Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria

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Manasseh" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Chine Sp Logan" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Ogochukwu C. Okanya" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Kenechukwu K. Ede" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Odidi C..O. Onuselogu" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Chi A. Ngong" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "John C. Duru" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Jonathan E. Ogbuabor" }, { "@type": "Person", "name": "Ifeoma C. Nwakoby" } ], "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "F1000Research", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 480, "width": 60 } }, "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "https://f1000research.com/img/AMP/F1000Research_image.png", "height": 1200, "width": 150 }, "description": " Background This study seeks to examine the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria, in order to contribute to the contradicting evidence on economic growth drivers. Methods The dynamic ARDL model was employed as the baseline model to establish the link between the phenomena, and the FMOLS and DOLS as robust models using time series data spanning from 1995 to 2022. The FMOLS and DOLS models take into consideration the presence of endogeneity, cross-sectional dependency, and heterogeneity. Results The results demonstrate that whereas ecological footprint has positive and significant long-term relationships with economic growth, financial deepening and national security have negative and significant long-run relationships with economic growth. There was a 34% and 50% correction to the short-term to long-term adjustment speed, respectively. The findings of the Granger causality, interaction terms, marginal (ME), and threshold (TH) effects demonstrate: a) a significant bidirectional causal relationship between national security and economic growth, as well as a one-way significant causal link between financial deepening and economic growth; b) changes in national security and ecological footprint have a significant and negative impact on the financial deepening effect on economic growth; c) significant negative and marginal effects of national security on economic growth, as well as significant positive marginal effects of ecological footprints on economic growth; and d) the impact of financial deepening on economic growth becomes apparent when the increases in the marginal effect of the ecological footprint reach a critical limit over the ( TH CO 2 = 0.981) threshold. Conclusions This study highlights the significant link between Nigeria’s financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth. It recommends that viable policies be put in place to support the development of financial institutions, increasing security infrastructure investment, and promoting renewable energy use for sustainable environment and reduced carbon emissions. " } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753", "name": "Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security,..." } } ] } Home Browse Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security,... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Manasseh CO, Logan CS, Okanya OC et al. Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] Charles O. Manasseh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9937-6208 1 , Chine Sp Logan 2 , Ogochukwu C. Okanya 3 , [...] Kenechukwu K. Ede https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5337-6170 4 , Odidi C..O. Onuselogu 1 , Chi A. Ngong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2120-1288 5 , John C. Duru 6 , Jonathan E. Ogbuabor 4 , Ifeoma C. Nwakoby 1 Charles O. Manasseh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9937-6208 1 , Chine Sp Logan 2 , [...] Ogochukwu C. Okanya 3 , Kenechukwu K. Ede https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5337-6170 4 , Odidi C..O. Onuselogu 1 , Chi A. Ngong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2120-1288 5 , John C. Duru 6 , Jonathan E. Ogbuabor 4 , Ifeoma C. Nwakoby 1 PUBLISHED 05 Jul 2024 Author details Author details 1 Banking and Finance, University of Nigeria, Enugu, Enugu, 410001, Nigeria 2 Public Policy, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA 3 Banking and Finance, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Enugu, Enugu, Enugu, 4100001, Nigeria 4 Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, 4100001, Nigeria 5 Accounting, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Northwest, Cameroon 6 Lower Usuma Dam,, National Institute for Security Studies, Bwari, Abuja., Abuja, Nigeria Charles O. Manasseh Roles: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Chine Sp Logan Roles: Funding Acquisition, Software Ogochukwu C. Okanya Roles: Investigation, Resources, Visualization Kenechukwu K. Ede Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Odidi C..O. Onuselogu Roles: Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Resources, Validation Chi A. Ngong Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing John C. Duru Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation Jonathan E. Ogbuabor Roles: Methodology, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Ifeoma C. Nwakoby Roles: Funding Acquisition, Resources, Validation OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract Background This study seeks to examine the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria, in order to contribute to the contradicting evidence on economic growth drivers. Methods The dynamic ARDL model was employed as the baseline model to establish the link between the phenomena, and the FMOLS and DOLS as robust models using time series data spanning from 1995 to 2022. The FMOLS and DOLS models take into consideration the presence of endogeneity, cross-sectional dependency, and heterogeneity. Results The results demonstrate that whereas ecological footprint has positive and significant long-term relationships with economic growth, financial deepening and national security have negative and significant long-run relationships with economic growth. There was a 34% and 50% correction to the short-term to long-term adjustment speed, respectively. The findings of the Granger causality, interaction terms, marginal (ME), and threshold (TH) effects demonstrate: a) a significant bidirectional causal relationship between national security and economic growth, as well as a one-way significant causal link between financial deepening and economic growth; b) changes in national security and ecological footprint have a significant and negative impact on the financial deepening effect on economic growth; c) significant negative and marginal effects of national security on economic growth, as well as significant positive marginal effects of ecological footprints on economic growth; and d) the impact of financial deepening on economic growth becomes apparent when the increases in the marginal effect of the ecological footprint reach a critical limit over the ( TH CO 2 = 0.981) threshold. Conclusions This study highlights the significant link between Nigeria’s financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth. It recommends that viable policies be put in place to support the development of financial institutions, increasing security infrastructure investment, and promoting renewable energy use for sustainable environment and reduced carbon emissions. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Financial Deepening, National Security, Ecological Footprint, and Economic Growth Corresponding Author(s) Kenechukwu K. Ede ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Kenechukwu K. Ede Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Copyright: © 2024 Manasseh CO et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Manasseh CO, Logan CS, Okanya OC et al. Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 ) First published: 05 Jul 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 ) Latest published: 05 Jul 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 ) 1. Introduction Economic growth is crucial for national development and improving people’s lives. It increases company profitability, enables higher research and development spending, and fosters technological breakthroughs ( Ndako et al. 2017 ). It boosts confidence and encourages firms to take risks and innovate. However, it also requires increased financial access, a secure environment, and a reduced ecological footprint for effective economic growth ( Yang et al. 2021 ). According to the United Nations (2020) report, financial deepening promotes the supply of financial services with a broader range of options aimed at all levels of society. Similarly, Hamilton and Godwin (2013) saw financial deepening as a growth in the supply of financial assets in an economy. It depicts the entire range of financial assets accessible in the economy that promote capital accumulation, access to finance, risk management, investment promotion, improved resource allocation, consumption stimulation, production enhancement, and innovation and entrepreneurship ( Kose et al. 2006 ). Because of the intricacy of the financial system, domestic deposits rise and a wider range of financial claims can be made ( Christian 2013 ). Economic growth is encouraged by financial deepening, which makes the infrastructure and financial markets necessary to fulfill changing demands. In order to foster investor confidence, ensure peace, oversee regulations, safeguard infrastructure, combat illegal activities, and foster global collaboration, a stable environment is essential. However, because ecological footprints are directly related to growth, developed financial institutions and markets can help reduce the impact of environmental risks while also advancing global sustainability goals by promoting sustainable finance, encouraging green investments, and incorporating environmental considerations into financial decisions. National security and economic growth are inextricably linked, and as such, Romm (1993) claimed that economic activity can only improve if investors’ property rights and lives are secured. As a result, a nation’s security and defense are vital in protecting assets, infrastructure, and resources from external threats such as terrorism, military aggression, and cyber-attacks ( Saba, 2021 ). By securing these assets, security actions help to maintain the economy’s stability and resilience, assuring ongoing commercial operations, trade flows, and investment activity ( Saba and Ngepah, 2020a ). According to Rajan (2022) , the importance of national security extends beyond sustaining domestic order to include the health and prosperity of nations. Amid, good national security measures, such as good governance, rule of law, and conflict prevention, help to foster political stability by lowering the danger of internal conflicts, civil unrest, and regime instability. It also creates a predictable business environment, which promotes investment, entrepreneurship, and economic growth ( Saba and Ngepah, 2020a ). Similarly, despite Africa’s inherent security constraints, security outcomes promote economic progress ( Saba, 2020 ). Further research on the relationship between military spending and security outcome convergence by Saba and Ngepah (2021) , Saba and Ngepah (2020b) , and Saba (2019) highlights the significance of fortifying national security architectures. These studies also show that this relationship has a convergence security outcome on economic activities in Africa. Regardless of the importance of protecting lives and property, and national defense, studies by Yasin et al. (2019) , Murshed et al. (2021) , and Nathaniel et al. (2020) highlight the ecological footprint as a significant challenge that can deter growth even in a secure environment. They declare that human causes contribute to environmental deterioration ( Yasin et al. 2019 ), and that as a country’s population grows, so does the demand for food, making it difficult to boost food production without compromising people’s wellbeing. Studies by Alexander and Klemm (2019) , Yahaya and Kolapo (2020) , Rajan (2022) , Romm (1993) , Ansari et al. (2021) , Wang et al. (2020) , Yang et al. (2021) and Zafar et al. (2019) have demonstrated that overuse of natural resources—such as plant-based diets, products from livestock and fish, wood, and forests—increases waste and carbon emissions. As a result, an environment that promotes output without sacrificing wellbeing is required. In light of the above discussions, this paper examines the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria. It attempts to investigate the following: a) the impact of financial deepening on economic growth; b) the impact of national security on economic growth; c) the impact of ecological footprint on economic growth; d) the direction of the causal relationship between these factors, and e) the interactive effect of national security and ecological footprints on economic growth. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the relevance and the policy consequences of these phenomena’ linkage, as previous study in Nigeria has not looked at the synergy between them. Understanding the connections in Nigeria could help identify strategies for addressing the interrelated opportunities and challenges the nation faces. As a result, it could offer options for coordinated policy interventions that could support financial services accessibility, fight insecurity by stepping up border controls, law enforcement, intelligence sharing, and conflict resolution; protect the environment; and ultimately support socioeconomic transformation, long-term growth and development, and resilience in a rapidly changing global landscape. This study varies from the existing literature in the following ways. The first and most crucial step was to examine the influence of national security on economic growth, specifically utilizing the global terrorism index. This measurement captures the impact of other African terrorist organizations and their resurgence, such as Islamic State in the greater Sahara (ISGS), Islamic State in the West African Province (ISWAP), Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), and Boko Haram in the northeast, as well as armed banditry in the northwest, which have posed serious security challenges for Nigeria. Specifically, Boko Haram has carried out multiple attacks, bombings, and kidnappings that have resulted in fatalities, population relocation, and infrastructure destruction. The continuing existence and increasing power of violent extremist groups in the Sahel regions threatens to worsen the humanitarian situation and disperse instability throughout Africa, putting neighboring nations’ security and economies at serious danger. Second, prior research in the literature neglected to evaluate the interaction between national security and financial deepening and ecological footprint in order to determine whether or not enhanced national security can significantly alter or influence the effects of these factors on Nigeria’s economic growth. Third, in order to comprehend how changes in ecological footprints or national security affect economic growth while leaving other variables constant, we take into account the threshold and marginal effects (TH) of these factors on growth. This discovery will aid in determining how interventions or modifications to policy variables affect economic growth. It will also assist decision-makers in assessing the efficacy of policy measures that can support well-informed choices about program design and resource allocation. Unlike previous studies, we used FMOLS and DOLS models to strengthen our ARDL results, addressing endogeneity and heterogeneity issues that are inherent in ARDL. The remaining sections of the research are arranged as follows: The key empirical review is covered in Section 2 , whereas the study methods are presented in Section 3 . The summary of the empirical findings and discussions are provided in Section 4 , while Section 5 offers the conclusion and policy recommendations. 2. Literature review The review of empirical studies in this section focused on three key themes: national security and economic growth, ecological footprints and economic growth, and financial deepening and economic growth. 2.1 Financial deepening and economic growth The conventional neoclassical paradigm posits that economic development is propelled by an integrated financial system, as argued by Henry (2006) . According to this perspective, the financial system plays a crucial role in promoting economic growth by stimulating domestic consumption, leading to higher savings and consequently reducing capital expenses. Another perspective emphasizes that the financial system drives economic expansion through indirect mechanisms. Correspondingly, an accessible financial system fosters economic growth by facilitating an upswing in financial services, thereby stimulating the economy ( King and Levine, 1993 ). In this context, Ndako (2017) discovered a long-term correlation between investment, development of finance, and growth in Nigeria. In this context, Paul (2017) explored the enduring impact of finance strengthening on growth. Yahaya and Kolapo (2020) assert that the banking industry is connected to the rise of finance, which in turn has a significant effect on growth. Conversely, Nguyen et al. (2019) contended that the influence of the financial system on growth is contingent upon the degree of development. According to Yang (2019) , the financial development of middle-income nations promotes growth. Anachedo and Osakwe (2023) looked at how financial depth affected economic expansion between 1985 and 2021. The analysis also demonstrated a strong adverse correlation between the broad money ratio, insurance industry premiums, and economic expansion. Further information reveals a positive relationship between growth and the market value ratio as well as a connection between Nigeria’s increasing economic growth rates and an increase in loans to the private sector. Additionally, Afzal et al. (2023) discovered a bidirectional causal relationship between financial liquidity and Poland’s economic growth, both in the long and short terms. In growing African countries, Manasseh et al. (2024) discovered a bidirectional causal association between trade openness, GDP per capita, money supply ratio, and domestic lending to the private sector. Additionally, Okafor et al. (2021) also showed that financial depth has a positive impact on economic growth. Kerimov (2021) investigated the underpinnings of the connection between financial depth and economic advancement using data from 2008 to 2019. According to the study’s findings, bank loan negatively affects GDP-based economic growth. Akintola, Oji-Okoro, and Itodo (2020) found that the long-term development of real production growth is positively and significantly impacted by the strengthening of finance, bank liquidity, and all share indexes. According Kapaya’s (2020) research, there is a short-term positive correlation between financial depth and economic growth, but a long-term negative correlation between financial system efficiency and economic growth. 2.2 National security and economic growth Defense, or national security, of a sovereign state, comprising its institutions, people, and economy, is considered the responsibility of the government. Governments employ a variety of strategies, such as diplomatic relations and their combined military, economic, and political might, to maintain a nation’s security. Research has also been done on the connection between different security measures and other macroeconomic indicators, and the results demonstrate that a nation’s ability to maintain peace is crucial to its ability to flourish. Because of this, Saleem et al. (2020) found a long-term negative correlation between investment and terrorism in Southern Asia, while Edeme and Nkalu (2019) concluded that terrorism is the reason behind Nigeria’s poor economic gain. Mehmet (2017) discovered that most countries’ economic growth was negatively impacted by terrorist acts, particularly those with low incomes. Research by Saba (2020) , Chuk et al. (2017) , Bezi et al. (2016) , Zakaria et al. (2019) , and Saba and Ngepah (2021) shows that terrorist activity makes businesses more vulnerable and hinders their potential to thrive. Further evidence show that economic growth is driven by security outcomes in six regional economic groups. The study also revealed that military spending has a significant influence on industrialization in AMU, CEN-SAD, IGAD, and SADC, while it is insignificant and inversely associated with economic growth in COMESA, ECCAS, and ECOWAS. Consequently, military spending, and industrialization have a long run association. Yusuf and Mohd (2023) , Ngepah and Djemo (2019) , Saba (2021) , Saba (2020) , Saba (2019) , Kabiru et al. (2023) , and Aminu et al. (2023) investigate the following subjects: The degree of alignment between military spending and security implications for 34 African nations between 1990 and 2015; and the link between military expenditure and security results for 51 African countries between 2000 and 2018. These studies’ findings demonstrated that: a) different security approaches, methods, or actions produce the same or similar results throughout Africa; b) military spending has a significant negative impact on growth in the continent; c) there is no evidence or support for the hypothesis that higher military spending causes economic growth or aligns economic outcomes in Africa; d) military expenditures and their ensuing security effects differ from nation to nation with different effects on economic growth in Africa; e) the increasing level of insecurity in Nigeria has a negative impact on the economy; and f) terrorism hinders economic growth, respectively. 2.3 Ecological footprints and economic growth Recent study has found that ecological footprints are increasingly influencing economic factors. According to some research, it hinders the growth of economic indicators, while other studies believe it has a favourable influence on them. For example, Yang et al. (2021) observed that the ecological footprint of the BICS economies increased GDP. Also, Ullah et al. (2021) found a significant association across all regimes when they examined the link between GDP and ecological footprint in the top fifteen clean energy economies. The amount of energy derived from biomass and the ecological footprint were shown to be significantly correlated by Wang et al. (2020) . Mehmood et al. ’s (2023) research on the link between environmental footprints and economic expansion in South Asia revealed a bidirectional causal association between the use of renewable energy and environmental footprints in G7 countries, as well as a causal feedback connection between GDP and the environmental footprints. Additionally, Udemba’s (2020) work demonstrates that Nigeria’s ecological footprint and economic growth are growing at the same time. Further evidence from the ARDL findings indicates a positive link between carbon emissions and economic growth; however, when the country’s income and demographic were also taken into account, a negative link was shown between carbon emissions and growth. In contrast to past study that indicated a direct association, Ansari et al. (2021) and Obayagbona (2023) revealed an inverse connection between ecological footprints and economic growth. Ansari et al. (2021) also show that the influence of the ecological footprint on economic growth is diminished by globalization. In a similar vein, Ahmad et al. (2020) said that technological progress makes it possible to reduce the impact of the ecological footprint on growth. Furthermore, a study conducted by Obayagbona (2023) examined the link between carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth in Ghana and Nigeria. The findings indicated that ecological footprints indicators, such as GHG emissions and the use of renewable energy, enjoyed a substantial adverse effect on economic expansion in Ghana and Nigeria, while other control variables, such as openness to commerce and the use of electricity, displayed a negligible positive and negative link with economic growth, respectively. 3. Methods 3.1 Description of data This study spanned the period 1995 – 2022. The study’s period was determined by data reliability and accessibility. The primary goal of the study was to evaluate the causal links between Nigeria’s financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth. Table 1 shows the study’s data, definition of acronym, and data repository links (sources). Table 1. Definition of variables and data sources. Variable Definition Source RGDP Real gross domestic product (Current US$) WDI (2023) M2/GDP The money supply to GDP ratio (M2/GDP) is shown here as a percentage of GDP, serving as a proxy for financial deepening. WDI (2023) NSC The global terrorism index (GTI) is used as a proxy for national security (NSC). IEP (2023) CO2 Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) in metric tons per person serve as a proxy for ecological footprints. WDI (2023) INFL GDP deflator (% annual) is a proxy inflation (INFL) WDI (2023) EXR Official exchange rates, measured as LCU per US$ period average, are used as a proxy for exchange rates (EXR). WDI (2023) 3.2 Model specifications Utilizing yearly time series data from 1995 to 2022, this study used the dynamic autoregressive distributed lag approach (ARDL) created by Pesaran et al. (2001) as the baseline model to estimate the causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprints, and economic growth in Nigeria. The output of the baseline model was carefully tested using fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) models, taking into account the limitation of the ARDL model and the expected impacts. Endogeneity and heterogeneity concerns are taken into account in the robustness check models. Research such as Manasseh et al. (2017), Manasseh et al. (2023), Odhiambo (2009) , and Al-Malkawi et al. (2012) , in contrast to Johansen and Juselius (1990) and Gregory and Hansen (1996) , adopted ARDL because it is appropriate and can provide asymptotically normal estimates of long-run coefficients ( Pesaran and Shin, 1999 ). Compared to other models, the ARDL model increases the probability of determining the suitable dynamic model structure, supporting the efficacy of long-run parameters in cointegration techniques ( Pesaran et al. , 2001 ; Pesaran and Shin, 1999 ). However, the dynamic ARDL model is as follows. (1) In Z i , t = ∑ j = 1 p ρ i , j In Z t − j + ∑ j = 1 q π i , j In M i , t − j + ∑ j = 1 q α t , j In Cont i , t − j + ε i , t where the dependent variable (economic growth) is measured using the real gross domestic product (RGDP), which is represented by the letter Z i , t . The dependent variable’s lag is represented by Z t − j , while the independent variables’ vector is represented by M i , t , such as financial deepening, national security, and ecological footprint. The dependent variable’s lag coefficient is denoted by ρ i , j , and the independent variables’ coefficient, or coefficient vector, is represented by π i , j . The control variables’ vector is represented by Cont i , t , while their corresponding coefficients are represented by α t , j . The ideal order of lag is i = 1 , …, N; = 1 , 2 , … , T ; p . q . The error term is represented as ε i , t , and all of the variables are in natural logarithms. Equation (2) considers the relationship between ecological footprints and national security and how it affects financial deepening. The objective is to determine if ecological footprints and robust or feeble national security interact to modify the impact of financial deepening on Nigeria’s economic growth. (2) In ∑ j = 1 p ρ i , j In Z t − j + ∑ j = 1 q π i , j In M i , t − j + ∑ j = 1 q α t , j In Cont i , t − j + δInteract i , t + ε i , t In equation (2) , ε i , t = ( ∀ i + π i , t ) . The fixed effect known as ∀ i denotes the time-invariant or unobserved characteristics unique to Nigeria. The π i , t , also known as time-fixed effects, identifies the time-specific effects that affect country’s dataset over a given period. Hence, others remained as defined above, Interact i , t depict the interactive terms (M2/GDP*CO2 & M2/GDP*NSI), where δ expresses how much the interaction factors influence economic growth. The exchange rate (EXR) and inflation rate (INFL), are the study’s control variables and t is the unit of time. It is thus expected that π > 0 . This suggests that more financial deepening boosts economic growth, whereas rising levels of ecological footprint and insecurity are expected to have the opposite effect. For this reason, a conditional ARDL ( p , q , q ,,,, q ) error correction term (ECT) is stated as follows after the re-parameterized ARDL ( p , q ) of Pesaran et al. (1999) and Pesaran et al. (2001) : (3) ∆ Z t = θ i [ Z i , t − 1 − γ i M i , t ] + ∑ j = 1 p − 1 δ i , j ∆ Z i , t − j + ∑ j = 1 q − 1 β i , j ∆ M i , t − j + ε t where θ i = − ( 1 − γ i ) is the speed of adjustment coefficient ( θ i < 0 expected). The vector of long-term relationship is γ i . The error correction is ECT = [ Z i , t − 1 − γ i M i , t ] . The short-run dynamic coefficients are δ i , j and β i , j . A long-term link between the dependent and independent variables occurs if γ i is strongly negative, but all other dynamics and error correction terms are free to change ( Asteriou, 2009 ). 3.3 Marginal effect and threshold effect To gain a thorough knowledge of the influence of a unit change in national security (NSC) and ecological footprints (CO2) on economic growth in Nigeria, while maintaining all other variables constant, we estimated the marginal (ME) impacts using equations (4) and (5) . The marginal effect measures how much revenue growth is likely to vary in response to minor changes in national security and ecological footprints. This is critical now in Nigeria to comprehend the severity of insecurity and the consequences of over-reliance on natural resources such as carbon emissions on economic growth. (4) ∂ RGDP t ∂ M 2 / GDP t = ϑ + π NSC t (5) ∂ RGDP t ∂ M 2 / GDP t = σ + θ CO 2 t The coefficients ( ϑ & σ ) in the partial derivative equations (4) and (5) are the main focus. If ( ϑ & σ ) are negative i.e. ( ϑ & σ 0 ) , it depicts that a unit change in national security and ecological footprint have adverse effects on the economic growth respectively; while the interaction of financial deepening with the national security and ecological footprint improves economic growth in Nigeria. According to the former, as insecurity and ecological footprint (CO2) rise, their negative impacts reduce both financial deepening and economic growth in Nigeria. Following the works Muoneke et al. (2023) , Okere et al. (2022) , and Ofori and Figari (2023) , calculating the threshold (TH) levels of the national security and ecological footprint is crucial for policymaking. This is because the coefficients ( ϑ & σ ) as well as ( π & θ ) have different signs and magnitudes. Thus, we present the threshold-level equations for the interactive variables as follows. (6) M 2 GDP = ϑ π and ; M 2 GDP = σ θ The possibility of estimating equations (6) means that the marginal effects (ME) must be greater than zero, thus, this is shown in equations (7) and (8) as in below. (7) ME < 0 ⇒ [ NSC 0 NSC > TH NSC , for TH NSC = ( ℵ γ ) and π < 0 ] (8) ME < 0 ⇒ [ CO 2 0 CO 2 > TH CO 2 , for TH CO 2 = ( σ θ ) and θ < 0 ] Where ME stands for the marginal effect of national security and ecological footprint; while TH CO 2 , TH NSC and TH PINS are their thresholds respectively. 3.4. Robustness check model – FMOLS and DOLS Even if the ARDL approach is successful and adequate in building a suitable dynamic model structure that supports the efficacy of long-run parameters and estimates variables only when they are integrated of 1(0) or 1(1), its capacity to manage sequence correlation and endogeneity is limited. We conducted a sensitivity analysis with fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) to lessen the impact of this problem on the output. These models are very efficient in estimating long-run coefficients if the coefficients are cointegrated. While DOLS provides a parametric method that can lessen the association between explanatory variables and error terms ( Pedroni, 2001 ), FMOLS offers a non-parametric model that has the benefit of eliminating autocorrelation and heteroskedasticity concerns ( Kao & Chiang, 2001 ). The FMOLS and DOLS are specified as follows: (9) βFMOLS = N − 1 ∑ i − 1 N [ ∑ t = 1 T ( X i , t − X i ′ ) 2 ] − 1 [ ∑ t = 1 T ( X i , t − X i ′ ) ] S i , t − T ∆ ε μ (10) βDOLS = N − 1 ∑ i − 1 N [ ∑ t = 1 T ( W i , t − X i ) ] − 1 [ ∑ t = 1 T ( X i , t − X i ′ ) ] S i , t − T ∆ ε μ Z represents the regressor’s vector ( W = X i , t − X i ′ ), X i , t stands for explanatory factors, and S i , t indicates dependent variables. The DOLS estimator surprisingly outperforms the OLS, ARDL, and FMOLS estimators in limited samples when it comes to unbiased estimation based on Monte Carlo simulations. By considering endogeneity equally in a model, the robust correction for endogeneity in the explanatory variables is obtained. 4. Empirical Results and Discussion The study’s variables were initially subjected to pre-estimate tests, which included unit roots tests, Spearman correlation matrix tests, and descriptive statistics to give additional details about the variables, before the ARDL (p, q) estimation. We employed unit root tests such the Phillip-Perron (PP) and Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) tests. The results of the unit root test indicate that none of the variables in 1∼I(2), are integrated (see Table 4 ). In other words, any variable being studied must be integrated of I∼I(0) or I∼I(1). The null hypothesis (H0) is rejected in light of the results. We therefore conclude that the series is stationary and devoid of unit roots. Based on the outcomes of the unit root testing, the dynamic ARDL technique is demonstrated to be a suitable baseline model for the estimation. Moreover, the results of the dynamic ARDL estimation (see Tables 6 and 7 ) were extensively verified by the use of FMOLS and DOLS; Table 8 presents the results of these analyses. Table 2 displays the descriptive statistic results, which reveal that the mean, median, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis values are not far apart. The results also revealed that the total variations in the series vary from -2.298 to 3.525, representing the series’ min and max values, and that the probability values of the Jarque-Bera statistic for each variable are statistically significant (less than 0.05). Table 2. Descriptive statistics results. Mean Median Max Min Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis JB Prob. RGDP 1.468 1.723 2.729 -0.537 0.751 -1.103 4.042 5.954 0.000 M2/GDP 1.357 1.135 3.525 0.036 0.853 0.885 3.224 9.188 0.000 NSC 2.302 2.295 3.015 1.693 0.351 -0.042 2.268 7.633 0.001 CO2 2.815 3.097 3.142 1.724 0.553 -1.384 2.941 8.954 0.008 INFL 0.695 0.732 1.674 -0.468 0.554 -0.255 2.346 19.74 0.001 EXR 0.063 -0.026 1.842 -2.298 0.828 -0.318 4.833 48.34 0.006 The Spearman’s rank correlation test, as shown in Table 3 , allowed us to gain insight into the direction and strength of the association between two ranking variables. It illustrates the monotony of the connection between two variables. The study discovered substantial positive correlations between financial deepening (M2/GDP), national security (NSC), ecological footprint (CO2), inflation rate (INFL), and economic growth (RGDP). Furthermore, it was shown that there is a significant negative association between economic growth (RGDP) and the exchange rate (EXR). Also, a significant negative association was found between the GDP and the exchange rate (EXR). An ARDL bound test (see Table 5 ) is carried out to verify the long-term cointegration of the variables, as suggested by the findings. However, Table 4 shows the results of unit tests that were run before the bound test, such as the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillip-Perron (PP) unit root tests. Since the PP test ignores serial correlation and the ADF employs parametric autoregression to imitate the error structure, the two tests are integrated. Table 3. Spearman rank correlation results. RGDP M2/GDP NSC CO2 INFL EXR RGDP 1 M2/GDP 0.764 1 NSC 0.897 0.253 1 CO2 0.875 0.635 0.525 1 INFL 0.654 0.349 0.621 0.057 1 EXR -0.699 0.128 0.139 0.124 0.253 1 Table 4. Results for unit root test. Variables ADF Integration order PP Integration order Level First Diff. Level First Diff. RGDP -6.784*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) -6.879*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) M2/GDP -4.889*** (0.000) I∼I(0) _ -9.889*** (0.000) I∼I(0) _ NSC -5.344*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) -5.604*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) CO2 -5.348*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) -5.349*** (0.000) _ I∼I(1) INFL -4.808*** (0.001) I∼I(0) _ -4.821*** (0.000) I∼I(0) _ EXR -5.650*** (0.000) _ I∼I(0) -4.560*** (0.001) _ I∼I(1) Table 3 displays unit root test results, showing that certain variables were integrated of I∼I(0) and I∼I(1). None of the variables were integrated of I∼I(2). Based on the results, the null hypothesis (H0) of unit roots is rejected. As a result, the series has no unit roots and the variables are stationary, as previously indicated. This is because the rule of thumb stipulated that if the probability values were less than 0.05, the null hypothesis would be rejected. Furthermore, based on these findings, the ARDL model adopted as the baseline model has been identified as the most effective estimating technique for the study. Also, as seen in Table 5 , we conducted an ARDL bound test for cointegration in line with Pesaran et al. (2001) and Narayan (2004) since the outcomes of our unit root tests suggest that the variables are integrated of I∼I(0) or I∼I(1). The findings demonstrate a substantial long-term association among the variables. The outcomes are shown in Table 5 . Table 5. Estimated ARDL bounds cointegration test results. F-Stat K Pesaran et al. (2001) Narayan (2004) 1% 5% 10% 1% 5% 10% I∼(0) I∼(1) I∼(0) I∼(1) I∼(0) I∼(1) I∼(0) I∼(1) I∼(0) I∼(1) I∼(0) I∼(1) 13.777 5 3.74 5.06 2.86 4.01 2.45 3.52 4.59 6.37 3.28 4.63 2.70 3.90 The calculated F-statistic is contrasted with the 1% upper critical value proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001) and Narayan (2004) in Table 5 . As a rule of thumb, we reject the null hypothesis and come to the conclusion that there is no long-term link if the calculated F-statistic is greater than the critical value at 1% (upper bound). Since the F-statistic (13.77) is higher greater than the crucial values at 1%, the results indicate that the variables have a long-run association. Therefore, we argue that there are long-term connections between Nigeria’s economic growth, ecological footprint, national security, and financial deepening. We estimate the long-run model with an OLS estimator using equation (1) since the bounds test suggests cointegration. In addition, we generate the residuals series and fitted a regular restricted error correction model (ECM) using the coefficient of the one-lagged level of the ECM using equation (3) , and the results are shown in Table 7 . When OLS is applied to equation 1 , the residual series is utilized to create the error correction model (ECM), as seen in Table 6 . Following that, we fitted the error correction model in order to obtain the results displayed in Table 7 using equation (3) . Table 6. Estimated baseline ARDL results. Variable 1 2 RGDP (-1) 0.655*** (0.000) 0.642*** (0.000) M2/GDP -0.054*** (0.011) -1.272** (0.018) NSC -0.864** (0.027) CO2 0.841** (0.015) INFL 0.077** (0.039) 0.233** (0.017) EXR 0.301* (0.066) 0.360*** (0.012) M2/GDP*NSC -0.168*** (0.000) M2/GDP* CO2 -0.139*** (0.000) R 2 0.819 0.546 χ 2 Normal [0.677] (0.198) [16.63] (0.172) χ 2 Serial [0.22] (0.828) [3.054] (0.072) Reset [1.412] (0.204) [-0.400] (0.238) χ 2 ARCH [0.295] (0.929) [1.345] (0.289) Table 7. Estimation of short-run dynamics ARDL. Variable 1 2 ECM (-1) -0.344** (0.012) -0.502** (0.017) ∆ M2/GDP -0.051*** (0.011) 0.133 (0.259) ∆ NSC -0.863** (0.025) ∆ CO2 0.840** (0.017) ∆ INFL 0.078** (0.049) 0.369 (0.474) ∆ EXR 0.331* (0.077) 0.034 (0.953) ∆ M2/GDP*NSC -0.269 (0.339) ∆ M2/GDP*CO2 0.181 (0.192) 4.1. Baseline model – ARDL ( p , q ) long run estimation This section presents and discusses the ARDL estimated results on the causal relationships among financial deepening, ecological footprints, national security, and economic growth. Several post-estimation tests were conducted, such as the Ramsey RESET, Breusch–Godfrey serial correlation, and heteroskedasticity test. The RESET test confirms that the regression’s functional form is appropriate. The results of the heteroskedasticity and serial correlation tests show that the variables are homoscedastic and uncorrelated, and the normality test shows that the error terms are normally distributed. The ARDL findings are shown in Table 6 below. The results displayed in the first column demonstrate that, although the ecological footprint—proxied by the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted per person—has a significant and positive effect on economic growth. Financial deepening—proxied by the money supply to GDP ratio (M2/GDP)—and national security—proxied by the global terrorism index—have a significant negative relationship with economic growth (proxy, real GDP). The significant inverse relationship between financial deepening and growth suggests that Nigeria’s financial deepening has a mitigating effect on economic growth. This outcome confirms a recent analysis that found 38 million adults in Nigeria are financially excluded, which equates to roughly 36% of the adult population in the country. This shows that in order to encourage the mobilization of savings, facilitate investment, and propel economic growth in Nigeria, it may be necessary to guarantee a strong financial infrastructure as well as better access to financing. According to Apergis et al. (2007) , increasing access for individuals who lack sufficient financial resources can thereby speed up economic growth. But studies by Yang (2019) , Ndako (2017) , Anachedo and Osakwe (2023) , Manasseh et al. (2024) , and Akintola, Oji-Okoro, and Itodo (2020) held contrary few on the impact of financial depth. Moreover, a negative and significant connection has been seen between economic growth and national security and this conclusion lends credence to the research conducted by Edeme and Nkalu (2019) , Saleem et al. (2020) , Mehmet (2017) , and Saba and Ngepah (2021) . It appears from the evidence that growing levels of insecurity are impeding Nigeria’s economic progress. This outcome is consistent with the 2021 Global Terrorism Index research, which ranks Nigeria as the sixth most terrorized nation in the world due to an upsurge in violence that has claimed many lives and destroyed numerous economic assets. Therefore, it will be challenging to achieve economic growth if the Nigerian government does not prioritize measures to strengthen national security by addressing the underlying causes of insecurity, enhancing law enforcement, intelligence-sharing, border control, investing in defense capabilities, and promoting social inclusion. The ecological footprint, a measure of the consequences of the entire process of producing energy for human use, is most notable for its positive and significant long-term association with Nigeria’s economic growth. Our results were in line with Yang et al. (2021) and Udemba (2020) ; however, the evidence we provided was in contrast to that of Ansari et al. (2021) , Obayagbona (2023) , and Obayagbona (2023) . This result contradicts the a priori assumption, which maintains that ecological footprints and economic growth are inversely related. Consequently, the significant association that exists between ecological footprints and economic growth might point to an increase in manufacturing that is energy-intensive and associated with environmental degradation, climate change, and the depletion of natural resources. Therefore, the Nigerian government needs to tighten environmental laws and support green technology in order to maintain the rising growth in the face of ecological footprints, as demonstrated by our findings. This can be accomplished by implementing laws that promote climate resilience, the use of renewable energy sources, environmental preservation, and the reduction of ecological footprints. These results counter those of recent studies by Saleem et al. (2020) , Mubashra and Shafi (2018) , Wang et al. (2020) , and Zafar et al. (2019) that shown an inverse link between growth and ecological footprints. Furthermore, after controlling for each variable’s impact on growth, we discovered a direct association between inflation (INFL) and exchange rate (EXR). This result goes against preconceived notions. The findings in the second column are the outcome of additional research into the interaction impact between national security and ecological footprints. The goal is to acquire a better understanding of whether the impact of financial deepening on economic growth varies with changes in national security or environmental footprints in Nigeria. The interaction of financial deepening and national security (M2/GDP*NSC) has a negative and significant long-term influence on economic growth. This suggests that the interaction effect of insecurity reduces the impact of financial deepening on economic growth by -0.168. As a result, insecurity erodes peace and order, reducing economic activity. These findings align with the findings of several other studies, including Rajan (2022) and Romm (1993) , To find out if the level of ecological footprints (CO2) affects the link between financial deepening (M2/GDP) and economic growth, we also interact financial deepening and ecological footprints (M2/GDP*CO2). The findings indicate a significant and negative long-term impact on economic growth. This demonstrates how the interaction of CO2 reduces the effect of financial deepening on Nigeria’s economic growth. The results show that, in the short term, ecological footprints have a significant positive impact on economic growth, but financial depth and national security have a significant negative impact. In order to reach full convergence to its equilibrium level, economic growth will respond to changes in financial depth, national security, and ecological footprints at a pace of about 34.4% during the first year, according to the ECM, which is -0.344 and has the anticipated negative sign. The bound test for cointegration is validated by the ECM, which is statistically significant at the 5% level, indicating that the variables are in long-run equilibrium. The study concludes that there is a long-term association between the variables based on these findings. Lastly, it shows that the model satisfies the stability criteria using the cumulative sum of recursive residuals (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of squares (CUSUMSQ) tests from Brown et al. (1975) . The fact that the CUSUM and CUSUMMSQ are within the 5% major critical bounds makes this clear (see Figure 1 ). This shows that the calculated parameters remain constant from 1995 to 2022. It illustrates that the estimated parameters remain constant from 1995 and 2022. The ARCH test for heteroskedasticity in the model’s error process yields an F-statistic of 0.295 ( χ 2 = 0.929 ) , which is not statistically significant (see Table 3 ). This suggests that heteroscedasticity is not an issue for the model. The Breusch-Godfrey serial correlation Lagrange multiplier (LM) test produces an F-statistic of 0.223 ( χ 2 = 0.828 ) , indicating no statistical significance for higher order serial correlation. This implies that we cannot reject the null hypothesis that there is no serial correlation in the residuals. We conclude that the data exhibit a normal distribution since the normality test produced a p-value of 0.198, which supports the null hypothesis. The model’s goodness-of-fit (R-square) of 82% suggests that it is appropriate. Figure 1. CUSUM and CUSUMSQ plots. Source: Authors’ Concept. Furthermore, Table 8 presents the tests that utilized Pairwise Granger Causality to evaluate the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprints and economic growth. Table 8 shows the unidirectional/one-way causal link that we found between financial deepening and economic growth. The causal relationship runs from financial deepening to economic growth, suggesting that financial deepening the driving force behind economic growth. This evidence validates the findings of Manasseh et al. (2024) . Similarly, we discovered a two-way causal relationship between national security and economic growth, as well as a one-way link between ecological footprints and economic growth. These results suggest that ecological footprints are the primary driver of Nigeria’s economic growth, and that economic growth and national security are mutually reinforcing. Consequently, ecological footprints stimulate economic growth, while economic prosperity and national security are mutually dependent. So, studies conducted by Mehmet (2017) , Edeme and Nkalu (2019) , Saleem et al. (2020) , Saba and Ngepah (2021) , Yang et al. (2021) , Udemba (2020) , Ansari et al. (2021) , and Obayagbona (2023) indicated that ecological footprints and national security boost economic growth. Nonetheless, recent study into the causal link between other variables, such as the exchange rate (EXR) and economic growth, demonstrates a bidirectional or two-way relationship, implying that EXR and economic growth may be predicted mutually. Table 8. Pairwise granger causality results. Variable F-Statistic Probability Causal direction M2/GDP → RGDP RGDP ≠ M2/GDP 9.06375 0.0004*** Uni-directional causality 0.41100 0.6685 No directional causality NSC RGDP ↔ RGDP NSC 8.55994 0.0012*** Bidirectional causality 2.31331 0.1248* CO2 → RGDP RGDP ≠ CO2 7.65533 0.0034*** Unidirectional causality 0.17618 0.8398 No directional causality INFL ≠ RGDP RGDP → INFL 0.80371 0.4616 No directional causality 5.79646 0.0109*** Unidirectional causality EXR RGDP ↔ RGDP EXR 15.6606 0.0000*** Bidirectional causality 7.32655 0.0052**** 4.2 Robustness check – FMOLS and DOLS results Given the efficacy of these models in addressing issues with heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and endogeneity, which could affect the outcomes derived from the baseline model (ARDL), sensitivity tests are required to verify whether the results have changed, and the results are presented in Table 9 below. Table 9. Estimated FMOLS and DOLS Results. Variable 1 2 FMOLS DOLS FMOLS DOLS RGDP (-1) 0.701*** (0.000) 0.656*** (0.000) 0.141*** (0.000) -0.720*** (0.000) M2/GDP -0.065*** (0.003) -0.056*** (0.006) 1.599*** {0.000) 0.158*** (0.000) NSC -0.999*** (0.001) -0.978** (0.013) CO2 0.707*** (0.008) 0.817*** (0.008) INFL 0.075*** (0.0043) 0.079** (0.031) 0.368*** (0.000) 0.631*** (0.000) EXR 0.291** (0.026) 0.341 (0.065) 0.141 (0.062) 0.084 (0.342) M2/GDP*NSC -0.019*** (0.002) -0.020*** (0.005) M2/GDP*CO2 0.009** (0.018) 0.009** (0.030) R-Squared 0.844 0.822 0.876 0.678 R-Square Adjusted 0.766 0.746 0.565 0.589 The FMOLS and DOLS results in Table 9 , genuinely corroborated our previous findings using the ARDL model that financial deepening (M2/GDP), national security (NSC), and ecological footprints (C02) are important drivers of economic growth in Nigeria. The data demonstrates that there are both short- and long-term relationships between the phenomena in Nigeria. Further analysis revealed that while financial deepening and national security have negative and significant long-run relationships with economic growth, the ecological footprint (CO2), inflation rate, and exchange rate (EXR) in Nigeria have positive and significant long-run relationships with economic growth. This is indicated by the first column of results. Our earlier results were discovered to be in agreement with the interacting outcomes of the second model ( Table 9 ). Ecological footprints improve the impact of financial deepening on Nigerian economic growth, but national security reduces this gain. The findings suggest that the interactive influence of terrorism inhibits growth, but the interactive influence of ecological footprint promotes growth. As a result, it follows that the ecological footprint is essential to halting environmental damage, climate change, and the depletion of natural resources. Robust checking with the FMOLS and DOLS models confirmed the suitability of the ARDL model for the study, indicating that the results may have implications for policy forecasts. 4.3 Marginal and threshold effects analysis The findings of the estimated ARDL models (1) and (2), which are displayed in Tables 6 and 9 , reveal that national security (NSC), as measured by the global terrorism index, is significant and inversely related to Nigeria’s economic growth, while ecological footprint (CO2) and financial deepening encourage economic growth. Hence, it is essential to investigate if their respective marginal effects promote or inhibit economic growth in Nigeria. Equations (4) and (5) from the baseline model findings were used to compute the marginal effects (ME) of national security (NSC) and ecological footprint (CO2), which were then reproduced in equations (11) and (12) , following the studies by Muoneke et al. (2023) , Okere et al. (2022) , and Ofori and Figari (2023) . (11) ∂ RGDP i , t ∂ M 2 / GDP i , t = − 0.864 + ( − 0.168 ) NSC i , t (12) ∂ RGDP i , t ∂ M 2 / GDP i , t = 0.841 + ( 0.139 ) CO 2 i , t The study indicates that there is a negative association between the marginal effects of the interaction between M2/GDP and NSC (π = -0.168<0) and the unconditional effects of NSC (ϑ = -0.864<0). Both the 5% and 1% levels of statistical significance are reached by the effects. When every other factor remains constant, declining economic growth is associated to worsening national security conditions, as indicated by negative values (ϑ & π). Nonetheless, economic growth can be negatively impacted by a decline in Nigeria’s national security, and the growth-promoting effects of financial deepening may be compromised. This demonstrates how growing levels of insecurity hurt Nigeria’s ability to prosper economically. Further inquiry indicates that both the unconditional effect (σ = 0.841161) and the interaction’s marginal effect (θ = 0.139>0) of ecological footprint are positive. Both effects show statistical significance. A positive unconditional effect of the ecological footprint on economic growth implies that greater resource use and environmental effect result in higher levels of economic growth, whereas a positive marginal effect implies that economic growth is inextricably linked to resource mining, manufacturing, and usage. Increased economic activity, such as manufacturing, crop production, and expansion of infrastructure, may be indicated by larger ecological footprints. All of these factors influence the impact of financial deepening on economic growth. The stimulating effect of natural resources might thereby amplify the impact of financial deepening on economic growth. Furthermore, when the coefficients of the ecological footprint and national security ( ϑ & σ ) and ( σ & θ ) have opposing signs, equations (6) and (8) may be applied to estimate the threshold effect of each. So, the threshold is determined when the marginal effects (ME) are greater than zero. Beyond the threshold level, the potential benefits of economic activity and the influence of financial deepening are presumably outweighed by the environmental degradation associated with higher ecological footprints. The calculated threshold level ( TH CO 2 = 0.981) indicates a critical limit above which increases in ecological footprint have a significant impact on economic growth. 4.4 Discussion of findings The primary goal of this study is to examine the relationships between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria. The findings below were obtained using yearly time series data from 1995 to 2022, as well as autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) as the baseline model and fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) as robustness check models. First, the results of the baseline model indicate, a significant long-term relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth. While financial deepening and national security are significant and have a negative relationship with economic growth, the ecological footprint has a direct and significant impact on Nigeria’s economic growth. While Ndako (2017) , Anachedo and Osakwe (2023) , and Akintola, Oji-Okoro, and Itodo (2020) support our findings, Apergis et al. (2007) argued that improving access to adequate financial resources increases economic growth. Our findings about the relationship between financial deepening and economic growth contradict their claims. Furthermore, this analysis validates previous research that has suggested that national security is inversely and strongly associated to economic growth ( Edeme & Nkalu, 2019 ; Saleem et al. , 2020 ; Mehmet, 2017 ; Saba & Ngepah, 2021 ). As with Yang et al. (2021) and Udemba (2020) , our findings on the relationship between economic growth and ecological footprint refuted the evidence offered by Ansari et al. (2021) and Obayagbona (2023) . Previous research indicate that financial deepening, national security, and ecological footprint are substantial and significant determinants of economic growth. Second, evidence from the interaction terms using both the baseline and robust models shows that the interactive influence of financial deepening and national security (M2/GDP*NSC) has a significant and negative long-term relationship with economic growth, whereas financial deepening and ecological footprints (M2/GDP*CO2) have a significant and positive long-term relationship with economic growth. This suggests that, while the interactive influence of financial deepening caused by changes in ecological footprints has a significant and long-term positive impact on economic growth, the interactive influence of financial deepening caused by changes in national security conditions has a negative impact on economic growth. These results therefore align with those of a number of previous research, including Rajan (2022) , Romm (1993) , and Scheve and Slaughter (2017). Third, a one-way causal link was shown by the Pairwise Granger causality test results, indicating that ecological footprint and financial deepening, respectively, are the driving force of economic growth. This indicates that economic growth is boosted by both ecological footprint and financial deepening. The results of Manasseh et al. (2024) , who claimed that financial deepening predicts economic growth in emerging nations, were supported by this research. In a similar vein, we found a bidirectional causal link that suggests mutual reinforcement between economic growth and national security. Fourth, we found a negative and significant correlation between the interaction’s marginal effects of national security (π = -0.168<0) and the unconditional effects of national security (ϑ = -0.864<0), after controlling for the marginal and threshold impacts of national security and ecological footprints. As a result, negative values (ϑ = -0.864 & π = -0.168) indicate an association between declining economic growth and deteriorating national security conditions. Subsequent analysis shows that ecological footprint interaction has a positive and significant relationship between its marginal effect (θ = 0.139>0) and unconditional effect (σ = 0.8412>0). As a result, the expansion of Nigeria’s economy is inextricably related to activities with an ecological impact, such as resource extraction, production and consumption. Additionally, based on the findings explained above, no empirical research reviewed examined the synergy between financial deepening, national security, environmental footprint, and economic growth, particularly in Nigeria. Few studies in Nigeria focused on the link between financial deepening and economic growth; security and economic growth and; ecological footprint and economic growth, respectively. As a result, one of the study’s strong points is the synergy between the occurrences and the degree of gap caused in the national security measurement. Furthermore, prior empirical studies (see Rajan, 2022 ; Romm, 1993 ) were unable to adequately capture the character and implications of terrorism across African countries. The global terrorism index, which assesses the impact of Africa’s rising terrorism rate on economic growth, was employed as a proxy for national security in this study to capture the previously explained. Thus, we found that the global terrorism index and Nigeria’s economic growth were significantly and negatively correlated. This implies that terrorist organizations operating in Africa, including Islamic State in the West African Province (ISWAP), Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), pose a threat to Nigeria’s economic growth. In addition, previous studies ( Edeme & Nkalu, 2019 ; Saleem et al. , 2020 , Mehmet, 2017 ; Saba & Ngepah, 2021 ) have not taken into account the interaction link that exists between financial deepening and national security. The long-term evidence from the findings suggested that reducing insecurity through enhanced border protection, judicial enforcement, intelligence cooperation, and dispute resolution could support Nigeria’s economic transformation. The evidence also indicated a significant and inverse relationship between the two. Finally, we examine the marginal effects of national security (π = -0.168<0) on Nigeria’s economic growth, which have likewise received little attention in earlier research. The analysis shows that declining national security conditions also account for variations in Nigeria’s economic growth. The ability to incorporate these knowledge gaps into existing empirical literature is not without restrictions. Thus, we suggest carrying out cross-national research on the connections between national security and economic growth in the future. This would improve a comparative analysis of how the global terrorism index and its heterogeneity affect African countries’ economic growth. These results highlight how important financial deepening is to Nigeria’s economic expansion. Given the inverse relationship between financial deepening and economic growth in Nigeria, reducing credit availability for both individuals and businesses may stifle investment in profitable ventures such as technology innovation, infrastructure development, and entrepreneurship. Also, enhancing financial accessibility, having strong financial intermediaries, and financial systems encourage saving, and economic growth, which in turn leads to resilience, equitable growth, and a decline in poverty. With this knowledge, Nigerian authorities may create and carry out concerted initiatives to strengthen the banking sector, increase customer access to financial services, encourage financial literacy, and foster financial innovation. In addition, comprehending the connection between economic growth and national security is vital in safeguarding Nigeria’s political stability, vital infrastructure, and sovereignty. The discovered inverse link between national security and growth implies economic growth and prosperity may be negatively impacted by worsening security circumstances in Nigeria. Thus, security concerns like insurgency, terrorism, and intercommunal strife endanger societal cohesiveness, investor confidence, and economic progress. The significance of these findings for Nigerian authorities stems from the fact that they highlighted the necessity of giving priority to initiatives aimed at reducing instability by bolstering law enforcement, intelligence cooperation, and conflict resolution institutions, all of which are necessary to promote economic success. Furthermore, the findings about the marginal effect of national security to economic growth in Nigeria may also be utilized by policy analysts to evaluate the effects of policy actions on employment, income, and health outcomes. The evaluation of policy efforts, resource allocation, and program development in Nigeria can all be enhanced by an understanding of marginal impacts. Lastly, the significant and positive association between ecological footprint and economic growth suggests that environmental degradation is an inevitable cost of economic growth. Thus, a positive ecological footprint typically depicts the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources like timber, minerals, and fossil fuels. As such, long-term risks to economic sustainability can arise from resource depletion, ecosystem deterioration, biodiversity loss, and perturbation of biological processes. The significance of these, emphasizes how urgently we must move toward sustainable development pathways that strike a balance between social justice, environmental preservation, and economic prosperity. This calls for the implementation of resource-efficiency- and ecosystem-health-promoting policies. 5. Conclusion and policy recommendations In conclusion, this study investigated the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria for the period of 1995–2022, using the ARDL estimation technique as the base model and FMOLS and DOLS as robustness-checking models. Thus, the following hypotheses were investigated in an effort to determine whether there is a link between these occurrences: a). Financial deepening has no significant effect on economic growth; b). National security has no significant effect on economic growth; c). The ecological footprint has no significant impact on economic growth; d). The interaction between national security and ecological footprint has no significant influence on the impact of financial deepening on economic growth; and e). There is no significant causal link between the phenomena. The findings thus show that: a) financial deepening has a positive and negative relationship with economic growth in Nigeria; b) national security has a positive and negative relationship with economic growth; c) ecological footprint has a positive and significant correlation with economic growth; d) changes in national security and ecological footprint have a significant and negative relationship with the effect of financial deepening on economic growth; and e) there is a significant unidirectional causal link as well as a significant bidirectional causal link between financial deepening, ecological footprint, and economic growth. Based on the findings explained above, the following policy recommendations were made. First, we advocate for a mix of policy actions to improve access to finance, strengthen the financial services sector, and promote long-term economic expansion. These policy measures include: a) policies that can facilitate the availability of financial services, especially for those with limited incomes and neglected rural populations; b) policies that can strengthen the legal structure to support financial security, safeguarding consumers, and market ethical conduct; c) making sure that policies that may encourage creativity and rivalry in the financial industry to drive efficiency, reduce costs, and boost access to finances are implemented; and d); and d) policies that promote credit operations, lower transaction costs, and enhance the evaluation of credit risk through boosting spending on the building of financial structures, such as payment networks, and bureaus of credit. Second, we endorse policies that support Nigeria’s border surveillance, intelligence, and enforcement agencies, among other security infrastructure components. It is possible to foster unity in society and support efforts to promote peace in Nigeria by giving priority to dealing with the underlying causes of dispute. Discussion with all parties involved, leaders in the community, and disadvantaged populations can be utilized to handle complaints, settle conflicts, and establish confidence between neighborhoods. Lastly, an integrated approach that incorporates ecological sustainability into growth plans and economic initiatives should be given top priority. This can be done by: a). putting policies in place that support conservation, organic, and other sustainable agricultural practices; b). enforcing stricter environmental laws and regulations to safeguard ecosystems; c). quickening the switch to clean energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, and biomass to lessen reliance on crude oil and reduce carbon dioxide emissions; and d). giving precedence to expenditures in environmentally friendly building projects that lessen environmental harm, improve adaptability to global warming, and contribute to economic growth in Nigeria. Ethical approval The paper is original and has not been published elsewhere in any form or language (partially or in full). There is no ethical approval for this work since it is a social science research. We utilized an annual time series data obtained from the World Bank’s World Development Indicator which has been widely used for research in social science studies which we are ready to make available at the request of the journal. We consent that our paper titled “Causal relationship between Financial Deepening, National Security, Ecological Footprint, and Economic Growth in Nigeria” should be published in this journal. Data availability Data for each of the variables such as real GDP, money supply (% of GDP), CO2 emissions (in metric tons per person), GDP deflator, and exchange rates, for the period 1995-2022 used in this study were sourced from the World Bank: https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators# . The data for global terrorism index for the period 1995 – 2022 used for the study were sourced from institute for economics and peace ( https://www.economicsandpeace.org/reports/ ) and reliefweb ( https://reliefweb.int/report/world/global-terrorism-index-2022 ) reports for various years. Access to the source data is free of charge subject to the terms and conditions set by the World Bank ( https://data.worldbank.org/summary-terms-of-use ), and the average score of various years’ global terrorism index reports has already been published and made accessible for use. Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0). Acknowledgments We appreciate the authors of this work for their valuable contributions and the reviewers for their numerous innovative suggestions that help to improve the quality of the research. 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Publisher Full Text Udemba EN: A sustainable study of economic growth and development amidst ecological footprint: New insight from Nigerian Perspective. Science of The Total Environment. 2020; 732 : 139270. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Ullah A, Ahmed M, Raza SA, et al. : A Threshold Approach to Sustainable Development: The Nonlinear Relationship Between Renewable Energy Consumption, Natural Resource Rent, and Ecological Footprint. Journal of Environmental Management. 2021; 295 (2021). Article 113073. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text Wang Z, Bui Q, Zhang B, et al. : Biomass Energy Production and Its Impact on the Ecological Footprint: A Survey of G7 Countries. Science of The Total Environment. 2020; 743 (2020): 140741. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text World Bank development indicator: 2023. Reference Source Yahaya KA, Kolapo MB: The Impact of Financial Deepening on Nigeria’s Economic Growth. Centum Journal. 2020; 21 (1): 135–151. Yang F: The Impact of Financial Development on Economic Growth in Middle-Income Countries. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money. 2019; 59 (C): 74–89. Publisher Full Text Yang B, Jahanger A, Ali M: Remittance inflows affect the ecological footprint in BICS countries: do technological innovation and financial development matter? Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2021; 28 (18): 23482–23500. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Yasin I, Ahmad N, Chaudhary MA: Catechizing the Environmental Impact of Urbanization, Financial Development, and Political Institutions: The Circumstance of Ecological Footprints in 110 Developed and Less Developed Countries. Research on social indicators. 2019; 147 (2): 621–649. Yusuf A, Mohd S: Growth and Fiscal Effects of Insecurity on the Nigerian Economy.The European Journal of Development Research.2023; 35 : 743–769. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Zafar MW, Zaidi SAH, Khan NR, et al. : The Impact of Natural Resources, Human Capital, and Foreign Direct Investment on the Ecological Footprint: The Case of the United States. Resources Policy. 2019; 63 (2019): 101428. Publisher Full Text Zakaria M, Jun W, Ahmed H: The Impact of Terrorism on Economic Growth in Pakistan: An Empirical Analysis. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja. 2019; 32 (1): 1794–1812. Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 05 Jul 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Banking and Finance, University of Nigeria, Enugu, Enugu, 410001, Nigeria 2 Public Policy, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA 3 Banking and Finance, Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Enugu, Enugu, Enugu, 4100001, Nigeria 4 Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, 4100001, Nigeria 5 Accounting, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Northwest, Cameroon 6 Lower Usuma Dam,, National Institute for Security Studies, Bwari, Abuja., Abuja, Nigeria Charles O. Manasseh Roles: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Chine Sp Logan Roles: Funding Acquisition, Software Ogochukwu C. Okanya Roles: Investigation, Resources, Visualization Kenechukwu K. Ede Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Odidi C..O. Onuselogu Roles: Conceptualization, Funding Acquisition, Resources, Validation Chi A. Ngong Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing John C. Duru Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Investigation Jonathan E. Ogbuabor Roles: Methodology, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Ifeoma C. Nwakoby Roles: Funding Acquisition, Resources, Validation Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 05 Jul 2024, 13:753 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 Copyright © 2024 Manasseh CO et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Manasseh CO, Logan CS, Okanya OC et al. Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.147704.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 05 Jul 2024 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Zaman S. Reviewer Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303563 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753/v1#referee-response-303563 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 26 Aug 2024 Shah Zaman , The University of Lahore, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan; Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics College of Economics and Management, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303563 Note for the editor Thank you for providing me opportunity to review the paper, titled "Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria." The paper offers a thorough and insightful analysis of these ... Continue reading READ ALL Note for the editor Thank you for providing me opportunity to review the paper, titled "Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria." The paper offers a thorough and insightful analysis of these key variables within the Nigerian context, but there are several aspects in the form of comments for the authors, where the paper excels and areas where it could benefit from further refinement. I recommend the paper for indexing, subject to minor revisions. The authors should address the areas for improvement outlined above to strengthen the clarity, depth, and impact of their work. With these enhancements, the paper has the potential to make a significant contribution to the understanding of the complex relationships between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in developing economies, particularly Nigeria. Comments for the authors Comment 1. - The introduction could benefit from a clearer articulation of the specific research questions or hypotheses being tested. While the general objectives are clear, more precise research questions would help guide the reader through the study. - It would be beneficial to include a brief discussion on the broader theoretical framework guiding the study. This would provide readers with a better understanding of how the study contributes to existing economic theories on growth, security, and sustainability. Comment 2. - While the literature review is extensive, it could be more critical. The authors should aim to identify specific gaps in the literature more explicitly and demonstrate how their study addresses these gaps. - The review could also benefit from a discussion of the limitations of existing studies. This would help justify the methodological choices made in this study, particularly the use of the ARDL model and robustness checks with FMOLS and DOLS. Comment 3. - The paper could provide more detail on the data sources and the justification for the time period selected (1995-2022). Specifically, the authors should discuss any potential insufficiency or limitations associated with the data. - The authors might consider providing more information on how they addressed potential multicollinearity among the independent variables, as this is a common issue in econometric analyses involving multiple related predictors. - Additionally, the paper could benefit from a discussion on the potential limitations of the ARDL model itself and how these limitations are mitigated by the use of FMOLS and DOLS. Comment 4. - The discussion of the results could be enhanced by linking the findings more explicitly to the broader literature. For instance, when discussing the negative impact of financial deepening on economic growth, it would be useful to compare this with findings from other studies in different contexts. - The authors should consider discussing the policy implications of their findings in more detail. While some recommendations are provided, a more thorough discussion of how these findings can inform specific policy decisions in Nigeria would strengthen the paper. Comment 5. - The conclusion could benefit from a more forward-looking perspective, considering potential future research directions based on the findings of this study. This would help position the paper as a catalyst for further research in this area. - The policy recommendations, while sound, could be expanded with more specific examples or case studies from other countries that have successfully implemented similar strategies. This would provide a more concrete basis for the recommendations. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Climate Change, Energy Economics, Environmental Economics, World Economy, Western Economics, International Economics and Trade, Financial Economics, Managerial Economics, Resource Economics, Business Administration, Renewable Energy Policy, Urban Environmental Management, Human Resource Management, Policy and Planning, Project Management and Evaluation I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Zaman S. Reviewer Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303563 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753/v1#referee-response-303563 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Cetin M. Reviewer Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303565 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753/v1#referee-response-303565 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 19 Aug 2024 Murat Cetin , Department of Economics, Tekirdag Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303565 This study explores the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria, in order to contribute to the contradicting evidence on economic growth drivers. It is possible to improve the study if the following ... Continue reading READ ALL This study explores the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria, in order to contribute to the contradicting evidence on economic growth drivers. It is possible to improve the study if the following changes are made in the study: 1. In the introduction, the research questions should be created. 2. The contribution of the research to the literature should be emphasized in detail. 3 It should be explained why the 1995-2022 period was chosen 4. There are very few new studies in the literature. Please strengthen the literature with 5-8 new studies 5. Adding the following studies to the literature will contribute to the improvement of the study: 1. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2650339 2. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2674319 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1050550 4. https://www.ibaness.org/bnejss/2022_08_special_issue/18_Cetin_and_Kapcak.pdf 5. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1546010 6. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2151955 7. https://www.uludag.edu.tr/dosyalar/iibfdergi/genel-dokuman/2012_1/ASL04.pdf Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes References 1. KAPÇAK S, ÇETİN M, CAN A: Türkiye Ekonomisinde Tarımsal Enerji Tüketimi-Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Bir Saklı Eşbütünleşme Analizi. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi . 2023; 20 (3): 605-619 Publisher Full Text 2. ÇETİN M, ÇINAR U: KÜRESELLEŞME İLE EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİ: AB ÖRNEĞİ. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi . 2022. Publisher Full Text 3. Beylik U, Cirakli U, Cetin M, Ecevit E, et al.: The relationship between health expenditure indicators and economic growth in OECD countries: A Driscoll-Kraay approach. Front Public Health . 2022; 10 : 1050550 PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text 4. DEMİRGİL B, BİROL Y: YENİLENEBİLİR ENERJİ TÜKETİMİ VE EKONOMİK BÜYÜME İLİŞKİSİ: TÜRKİYE İÇİN BİR TODA-YAMAMOTO NEDENSELLİK ANALİZİ. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi . 2020; 21 (1): 68-83 Publisher Full Text 5. ECEVİT E, ÇETİN M, YILDIZ Ö, DOĞAN R: Does the Aging Population Become a Constraint to the Growth of Turkish Economy? New Evidence from Time Series Analysis. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi . 2021. 367-398 Publisher Full Text 6. ECEVİT E, ÇETİN M: Sağlık Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi: OECD Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Panel Regresyon Analizi. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi . 2010; 2 (11): 166-182 Publisher Full Text 7. GÜVENOĞLU H, ERÇAKAR M: ENERJİ TÜKETİMİNİN EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ÜZERİNE ETKİSİ: TÜRKİYE UYGULAMASI (1971-2015). Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi . 2018; 16 (4): 272-288 Publisher Full Text Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: economic growth, energy economics, environmental economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Cetin M. Reviewer Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303565 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753/v1#referee-response-303565 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 05 Jul 2024 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 2 Version 1 05 Jul 24 read read Murat Cetin , Tekirdag Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey Shah Zaman , The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics College of Economics and Management, Nanjing, China Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2024 Zaman S. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 26 Aug 2024 | for Version 1 Shah Zaman , The University of Lahore, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan; Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics College of Economics and Management, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China 0 Views copyright © 2024 Zaman S. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Note for the editor Thank you for providing me opportunity to review the paper, titled "Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria." The paper offers a thorough and insightful analysis of these key variables within the Nigerian context, but there are several aspects in the form of comments for the authors, where the paper excels and areas where it could benefit from further refinement. I recommend the paper for indexing, subject to minor revisions. The authors should address the areas for improvement outlined above to strengthen the clarity, depth, and impact of their work. With these enhancements, the paper has the potential to make a significant contribution to the understanding of the complex relationships between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in developing economies, particularly Nigeria. Comments for the authors Comment 1. - The introduction could benefit from a clearer articulation of the specific research questions or hypotheses being tested. While the general objectives are clear, more precise research questions would help guide the reader through the study. - It would be beneficial to include a brief discussion on the broader theoretical framework guiding the study. This would provide readers with a better understanding of how the study contributes to existing economic theories on growth, security, and sustainability. Comment 2. - While the literature review is extensive, it could be more critical. The authors should aim to identify specific gaps in the literature more explicitly and demonstrate how their study addresses these gaps. - The review could also benefit from a discussion of the limitations of existing studies. This would help justify the methodological choices made in this study, particularly the use of the ARDL model and robustness checks with FMOLS and DOLS. Comment 3. - The paper could provide more detail on the data sources and the justification for the time period selected (1995-2022). Specifically, the authors should discuss any potential insufficiency or limitations associated with the data. - The authors might consider providing more information on how they addressed potential multicollinearity among the independent variables, as this is a common issue in econometric analyses involving multiple related predictors. - Additionally, the paper could benefit from a discussion on the potential limitations of the ARDL model itself and how these limitations are mitigated by the use of FMOLS and DOLS. Comment 4. - The discussion of the results could be enhanced by linking the findings more explicitly to the broader literature. For instance, when discussing the negative impact of financial deepening on economic growth, it would be useful to compare this with findings from other studies in different contexts. - The authors should consider discussing the policy implications of their findings in more detail. While some recommendations are provided, a more thorough discussion of how these findings can inform specific policy decisions in Nigeria would strengthen the paper. Comment 5. - The conclusion could benefit from a more forward-looking perspective, considering potential future research directions based on the findings of this study. This would help position the paper as a catalyst for further research in this area. - The policy recommendations, while sound, could be expanded with more specific examples or case studies from other countries that have successfully implemented similar strategies. This would provide a more concrete basis for the recommendations. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Climate Change, Energy Economics, Environmental Economics, World Economy, Western Economics, International Economics and Trade, Financial Economics, Managerial Economics, Resource Economics, Business Administration, Renewable Energy Policy, Urban Environmental Management, Human Resource Management, Policy and Planning, Project Management and Evaluation I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Zaman S. Peer Review Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303563) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/13-753/v1#referee-response-303563 keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2024 Cetin M. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 19 Aug 2024 | for Version 1 Murat Cetin , Department of Economics, Tekirdag Namık Kemal University, Tekirdağ, Turkey 0 Views copyright © 2024 Cetin M. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions This study explores the causal link between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria, in order to contribute to the contradicting evidence on economic growth drivers. It is possible to improve the study if the following changes are made in the study: 1. In the introduction, the research questions should be created. 2. The contribution of the research to the literature should be emphasized in detail. 3 It should be explained why the 1995-2022 period was chosen 4. There are very few new studies in the literature. Please strengthen the literature with 5-8 new studies 5. Adding the following studies to the literature will contribute to the improvement of the study: 1. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2650339 2. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2674319 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1050550 4. https://www.ibaness.org/bnejss/2022_08_special_issue/18_Cetin_and_Kapcak.pdf 5. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1546010 6. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2151955 7. https://www.uludag.edu.tr/dosyalar/iibfdergi/genel-dokuman/2012_1/ASL04.pdf Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Yes Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Yes If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Yes Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes References 1. KAPÇAK S, ÇETİN M, CAN A: Türkiye Ekonomisinde Tarımsal Enerji Tüketimi-Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: Bir Saklı Eşbütünleşme Analizi. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi . 2023; 20 (3): 605-619 Publisher Full Text 2. ÇETİN M, ÇINAR U: KÜRESELLEŞME İLE EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİ: AB ÖRNEĞİ. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi . 2022. Publisher Full Text 3. Beylik U, Cirakli U, Cetin M, Ecevit E, et al.: The relationship between health expenditure indicators and economic growth in OECD countries: A Driscoll-Kraay approach. Front Public Health . 2022; 10 : 1050550 PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text 4. DEMİRGİL B, BİROL Y: YENİLENEBİLİR ENERJİ TÜKETİMİ VE EKONOMİK BÜYÜME İLİŞKİSİ: TÜRKİYE İÇİN BİR TODA-YAMAMOTO NEDENSELLİK ANALİZİ. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi . 2020; 21 (1): 68-83 Publisher Full Text 5. ECEVİT E, ÇETİN M, YILDIZ Ö, DOĞAN R: Does the Aging Population Become a Constraint to the Growth of Turkish Economy? New Evidence from Time Series Analysis. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi . 2021. 367-398 Publisher Full Text 6. ECEVİT E, ÇETİN M: Sağlık Harcamalarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi: OECD Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Panel Regresyon Analizi. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi . 2010; 2 (11): 166-182 Publisher Full Text 7. GÜVENOĞLU H, ERÇAKAR M: ENERJİ TÜKETİMİNİN EKONOMİK BÜYÜME ÜZERİNE ETKİSİ: TÜRKİYE UYGULAMASI (1971-2015). Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi . 2018; 16 (4): 272-288 Publisher Full Text Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise economic growth, energy economics, environmental economics I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Cetin M. Peer Review Report For: Causal relationship between financial deepening, national security, ecological footprint, and economic growth in Nigeria [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2024, 13 :753 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.161929.r303565) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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