Yaw-induced transitions in ballistic limit and fracture mechanisms in steel plate perforation

Yaw-induced transitions in ballistic limit and fracture mechanisms in steel plate perforation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Yaw-induced transitions in ballistic limit and fracture mechanisms in steel plate perforation Leandro Chaves Fonseca, Fernando Cunha Peixoto, Jakler Nichele This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates how the yaw angle influences the ballistic limit velocity and the associated fracture mechanisms in steel plates. Three-dimensional simulations were carried out for blunt cylindrical projectiles with diameter of 7.62 mm, length of 22.86 mm, and mass of 8.16 grams, impacting 4340 steel plates with 10 mm thickness. The results show a non-monotonic dependence of the ballistic limit on yaw: the resistance increases with angle, reaches a pronounced maximum between 60° and 75°, where the ballistic limit nearly doubles compared with normal impact, and decreases for larger angles. The analysis also reveals a transition in fracture mechanism occurring between 45° and 60°, marking the shift from ductile hole enlargement to shear-dominated plugging. These findings demonstrate that yaw is a governing parameter in the dynamic fracture of ductile plates, linking global ballistic resistance to local stress states and advancing the physical understanding of protective structures subjected to oblique and yawed impacts. Ballistic limit Yaw angle Fracture mechanisms transition Ductile hole enlargement Shear plugging Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7767315","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":528997199,"identity":"79fa898d-0f4b-480c-8ca1-d73ceff00043","order_by":0,"name":"Leandro Chaves Fonseca","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Military Institute of Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Leandro","middleName":"Chaves","lastName":"Fonseca","suffix":""},{"id":528997200,"identity":"a0c347c2-f19d-4916-9ac4-7f84e9fe734f","order_by":1,"name":"Fernando Cunha Peixoto","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Military Institute of Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fernando","middleName":"Cunha","lastName":"Peixoto","suffix":""},{"id":528997201,"identity":"300a99db-e3ba-45a0-b0c0-1012b7f6113b","order_by":2,"name":"Jakler Nichele","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgY2xgMMDDY8IA4zA8MBorSAlKWRoIWBAazlMAPxWpjbjyUc+LjnvIxuewPj4wKGO/mEHdaTduDgjGe3eczOHGA2nsHwzLKBoJaG9IbDPAeAWm4ksEnzMBw2IGxL//OGw38OnOMxu/+A/TdxWmakHTjMcOAA0BYGNmYitTxLONhzIBnol8Rm6RkGzwhrMexPM3zw44Cdvdnxwwc/F1TcIUJLA8JCIJOwBgYGeSLUjIJRMApGwUgHACofQmTaxfpzAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Military Institute of Engineering","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jakler","middleName":"","lastName":"Nichele","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-02 14:38:22","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":93735075,"identity":"132d6b3c-9f94-42c9-abe8-e1e0fd58a363","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1873622,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/ee0973c4d44861e79d8b80e4.docx"},{"id":93735073,"identity":"cc35cf69-f5bd-43e3-8e9f-12bcc93d3d3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4972,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"fb9d7c9f6e7f4c82b3b7ae2713943413.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/fb72626cc05c78142827a33c.json"},{"id":93735074,"identity":"11f14da2-ca83-400f-bc8f-58653a26a032","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":126558,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"fb9d7c9f6e7f4c82b3b7ae27139434131enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/82c8a1cc768c0295dccdc7ff.xml"},{"id":93735384,"identity":"754eca6f-6afb-42d2-9ccf-5b9e8d367cf0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":163097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/539d710346f62210ad4d0c2e.jpeg"},{"id":93735383,"identity":"8b1790d3-d420-4b25-8667-667d5e004901","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":294964,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/d9c15682ae86819d7332c5b1.jpeg"},{"id":93735089,"identity":"a11c70d3-4fee-4dac-91b0-7605b45f5318","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":591524,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/a28b9ce82211ddd3b5fafa04.jpeg"},{"id":93735078,"identity":"301e8229-0b33-4b84-8637-a319c490a556","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":339960,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/7483bc4686a21977a1ec8125.jpeg"},{"id":93735386,"identity":"59e01ba7-c82c-45a3-af48-507b224e24cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":94338,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/d959704bec6f52d564fe9938.jpeg"},{"id":93735080,"identity":"2f97cc43-3724-4ca6-bbc6-bb74436ea23f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":499232,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/cfb25b7a29a5e011d39bb3d3.jpeg"},{"id":93735390,"identity":"f400b591-0096-4181-82f9-73d7d496a202","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":255018,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/af3d421221c788bbac170041.jpeg"},{"id":93735095,"identity":"2ee200b0-9a7b-44d6-b51a-da92655ad413","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":659591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/0e695f817d6372e7414dcc13.jpeg"},{"id":93735393,"identity":"08dd323c-48be-4722-9d7b-ff311e8583e5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:20","extension":"emf","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":72288,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.emf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/22b5573b9d48e7f3cc00371a.emf"},{"id":93735085,"identity":"e5b43138-852a-492e-970e-88a13b1f8de3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":252332,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/45ea966479261ae528f5edf1.jpeg"},{"id":93735392,"identity":"24036574-e2ca-4d16-9faa-974717fc6aae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:20","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":87686,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/11f70069abf5a144f0f016af.png"},{"id":93735091,"identity":"a5af2c35-0481-4d12-aadd-bf0c9a8f0fd7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":55414,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/f9e2d4bcd839c7c68e0e1cf7.png"},{"id":93735094,"identity":"2c0d11a3-4e02-4950-9c06-f3e9df2a252b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":119973,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/6b1246e4270c0371e97593f8.png"},{"id":93735093,"identity":"439dcf33-7ede-4095-b3cd-faadace90a6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":80485,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/7cbde15b9efe5d601d34321e.png"},{"id":93735387,"identity":"00e5c559-f706-4226-a944-1820838e18d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:19","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":16357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/72912db6e98c7b5c1b2eacea.png"},{"id":93735096,"identity":"dfb0bcba-6a68-48b8-9b1e-ae1fd7ee49b5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":135420,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/2e89c850e751097e6dcdf633.png"},{"id":93735076,"identity":"6d1270d8-fe83-4656-8b52-0ae5ac7e70f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":70114,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/37abd6598f98c6ab943fbc59.png"},{"id":93735098,"identity":"be8c4323-ccdc-404c-b383-4c12ee8f7035","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":131899,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/ce48c57e59f9b776c2c6d97d.png"},{"id":93735086,"identity":"1f8526c5-b8cd-496a-8bda-f3b5d1d9d8f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":61020,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/8f119ab1181eaa8e542a194d.png"},{"id":93735087,"identity":"e248aa5e-27a6-4406-87d6-77b04af0e56f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:20","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":49122,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/89ca85eb07c97fa97fbe180f.png"},{"id":93735394,"identity":"8a47b3bc-d350-4470-9fed-1bef8a3cfb08","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:23:20","extension":"xml","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":124185,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"fb9d7c9f6e7f4c82b3b7ae27139434131structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/ce0bb02b6f62fcd58ea8c6a6.xml"},{"id":93735083,"identity":"94dad2fa-1e92-49a6-a25d-18647ac23bae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-17 03:15:19","extension":"html","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":136903,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1/0e041416141ec7e4cdb4a0eb.html"},{"id":104179860,"identity":"86696daa-9b57-428a-96a0-3718545ec98d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-08 17:09:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1036068,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7767315/v1_covered_e221c625-a382-439c-b236-7d30b19fd0be.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Yaw-induced transitions in ballistic limit and fracture mechanisms in steel plate perforation","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Ballistic limit, Yaw angle, Fracture mechanisms transition, Ductile hole enlargement, Shear plugging","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates how the yaw angle influences the ballistic limit velocity and the associated fracture mechanisms in steel plates. Three-dimensional simulations were carried out for blunt cylindrical projectiles with diameter of 7.62 mm, length of 22.86 mm, and mass of 8.16 grams, impacting 4340 steel plates with 10 mm thickness. The results show a non-monotonic dependence of the ballistic limit on yaw: the resistance increases with angle, reaches a pronounced maximum between 60\u0026deg; and 75\u0026deg;, where the ballistic limit nearly doubles compared with normal impact, and decreases for larger angles. The analysis also reveals a transition in fracture mechanism occurring between 45\u0026deg; and 60\u0026deg;, marking the shift from ductile hole enlargement to shear-dominated plugging. These findings demonstrate that yaw is a governing parameter in the dynamic fracture of ductile plates, linking global ballistic resistance to local stress states and advancing the physical understanding of protective structures subjected to oblique and yawed impacts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Yaw-induced transitions in ballistic limit and fracture mechanisms in steel plate perforation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-17 03:15:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7767315/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1d3e1040-7dd7-4c2a-9970-5c3d5872c797","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-08T17:08:56+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-17 03:15:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7767315","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7767315","identity":"rs-7767315","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}