44 (2), 306–323 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2023.2209025 Wang, X. M., Huang, X. T. & Zhou, W. Q. The effect of university students’ self-efficacy on problem-solving disposition: The chained dual mediating role of metacognition disposition and critical thinking disposition. Think. Skills Creativity . 54 , 101658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101658 (2024). Yeh, H. C., Yang, S. H., Fu, J. S. & Shih, Y. C. Developing college students’ critical thinking through reflective writing. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 42 (1), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2022.2043247 (2023). Yuan, X. & Wang, C. Research on the formation mechanism of information cocoon and individual differences among researchers based on information ecology theory. Front. Psychol. 13 , 1055798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1055798 (2022). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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17:11:27","extension":"xml","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":129659,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"a7a3b1175af945be8002e404d68ed4231structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8308301/v1/fd06f19744dd8045a905ef86.xml"},{"id":98578617,"identity":"640c4039-bfc9-4e9f-9161-f76e92a34d34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 07:55:44","extension":"html","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":139993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8308301/v1/e662ab455d874893fd863588.html"},{"id":98578609,"identity":"8de4fa32-7b23-4040-a464-4e3e96eaa1b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 07:55:44","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28850,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Hypothesized Model of the Chain Mediating Role of Learning Engagement and Critical Thinking in the Relationship between Information Literacy and Problem-Solving Ability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8308301/v1/936a0fcb43d9e43b34f1d345.png"},{"id":98627848,"identity":"732b8b0e-15ed-4437-b5bc-fab103a2a558","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:10:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37060,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Chain Mediating Effect of Learning Engagement and Critical Thinking\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. The data in the figure represent standardized path coefficients; \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8308301/v1/af4c73a5e69b10b7faceadcc.png"},{"id":98632171,"identity":"3fc41c53-080f-4dca-adbc-e8c86bb9d35a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 17:21:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1108170,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8308301/v1/3432a8cd-cf1d-49ad-8a44-815cb7e283ba.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Information literacy and problem-solving ability in Chinese college students: The chain mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe ability for problem-solving is a cornerstone of higher-order cognition, fostering essential life-relevant skills including adaptability, creativity, and productivity (Lazakidou \u0026amp; Retalis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Sahin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). It is often defined as a cognitive process of comprehending and resolving issues via cognitive processing when an immediate answer is not possible (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In an era defined by rapid technological change and complex societal difficulties, problem-solving skills are in high demand, serving as a critical prerequisite for navigating changing workplace environments and contributing positively to society. Given that the university setting is a primary incubator for these advanced skills, it is crucial to investigate the underlying mechanisms that are positively associated with this ability among college students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA primary antecedent in this process is information literacy, the ability to identify, evaluate, and effectively use information (Johnston \u0026amp; Webber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Information literacy is among the most crucial abilities for learning in the twenty-first century, fostering not only innovation skills but also career and life skills. While numerous studies, often in the context of problem-based learning (Smith Macklin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), have linked information literacy to academic success (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the specific psychological pathways linking information literacy to problem-solving ability remain underexplored. Based on a comprehensive literature review, the exact mechanisms that contribute to an increase in problem-solving abilities as a result of increased information literacy remain a research gap. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the association between information literacy and problem-solving ability among university students, and to explore the mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 The association between information literacy and problem-solving ability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy has been extensively studied, often within library science (Hepworth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), but its cognitive implications are profound. Cognitive Load Theory provides a robust theoretical framework for this link (Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). The complex cognitive process of problem-solving requires a substantial commitment of cognitive resources. High information literacy may function by optimizing cognitive load; it allows learners to efficiently and psychologically integrate different sources of mutually referenced information (Chandler \u0026amp; Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), rather than expending mental resources on ineffective search strategies, which can generate a heavy cognitive load (Hostetler \u0026amp; Luo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpirical evidence supports this direct connection. Problem-based learning modules that integrate information literacy provide students a more comprehensive experience, shifting their focus from merely finding sources to using information to develop knowledge (Diekema et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Students motivated by solving real problems learn to apply more complex assessment strategies and become more metacognitive in their thinking (Diekema et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This link is well-documented in science education (Chen et al., 2014; Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, many university students lack deep research abilities, often relying on simple searches rather than academic databases, and seldom interact with information specialists (Asher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Head \u0026amp; Eisenberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This evidence suggests that developing information literacy is crucial for equipping students with the skills to effectively manage information and, subsequently, solve complex problems. Accordingly, we hypothesize that information literacy is directly and positively correlated with problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2 The mediating role of learning engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study propose learning engagement as a primary psychological mechanism in this relationship. Learning engagement is receiving increasing attention, representing a potential remedy for declines in learning motivation. It is defined as a positive, fulfilling, and learning-related mental state characterized by vitality, dedication, and complete focus (Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002a\u003c/span\u003e). We posit that information literacy acts as an antecedent to learning engagement. According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e), individuals are more invested in learning when they perceive themselves as having agency. By enhancing their capacity to locate, assess, and apply knowledge, students with higher information literacy are more motivated to study and better able to focus on academic tasks (Heidari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mughari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This ability to effectively seek and apply information allows students to overcome resource disparities and engage more actively in their studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn turn, learning engagement is a robust predictor of problem-solving outcomes. Students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of engagement are strongly linked to their academic achievement and problem-solving skills (Benjamin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Guo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) also revealed that classroom engagement has a significant effect on students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving, a finding that deepens our understanding of how cognitive engagement levels influence successful problem-solving (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Students who are able to actively engage with their learning and make effective use of information may also acquire the skills necessary to deal with complex problems. This suggests information literacy does not just provide a skill, but also a motivational improved, fostering the engagement required to solve problems. Drawing on the above evidence, we propose that learning engagement mediates the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3 The mediating role of critical thinking\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study propose critical thinking as a second, distinct mediating pathway. Developing students\u0026rsquo; critical thinking skills\u0026mdash;defined as the \u0026ldquo;ability to evaluate, analyze, and reason in order to resolve complicated issues\u0026rdquo; (Facione, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;is a top educational priority. Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for university students, requiring complex cognitive abilities (Halpern, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) that allow them to reflect on and control their own thought processes (Henri \u0026amp; Dillon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy and critical thinking are deeply interdependent (Henri \u0026amp; Dillon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Information literacy provides the input for critical thinking; one must first evaluate information to subsequently reason with it. Persons who are highly information literate are better able to assess and analyze other viewpoints, which prevents them from falling victim to the \u0026ldquo;information cocoon\u0026rdquo; effect (Goodsett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Peng \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Yuan \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This analytical talent is the foundation of critical thought.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a bridge between information literacy and problem-solving abilities, critical thinking helps students access and apply precise cognitive resources. According to Dwyer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), people who possess critical thinking are better able to solve problems in a variety of settings. Critical thinking is characterized by core problem-solving components, including verbal reasoning, argument analysis, and hypothesis testing (Ku, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical literature supports the idea that critical thinking can be learned and transferred to solve real-world problems (Halpern \u0026amp; Dunn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Research by Kong (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) shows that students\u0026rsquo; cognitive capacities and learning performance are enhanced when students learn to think critically while also being literate with knowledge. Building on prior empirical findings, we hypothesize that critical thinking mediates the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4 The serial mediating role of learning engagement and critical thinking\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond these parallel pathways, the current study propose that these mediators operate sequentially: information literacy is associated with learning engagement, which in turn builds critical thinking. Learning engagement paves the way for the growth of critical thinking, which in turn is linked to the development of analytical and problem-solving abilities. Fostering critical thinking is not a passive process; it requires active participation, reflective thinking, and the ability to recognize and evaluate information (Yeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Gretter and Yadav (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), students must engage in today\u0026rsquo;s \u0026ldquo;participatory culture\u0026rdquo;\u0026mdash;which entails being knowledge makers rather than passive consumers\u0026mdash;in order to acquire 21st-century abilities, including critical thinking. Research supports this directional link: learning motivation, cooperativity, and peer interaction (all components of engagement) have a direct positive impact on students\u0026rsquo; critical thinking (Almulla, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, we hypothesize that information literacy is linked to the motivation of learning engagement, and this participation in turn builds the cognitive skill of critical thinking. This logical ordering, however, has not received enough attention in past studies. Base on this, we propose that learning engagement and critical thinking sequentially mediate the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.5 The present study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the current study has two primary aims. First, we aimed to investigate the direct association between information literacy and problem-solving ability (hypothesis 1). Second, we aimed to examine the possible mechanisms underlying this association. Based on the theoretical relationships and empirical evidence among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability, we proposed a sequential mediation model (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conceptual model hypothesized that higher information literacy would be related to greater learning engagement, which would then be associated with stronger critical thinking skills; the stronger critical thinking would, in turn, be related to higher problem-solving ability. Specifically, information literacy may correlate with problem-solving ability through both a direct pathway and three indirect mediating pathways: (1) via learning engagement (hypothesis 2), (2) via critical thinking (hypothesis 3), and (3) via the sequential pathway of learning engagement and then critical thinking (hypothesis 4). The hypothesized model was tested using a cross-sectional survey administered to a large sample of college students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA convenience sampling strategy was employed to recruit participants from six universities in the Southwest China. These institutions were selected based on an established research collaboration with the corresponding author\u0026rsquo;s institution. According to information provided by local education authorities, the participating universities are considered reasonably representative of typical higher education institutions in the region. A total of 1,068 students completed the survey. Following data screening, 37 responses (3.46%) were removed for invalid response patterns (e.g., consistent responding across items) or for having missing data on the study\u0026rsquo;s core variables. The final analytic sample comprised 1,031 university students (valid response rate\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;96.54%). Participants\u0026rsquo; ages ranged from 17 to 22 years. The sample consisted of 413 male students (40.06%) and 618 female students (59.94%). Regarding academic year, the sample included 570 first-year (55.29%), 363 second-year (35.21%), and 98 third-year (9.51%) students. Fourth-year students (i.e., graduating seniors) were intentionally excluded from participation to avoid interfering with their preparations for postgraduate entrance examinations or employment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Problem-solving ability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividuals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of their problem-solving abilities were assessed by the Chinese Problem Solving Inventory (CPSI; Chan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) with 35 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;when faced with a novel situation, I have confidence that I can handle problems that may arise.\u0026rdquo;). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e) to 6 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e), with lower scores indicating higher perceived problem-solving ability. The reliability and validity of this inventory have been supported in Chinese populations (Chan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s coefficient α in the present study was 0.80.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Information literacy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy was assessed using a questionnaire developed based on the Information Literacy Competency Standards issued by the Association of College \u0026amp; Research Libraries (Iannuzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) with 22 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I can quickly and accurately identify the scope of information needed based on research topics and tasks.\u0026rdquo;). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e) to 6 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e), with lower scores indicating higher information literacy. The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s coefficient α in the present study was 0.95.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Learning engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning engagement was assessed by the Learning Engagement Scale (LEC; Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002b\u003c/span\u003e; adapted by Liao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) with 20 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I can manage my study time effectively.\u0026rdquo;). Participants were asked to rate each item on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 5 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e). Higher scores indicate higher levels of learning engagement. The scale has been validated in Chinese college students with good reliability and validity (Liao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s coefficient α in the present study was 0.96.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4 Critical thinking\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical thinking was assessed by the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory\u0026mdash;Chinese Version (CTDI-CV; Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) with 28 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When making decisions, others expect me to establish applicable criteria.\u0026rdquo;). Participants were asked to rate each item on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 6 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e). After reverse-scoring 9 items, higher total scores indicate a higher disposition toward critical thinking. The validity of this inventory has been supported in Chinese college students (Peng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s coefficient α in the present study was 0.82.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected via an online questionnaire. Five university counselors assisted the researchers by distributing the participation appeal and survey link to their students. Prior to beginning the survey, all participants were presented with an online informed consent form. This form outlined the voluntary nature of their participation, guaranteed the confidentiality of their responses, and affirmed their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Access to the questionnaire was granted only after participants affirmatively indicated their consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, reliability analyses, common method bias test, descriptive statistics, and Pearson correlation analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0 (IBM Corp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Second, Model 6 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS, compiled by Hayes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), was employed to test the proposed chain mediation model. In this model, information literacy was specified as the independent variable, problem-solving ability as the dependent variable, learning engagement as the first mediator, and critical thinking as the second mediator. Gender and grade were included as control variables in the analysis. To assess the significance of the direct and indirect effects, 5,000 bootstrap samples and 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. An indirect effect was considered statistically significant if its 95% confidence interval did not contain 0. The significance level α was set at 0.05 for all analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Common method bias test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo mitigate potential common method bias stemming from the use of self-report data, several procedural remedies were implemented, such as ensuring participant anonymity and counterbalancing the order of the measures. Furthermore, Harman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test was conducted as a statistical check. All items from the present study\u0026rsquo;s scales were entered into an unrotated exploratory factor analysis. The results indicated that 13 factors yielded eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor explaining only 16.55% of the total variance. As this is substantially lower than the 40% critical value (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), it was concluded that common method bias did not pose a significant threat to the validity of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for all study variables are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. As indicated by the Pearson correlation analysis, significant positive correlations emerged among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1031)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Problem-solving ability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Information literacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.260\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Critical thinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.255\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.268\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Learning engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.237\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.205\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.243\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 The chain mediating effects analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe correlation analysis (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) indicated that information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability were all significantly inter-correlated, meeting the statistical prerequisite for mediation analysis. We subsequently tested the sequential mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking using Model 6 of the PROCESS macro (v3.3) for SPSS (Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis was conducted controlling for gender and grade, and all variables were standardized. A 5,000-sample bootstrap procedure was used to generate 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regression results for the mediation model are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and visualized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. First, the total effect analysis showed that information literacy significantly and positively predicted problem-solving ability (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.222, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). After the mediators were introduced into the model, the individual path coefficients were examined. Information literacy significantly predicted both learning engagement (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.169, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and critical thinking (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.181, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Learning engagement, in turn, significantly predicted critical thinking (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.189, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and problem-solving ability (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.164, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Furthermore, critical thinking also significantly predicted problem-solving ability (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.180, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Crucially, after accounting for the mediators, the direct effect of information literacy on problem-solving ability remained significant (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.156, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), indicating a partial mediation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe chain Mediation Analysis (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1031)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDependent variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.93\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.703\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical thinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.63\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.574\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.517\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProblem-solving ability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation literacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.18\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.979\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.219\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical thinking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.429\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. All variables were standardized.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e[Insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific mediating effects, detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, confirmed that learning engagement and critical thinking played significant mediating roles. The total indirect effect value was 0.066 (95% CI [0.0428, 0.0921]), accounting for 29.73% of the total effect. This total indirect effect was composed of three specific pathways, all of which were statistically significant as their 95% CIs did not contain zero. The first pathway (Information literacy\u0026rarr;Learning engagement\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability) yielded an indirect effect value of 0.028 (95% CI [0.0145, 0.0428]), accounting for 12.61% of the total effect. The second pathway (Information literacy\u0026rarr;Critical thinking\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability) contributed an indirect effect value of 0.033 (95% CI [0.0176, 0.0500]), which accounted for 14.86% of the total effect. Finally, the sequential chain mediation pathway (Information literacy\u0026rarr;Learning engagement\u0026rarr;Critical thinking\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability) had an indirect effect value of 0.005 (95% CI [0.0027, 0.0100]), accounting for 2.25% of the total effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e Here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTotal, Direct, and Indirect Effects of Information Literacy on Problem-solving Ability via Learning Engagement and Critical Thinking (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1031)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoot SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoot 95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.222\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.1716, 0.2723]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.1048, 0.2072]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.27%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal indirect effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.0428, 0.0921]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.73%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.0145, 0.0428]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.61%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.0176, 0.0500]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.86%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.0027, 0.0100]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. Boot SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Boot standard error, Boot 95%CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Boot 95% confidence interval.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eIndirect effect 1: Information literacy\u0026rarr;Learning engagement\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eIndirect effect 2: Information literacy\u0026rarr;Critical thinking\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 3: Information literacy\u0026rarr;Learning engagement\u0026rarr;Critical thinking\u0026rarr;Problem-solving ability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to explore the influence of information literacy on university students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving ability from the perspective of Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e), with a focus on the sequential mediating roles of learning engagement and critical thinking. The findings revealed that information literacy significantly and positively predicted problem-solving ability among university students. Both the direct and indirect effects\u0026mdash;mediated through learning engagement and critical thinking\u0026mdash;were statistically significant, indicating that information literacy not only directly influenced problem-solving ability but also exerted its impact indirectly through these two mediators.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current findings are consistent with previous studies demonstrating the significant interdependence of these cognitive and behavioral factors (Diekema et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The findings advance our comprehension of the psychological and cognitive mechanisms that underpin the association between information literacy and problem-solving. The results could facilitate the design of more effective pedagogical interventions aimed at fostering students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving capacities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Information literacy and problem-solving ability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research offered evidence that information literacy positively predicted university students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving capacity. The results supported our first hypothesis. As a vital competence, information literacy enables university students to apply information to the problem at hand (Johnston \u0026amp; Webber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Smith Macklin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). This direct positive relationship is strongly supported by Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher information literacy may correspond to lower extraneous cognitive overload and helps university students, particularly those new to the expectations of research in higher education, to effectively allocate their finite cognitive resources to problem-solving activities. This mechanism is in line with the cognitive load theory (Hostetler \u0026amp; Luo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). By possessing the schemas to efficiently locate, evaluate, and synthesize information, students reduce the cognitive burden associated with information management, thereby freeing resources for the more demanding, germane processes of problem-solving.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 The mediating role of learning engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, the findings highlight the importance of learning engagement as a mediator. The results also supported our second hypothesis. Learning engagement encompasses behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of academic involvement (Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002a\u003c/span\u003e). The results indicate that problem-solving skills can be enhanced when students are actively involved in their learning as a result of higher information literacy (Dekhane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies found that students who were engaged were more likely to apply strategies for solving problems and maintain their attention throughout the course of the learning process (Benjamin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Karaoglan-Yilmaz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This research lends credence to such findings. Information literacy appears to function as an essential predictor of long-term academic involvement. When students feel competent in their ability to manage information, their intrinsic motivation and active participation in learning tasks increase, which subsequently provides more opportunities to develop and refine problem-solving skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 The mediating role of critical thinking\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur third hypothesis was also validated in the study. By improving students\u0026rsquo; skills involved in judging information, evaluating alternative evidence, and arguing with solid reasons, critical thinking also mediated the link between information literacy and problem-solving skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings support earlier research demonstrating the importance of critical thinking for sound decision-making and problem-solving (Facione, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Henri \u0026amp; Dillon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Ku, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The results bolster the claim that information literacy promotes critical thinking by encouraging analytical and reflective thought processes (Goodsett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that the development of critical thinking depends on students\u0026rsquo; capacity to interact deeply with information and learning resources (Goodsett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yuan \u0026amp; Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Information literacy provides the necessary foundation (i.e., access to and evaluation of information) upon which critical thinking processes can operate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 The serial mediating role of learning engagement and critical thinking\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost interestingly, the study revealed the sequential mediation effect, which holds that information literacy is linked to learning engagement, which in turn is associated with the growth of critical thinking, ultimately improving problem-solving skills. This sequential pathway suggests a developmental cascade. According to Huang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), this bolsters the claim that high learning engagement promotes deeper cognitive processing, improving students\u0026rsquo; higher-order thinking skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity. Research has shown that enhancing information literacy programs, including digital and critical literacy, can equip students to effectively navigate information-rich environments and use information to solve problems (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rosli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTargeted instructional interventions that emphasize learning engagement and the development of critical thinking skills can further maximize problem-solving abilities and overall learning outcomes (Abrami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Educators should consider using problem-based learning strategies and technology-assisted personalized teaching to provide an all-encompassing learning environment that encourages participation and critical thinking among adult learners.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough this pathway was supported, the relationships between learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving are complicated. Some studies have begun to propose bidirectional relationships between them (Anggraeni et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies should investigate the relationship mechanism using a longitudinal research design. The sequential mediation model stresses the need for a more all-encompassing learning environment that involves timely information and student-centred pedagogy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Theoretical and practical implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive understanding of the mediating roles played by learning engagement and critical thinking in the relationship between information literacy and problem-solving abilities. First, Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) finds practical application in the findings. By demonstrating that information literacy is positively associated with university students\u0026rsquo; meta-cognitive capacity to manage information, it allows them to make effective use of their limited cognitive resources to comprehend and address problems. Additionally, the results align with Self-Determination Theory, which stresses the importance of autonomy, relatedness, and competence in fostering motivation and engagement in learning. Students are more likely to engage in learning activities due to intrinsic motivation when they have faith in their ability to properly locate, evaluate, and apply information (i.e., perceived competence). This theory is particularly useful for understanding university students who may face challenges such as limited access to instructional resources or technological tools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026rsquo;s practical implications highlight the critical need to enhance information literacy education in universities, particularly in regions with relatively underdeveloped educational support systems or where students may encounter financial difficulties and digital disparities. First, students need individualized instruction and smart learning environments that teach them how to retrieve, evaluate, and use digital resources effectively. Second, schools can encourage students to apply what they\u0026rsquo;ve learned by using case-based and problem-based learning methodologies that blend information literacy training with authentic problems. Multiple instructional strategies, including inquiry-based assignments and collaborative learning, may help teachers foster critical thinking and greater creative engagement with curricular material. Universities and other high education institutions should fund internship programs, stimulating lectures, and other forms of experiential learning that put students\u0026rsquo; information literacy and critical thinking abilities to the test in real-world contexts; this will help them become better problem solvers overall. Furthermore, it is essential to foster a supportive and effective learning atmosphere that encourages students to take an active role in their own education and develops a growth mindset that values continuous learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.6 Limitations and future directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also has some limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design poses challenges in establishing causal relationships among the four study variables. We cannot rule out the possibility of reverse causality. For instance, students with stronger problem-solving abilities might be more motivated to engage in learning and acquire information literacy skills. Future longitudinal or experimental research is needed to verify the directional paths proposed in our model. Second, the findings may not be as accurate as they may be due to social desirability response bias and recall bias in self-reported data. Future research should combine self-reports with objective data, such as performance-based assessments, to increase reliability. Third, the study mostly concentrated on the theoretical aspects of problem-solving abilities and paid little attention to how these skills are actually used in real-world contexts. Future research should include assessments of theoretical and practical problem-solving skills to provide a more holistic picture. Additionally, although the study did focus on critical thinking and learning engagement as mediators, further information might be provided by other factors such as cognitive load management, learning motivation, and collaborative learning. Finally, it\u0026rsquo;s possible that the findings are not applicable outside of the specific context of this study. The sample was drawn from a particular university population with its own sociocultural and educational backgrounds. Future study should examine other locations and contexts to determine the extent to which these connections hold true in diverse educational environments and cultural backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study provides important empirical evidence for the underlying pathway of information literacy to problem-solving abilities among college students, contributing to the understanding of the roles played by learning engagement and critical thinking. Findings of this study revealed that information literacy was positively associated with problem-solving abilities both directly and indirectly, and learning engagement and critical thinking mediated this association in sequential manners. This study highlights the significant relationship among information literacy, learning engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities among university students, particularly where learning resources are limited. Incorporating digital literacy programs and encouraging inquiry-based projects can equip students to tackle modern challenges.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my gratitude to the editor and reviewers of this journal for their insightful comments and constructive suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the University Students Mental Health Education Feature Project of the Xizang University of Tibetan Medicine, China (Project ID. 2024XLJKZD02).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval and informed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was waived by the Ethics Committee of Xizang University of Tibetan Medicine, as the research did not involve any procedures that could cause physical or psychological harm to the students. The study strictly adhered to ethical research principles, ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of participants. Prior to data collection, all students were provided with detailed information about the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives and procedures. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, confirming their voluntary participation and the right to withdraw at any time without consequences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author reported no potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data is available on request from the first author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChong Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbrami, P. C. et al. Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003eRev. 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Psychol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 1055798. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1055798\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Problem-solving ability, Information literacy, Learning engagement, Critical thinking, College students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8308301/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8308301/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eProblem-solving ability is widely regarded as a pivotal component of higher-order cognition essential for university students' success. This study examined the influence of information literacy on problem-solving ability within the Chinese higher education context, specifically investigating the underlying psychological mechanisms. Utilizing a serial mediation framework, the research explored how learning engagement and critical thinking mediate this relationship. A sample of 1,031 college students completed standardized measures assessing information literacy, problem-solving competence, learning engagement, and critical thinking. Data analysis using \u003cem\u003eSPSS\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePROCESS\u003c/em\u003e revealed that information literacy was significantly and positively correlated with all study variables. Crucially, the mediation analysis demonstrated that information literacy acts as a robust predictor of problem-solving ability through both a direct pathway and three indirect pathways: via the independent mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking, respectively, and through a serial mediation chain where information literacy is positively associated with engagement, which subsequently relates to critical thinking, contributing to better problem-solving outcomes. These findings suggest that higher education institutions should cultivate students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving competence by integrating information literacy training with pedagogical strategies that simultaneously foster active learning engagement and critical thinking.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Information literacy and problem-solving ability in Chinese college students: The chain mediating effects of learning engagement and critical thinking","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-19 07:55:39","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8308301/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-10T11:07:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T16:52:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-24T06:33:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-19T08:50:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"103866994031115285877687947631968966021","date":"2026-02-19T07:59:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"99829695625694928680645776262011111538","date":"2026-02-16T09:24:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"199590829521339460616425531382347593521","date":"2026-02-15T02:11:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"174193630772939166975435078151160949182","date":"2025-12-19T06:42:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-17T04:09:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-17T04:07:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-16T14:47:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-14T10:40:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-12-14T10:34:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4f3035ec-4082-4607-b7e5-394ba6674299","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[{"id":59823015,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":59823016,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":59823017,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-16T12:41:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-19 07:55:39","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8308301","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8308301","identity":"rs-8308301","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}