An Assessment of the Capacity of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Ghanaian Basic Schools

An Assessment of the Capacity of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Ghanaian Basic Schools | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article An Assessment of the Capacity of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Ghanaian Basic Schools Clement Adamba, Emmanuel Adjei-Boateng, Regina Naadu Ayertey, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract High-quality early childhood education (ECE) is critical for children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development, yet teacher capacity remains a key challenge in many low- and middle-income contexts. This study assessed the capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in Ghanaian basic schools, with a specific focus on entry qualifications, professional upgrading, participation in continuous professional development (CPD), knowledge of professional standards, and pedagogical practices. Employing a descriptive survey design, the study sampled 101 kindergarten (KG) teachers from 52 public and private basic schools in the Kpone–Katamanso Municipality of the Greater Accra Region using stratified random sampling. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics. Findings indicate that a substantial proportion of teachers (42%) entered the ECE profession with West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) qualifications, while only 1% held a degree in Early Childhood Education at the point of entry. Subsequent professional upgrading showed 18% had obtained ECE degrees and 26% degrees in related fields, with public-school teachers generally more qualified. Participation in CPD was high, with approximately 70% of teachers attending one or more CPD activities in the three years preceding the study, mainly in areas related to early literacy, child development, and foundations of ECE. Teachers reported limited knowledge of professional standards, particularly in child development and curriculum understanding. In terms of pedagogy, play-based learning was the most frequently used approach, while scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods were less commonly used. The study concludes that although many ECE teachers enter the profession with lower initial qualifications, sustained professional development and targeted CPD have the potential to significantly enhance teacher capacity. Strengthening access to specialised ECE training, expanding CPD coverage, and promoting a broader range of inclusive pedagogical approaches are recommended to improve the quality of early childhood education delivery in Ghana. Early Childhood Education Kindergarten Teachers Pedagogy Professional Development Teacher Capacity Ghana Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Teacher capacity remains a central concern in efforts to improve the quality of education, particularly at the early childhood level, where foundations for lifelong learning are established. Instructional leadership at the school, district, and national levels plays a critical role in shaping teachers' professional competencies by ensuring supportive school climates, effective resource deployment, and access to relevant professional learning opportunities. Strengthening teacher capacity is therefore directly linked to the provision of quality, equitable, and inclusive education, a priority for both developed and developing countries. The global commitment to Early Childhood Education (ECE) was reinforced through the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, with Goal 4 emphasising inclusive and equitable quality education for all. Target 4.2 specifically calls for expanded access to quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education to ensure children’s readiness for primary schooling (United Nations, 2015 ). ECE is widely recognised as a critical stage of education that requires coherent policies, adequate resourcing, and well-prepared teachers to support children’s holistic development (Neuman & Okengo, 2019). Despite its acknowledged importance, ECE historically received limited policy attention in many African contexts. Mwamwenda ( 2014 ) observed that in several countries, ECE was marginalised within national education systems, resulting in inadequate investment and weak professional structures. In Ghana, kindergarten education was for many years peripheral to the formal education system until its integration into the public basic school system in 2007 as part of comprehensive education reforms (Osie-Poku & Gyekye-Ampofo, 2017 ). This policy shift significantly increased access to ECE but also exposed underlying challenges related to teacher supply, qualifications, and pedagogical preparedness. Extensive empirical evidence demonstrates that the quality of ECE provision is closely associated with the quality of teachers who deliver it. Studies consistently show that children who participate in high-quality ECE programmes are better prepared for primary education and demonstrate improved cognitive, social, and emotional outcomes (Phillips et al., 2017 ; Yoshikawa et al., 2013 ). Central to achieving such outcomes is the presence of professionally trained teachers who possess the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and pedagogical competencies required to support young learners in developmentally appropriate ways. Teacher quality in ECE is commonly conceptualised through both structural and process dimensions. Structural quality includes regulated aspects such as teachers' academic and professional qualifications, certification, and access to teaching resources. In contrast, process quality focuses on classroom interactions, instructional strategies, and the nature of teacher–child engagement (Burchinal, 2018 ). Effective ECE teachers are therefore expected not only to meet minimum qualification requirements but also to demonstrate competence in play-based pedagogy, differentiated instruction, assessment, and responsive classroom practices. In Ghana, teacher professional standards and reform frameworks increasingly emphasise the need for qualified and licensed teachers at all levels of basic education. The Ghana Education Service requires all basic school teachers, including kindergarten teachers, to undergo approved training and obtain professional licensure (GES, 2018). However, the Early Childhood Education Policy (MoE, 2021) highlights persistent challenges, including unclear role definitions for ECE personnel, inconsistencies in pre-service training curricula, and uneven adoption of play-based and inclusive pedagogical approaches. These challenges raise important questions about the actual capacity of teachers currently delivering ECE in schools. Continuous professional development (CPD) has therefore become a key strategy for addressing capacity gaps among ECE teachers. Research suggests that sustained professional learning opportunities enhance teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, instructional skills, and professional confidence, enabling them to adapt to curriculum reforms and evolving classroom demands (Engel et al., 2015 ; Perry & Bevins, 2019 ). International experiences further demonstrate that systematic in-service training can strengthen teacher effectiveness beyond initial preparation (Shiyan et al., 2021 ). In Ghana, CPD is expected to complement pre-service training by supporting teachers in implementing the standards-based curriculum and adopting developmentally appropriate practices. Given these policy and practice contexts, empirical evidence on ECE teachers' actual qualifications, professional development experiences, and pedagogical practices is essential for informed decision-making. This study responds to this need by assessing the capacity of Early Childhood Education teachers in Ghanaian basic schools, focusing on entry qualifications, professional upgrading, participation in CPD, knowledge of professional standards, and pedagogical approaches used in classrooms. By providing municipality-level evidence, the study contributes to ongoing national discussions on how best to strengthen the ECE workforce and improve the quality of early childhood education delivery in Ghana. The following research questions guided the study: What professional qualifications do most ECE teachers possess upon entry into teaching? To what extent do ECE teachers participate in continuous professional development? What pedagogical approaches do ECE teachers employ in their classroom practices? What professional standards and practices are ECE teachers knowledgeable about? Theoretical Framework This study is anchored in a multi-theoretical framework that integrates Human Capital Theory and the Structural–Process Quality Theory of Early Childhood Education. Together, these theories provide a coherent lens for understanding how teachers’ entry qualifications, professional development experiences, and pedagogical practices shape the overall capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in Ghanaian basic schools. Human Capital Theory Human Capital Theory, popularised by Becker (1964), posits that investment in education and training enhances individuals’ productivity, effectiveness, and economic value. Within the education sector, teachers’ academic qualifications and professional training are viewed as critical forms of human capital that directly influence instructional quality and learner outcomes. Applied to Early Childhood Education, Human Capital Theory suggests that teachers who enter the profession with higher academic and professional qualifications are more likely to possess the foundational knowledge and skills required to deliver developmentally appropriate instruction. Conversely, teachers who enter with lower-level qualifications may initially lack specialised pedagogical competencies but can enhance their capacity through further education and training. In the context of this study, the theory is particularly relevant for examining: The nature of ECE teachers’ entry qualifications (e.g., WASSCE, Certificate A, Diploma, Degree), Professional upgrading through further studies, and Differences in qualification profiles between public and private school teachers. The theory, therefore, provides a strong justification for policy emphasis on upgrading ECE teachers’ qualifications and expanding access to specialised ECE training programmes (Becker, 1964; Hanushek & Woessmann, 2015). Structural–Process Quality Theory of Early Childhood Education The Structural–Process Quality framework, articulated by Burchinal (2018) and widely adopted in ECE research, provides a comprehensive model for understanding quality in early childhood settings. Structural quality refers to regulated and measurable inputs such as teacher qualifications, class size, curriculum, and learning resources. In contrast, process quality focuses on daily classroom interactions, instructional strategies, and teacher–child relationships. This framework is particularly useful for linking teacher qualifications and professional development (structural quality) with pedagogical practices and professionalism (process quality). High structural quality is believed to create the conditions for effective process quality, which in turn leads to positive child outcomes. In the present study, the framework is directly relevant for: Assessing teachers’ professional and academic qualifications as indicators of structural quality, Examining CPD participation and content as mechanisms for strengthening structural capacity, and Analysing pedagogical approaches (play-based learning, scaffolding, differentiation, assessment) and professional standards as indicators of process quality. Relevance of the Framework to the Study The integration of these three theories provides a comprehensive explanation of ECE teacher capacity in Ghanaian basic schools. Human Capital Theory explains why teacher qualifications and upgrading matter, and the Structural–Process Quality framework explains how these capacities translate into classroom practices and professionalism. Together, the framework supports the study’s focus on: Entry qualifications and professional upgrading, Participation in CPD and areas of knowledge gain, Differences in teacher capacity across public and private schools, and The use of diverse pedagogical approaches in ECE classrooms. By grounding the study in this integrated theoretical framework, the research offers a coherent explanation of how investments in teacher education and professional development can strengthen ECE quality and improve learning experiences for young children in Ghana. Methods The study was conducted in a peri-urban municipality in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The municipality has a total of 354 kindergarten (KG) schools, comprising 26 public and 328 private institutions, with an estimated 635 KG teachers (Municipal Education Office, 2022). While most basic schools in the municipality operate a shift system, kindergarten classes run a full-day (straight-day) model. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study, as it allows systematic data collection to describe the existing conditions, practices, and characteristics of a population. Kindergarten teachers were the primary target population, as they are the direct beneficiaries of capacity-building initiatives implemented within the municipality. A stratified random sampling technique was employed to select schools for the study, with schools stratified into public and private categories. Given the relatively small number of public schools (26), all public schools were included in the study. In addition, 26 private schools were randomly selected to ensure comparability between the two strata. Consequently, 52 schools participated in the survey. Each of the sampled participating schools had two kindergarten teachers, one for KG 1 and one for KG 2, except for one school, which had a single teacher responsible for both levels. In total, 101 kindergarten teachers participated in the study. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee for the Humanities (reference number: ECH 359/21–22), and all ethical protocols relating to informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation were strictly observed. Findings Demographic Characteristics of teachers surveyed All teachers in the sampled schools were female (100%). This reflects prevailing staffing patterns in early childhood education, which are commonly characterised by a predominance of female teachers, particularly at the lower levels of the education system. The age distribution of participants indicates that 30% were under 30 years of age, 43% were between 31 and 40 years, 21% were between 41 and 50 years, and 7% were over 50 years. The distribution shows that the ECE teaching workforce in the municipality spans a broad age range, with a predominance of relatively young teachers. Most participants were under 50, suggesting a younger workforce that may be receptive to professional development. This demographic profile suggests a strong capacity to adapt to emerging pedagogical strategies and innovative approaches required to meet the developmental needs of the 21st-century Ghanaian child. Regarding teaching experience at the kindergarten level, the distribution of respondents suggests a workforce concentrated at the early- to mid-career stage. The largest proportion of teachers (32.5%, n=33) reported between four and six years of experience, followed by those with ten years or more of experience (23.9%, n=24). A substantial share of respondents (27.7%, n = 28) had between 1 and 3 years of teaching experience, while teachers with 7 to 9 years of experience constituted the smallest group (15.9%, n = 16). Taken together, this pattern indicates a bimodal distribution, with a strong presence of relatively less experienced teachers alongside a smaller but notable cohort of long-serving practitioners. Overall, the distribution indicates that a substantial proportion of ECE teachers in the municipality have relatively limited teaching experience, with over 60% having fewer than 7 years of experience in the profession. This pattern suggests a workforce that is still in the developmental stages of professional practice, thereby reinforcing the need for structured capacity-building initiatives and sustained continuous professional development programmes to enhance pedagogical competence and long-term professional effectiveness. ECE Teachers Entry Qualification The quality of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers is fundamentally linked to their professional knowledge, pedagogical practice, and professional values and attitudes. Teacher quality in ECE is commonly described in terms of structural and process characteristics. Structural quality refers to regulated aspects, such as academic qualifications and resource availability, whereas process quality focuses on interactive teaching and learning activities that actively promote children’s development. Professional and academic qualifications are key indicators of teacher preparedness and classroom effectiveness. As shown in Figure 1, 42% of the ECE teachers had a WASSCE certificate as their initial qualification. Only 1% of participants held a degree in ECE, and another 1% had a degree in a non-ECE discipline. 15% of teachers held professional qualifications, including Certificate A, a Diploma in Basic Education, or a Diploma in ECE. Additionally, 10% of the respondents held a National Nursery Teacher Training Certificate, while 2% had a Higher National Diploma (HND). These suggest that ECE teachers in the municipality were recruited with a range of teaching qualifications; however, the majority entered the profession with low-level qualifications. This highlights the need for targeted professional development through in-service training in the early years of recruitment, followed by further studies to upgrade their qualifications and enhance their pedagogical knowledge, professional practice, and overall capacity to deliver quality early childhood education. Current professional certificates of participants Further studies and Continuing Professional development are key to enhancing the teaching capacity of ECE teachers. To assess trends in professional growth, participants were asked whether they had upgraded their qualifications after becoming ECE teachers. As shown in Figure 2, substantial changes in teachers' qualifications have occurred since entering the profession. The proportion of teachers holding a Teachers’ Certificate “A” decreased from 15% at entry to 3% following further training after appointment. In comparison, the percentage of teachers with a degree in ECE increased from 1% to 18% at the time of the study, all due to further schooling after their appointment. Similarly, the proportion of teachers with a degree in other disciplines rose from 1% to 26%. Only 10% of teachers continue to hold only WASSCE compared to the 42% at entry. These findings indicate that a majority of ECE teachers actively pursued professional development through further study opportunities, resulting in significant improvement in their academic and professional qualifications. Such upgrades suggest a growing capacity among ECE teachers to enhance their pedagogical knowledge, adopt innovative teaching strategies, and improve the overall quality of early childhood education. Public and Private Schools ECE Teachers' Qualifications The study also examined differences in the qualification levels of ECE teachers between public and private schools. The summary descriptives are shown in Table 1 below. About 22 per cent (11 teachers) of public school teachers hold a degree in ECE, compared with 13.7 per cent (7 teachers) in private schools. Notably, none of the public-school teachers holds a WASSCE as their highest qualification, whereas nearly 20 per cent (10 teachers) of private-school teachers do. In terms of upgrading qualifications, 32 per cent (16 schools) of public-school teachers, compared with about 20 per cent (10 teachers) of private-school teachers, had upgraded their qualifications in educational disciplines other than ECE. These results suggest that public-school teachers are generally more likely to upgrade their qualifications in ECE or other educational fields compared to their counterparts in private schools. This highlights potential disparities in professional development opportunities and underscores the importance of targeted capacity-building interventions, particularly in private-school settings, to ensure equitable teaching quality across schools with ECE in the municipality. Table 1: ECE Teachers' Qualifications in Public and Private Schools Qualification Public Schools Private Schools Frequency % Frequency % WAASCE 0 0 10 19.6 Cert A 3 6 0 0 Diploma (ECE) 9 18 6 11.8 Degree (ECE) 11 22 7 13.7 NNTTC 0 0 9 17.6 Diploma (Basic Education) 11 22 8 15.7 HND 0 0 1 2 Degree (Other Discipline) 16 32 10 19.6 TOTAL 50 100 51 100 Source (field data, 2022) Capacity building of ECE Teachers through CPD To maintain professional quality, teachers must engage in continuous professional development (CPD). CPD is essential for every ECE teacher, as it helps ensure that the knowledge and skills acquired during initial training are sustained and further enhanced. It also serves as a tool to improve pedagogical competence and adapt to evolving educational demands. Accordingly, the study also examined ECE teachers’ participation in in-service professional development programmes. In Figure 3, 30% of participants had not attended any CPD in the 3 years preceding the study, while the majority (70%) had participated in at least one CPD activity. Teachers who did not participate cited cost, distance, and maternity responsibilities as barriers to engagement. Remarkably, 70% of ECE teachers participate in CPD opportunities to enhance their knowledge and pedagogical skills; however, it is equally worrying that a sizeable proportion of teachers have not taken advantage of CPD opportunities due to various challenges. This requires deliberate government action to ensure that ECE teachers regularly and consistently upgrade their competencies. Scope and Content of CPD for ECE Teachers The study also explored the scope and content of the CPD programmes in which ECE teachers participate. Figure 4 below shows that the CPD focus areas with the highest participation among ECE teachers were early language and literacy and foundations of early childhood education, each accounting for 18% of respondents. These were followed by child development (16%), how to guide children’s behaviour (15%), and family and community relationships (12%). It is important to note that all teachers who received CPD in the foundations of early childhood education were indirectly exposed to the other areas, as the programme covered content on early literacy, child development, behaviour management, and family engagement. This shows that ECE teachers participate in CPD focused on diverse yet important areas relevant to teaching in ECE. These underscore the critical role of CPD in strengthening ECE teachers' knowledge and pedagogical capacity, while highlighting persistent barriers that limit access for some teachers. Ensuring wider, equitable access to CPD is therefore essential to improving the overall quality of early childhood education in the municipality. Knowledge of Professionalism and Standard Practices among ECE Teachers The study further explored teachers’ understanding and practice of professionalism expected of them. The findings indicate that teachers largely understood the professional practices expected of them. As shown in Figure 5, a limited proportion of respondents reported knowledge of core professional standards, suggesting limited awareness of expectations related to professional conduct and instructional competence. Regarding teachers’ understanding of child development, about a quarter (25%) reported having knowledge. This suggests that the majority have a limited understanding of child growth and development matters, a critical requirement for effective early childhood teaching. Even a lower proportion of teachers reported adequate knowledge and understanding of other concepts, such as the official Kindergarten (KG) curriculum, age-appropriate strategies for teaching in multi-grade classrooms, and how to teach beginning reading, numeracy, and speaking skills. These findings reflect teachers’ lack of familiarity with curriculum content and pedagogical competencies within the ECE space. These results reveal a notable gap in teacher and teaching qualities within the KG space. This suggests that while teachers are generally confident in their instructional roles and professional conduct, fewer perceive themselves as effective instructional or classroom leaders. The lack of sufficient knowledge and understanding may reflect limited training opportunities focused on classroom leadership, mentoring, decision-making, and initiative-taking at the early childhood level. Overall, the findings suggest that ECE teachers exhibit limited professionalism in their content knowledge, understanding of curriculum, and commitment to lifelong learning. This highlights a serious need for professional development. Pedagogical Approaches Used in Early Childhood Education Several pedagogical approaches are recommended for effective Early Childhood Education (ECE), including scaffolding, differentiation, play-based learning, digital creativity, crossover teaching methods, and assessment strategies. The results presented in Table 2 show that teachers are generally aware of these approaches and apply them to varying extents in their classroom practices. Active play-based learning is the most frequently used pedagogical approach among ECE teachers, accounting for 26% of responses (n = 86). This includes activities such as games, dramatisation, music and dance, reading, art and craft, storytelling, puzzles, and sorting activities. The prominence of play-based learning underscores its central role in early childhood pedagogy. It aligns with widely accepted principles that emphasise learning through play as developmentally appropriate for young children. Assessment practices were the second-most-reported approach, with 22% of responses (n = 73). This suggests that teachers place considerable emphasis on assessing children's learning and development, often through observation, informal assessments, and continuous assessment strategies commonly used in ECE settings. The use of digital creativity, which allows children to explore and express themselves through digital media, accounted for 17% of responses (n = 55). This indicates a growing, though still moderate, integration of digital tools in ECE classrooms, reflecting increasing awareness of the role of technology in supporting creativity and learning at the early childhood level. In contrast, more structured instructional strategies, such as differentiation and scaffolding, were used relatively less. Differentiation accounted for 13% of responses (n = 42), while scaffolding recorded 12% (n = 40). Although these approaches are critical for addressing learner diversity and supporting individual learning needs, their limited use may suggest challenges related to teacher expertise, classroom size, or limited professional development opportunities for effectively applying these strategies. The least utilised approach was crossover teaching methods, including exhibitions, field trips, and project-based activities, which accounted for 11% of responses (n = 35). The low adoption of these methods may reflect practical constraints such as limited resources, time, logistical challenges, or inadequate institutional support for organising such activities within ECE settings. Overall, the findings indicate that while ECE teachers employ a range of pedagogical approaches, there is notable variability in their implementation. The dominance of play-based learning highlights its foundational role in early childhood education. In contrast, the relatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods suggests the need for targeted professional development and systemic support to broaden and deepen pedagogical practices in ECE classrooms. Table 2: Teachers' Use of ECE Pedagogical Approaches Approaches Percentage of responses Frequency of responses Scaffolding 12% 40 Differentiation 13% 42 Children exploring and creating using digital forms of expression 17% 55 Crossover teaching (e.g., exhibition, trips, projects, etc.) 11% 35 Active Play-based method (e.g., games, dramatisation, music/dance, reading, art and craft, stories, puzzles, sorting, etc.) 26% 86 Assessment 22% 73 Total 100% 331 Source (field data 2022) Discussion The capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers is central to providing quality early learning experiences. It is widely understood to rest on teachers' professional knowledge, pedagogical practice, and professional values and attitudes (MoE, 2017). Consistent with Burchinal’s ( 2018 ) distinction between structural quality (e.g., teacher qualifications) and process quality (e.g., interactions and pedagogy), this study examined entry qualifications, professional upgrading, continuous professional development (CPD), professionalism, and pedagogical practices of ECE teachers in Ghanaian basic schools. Nature of Teachers’ Entry Qualifications The findings reveal that a substantial proportion of ECE teachers entered the profession with lower-level qualifications, particularly the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), which is not a professional teaching qualification. This trend was more pronounced among private school teachers. Similar patterns have been documented in earlier studies in Ghana, where ECE teaching has historically been perceived as requiring minimal professional preparation, particularly in private schools (Opoku, Agbenyega, & Deppeler, 2018 ; UNICEF, 2022). The predominance of non-professional entry qualifications raises concerns about initial teacher readiness, especially given the developmental sensitivity of early childhood education. Research consistently shows that teachers’ academic and professional preparation significantly influences instructional quality, classroom interactions, and children’s learning outcomes (Taguma et al., 2012 ; Sheridan et al., 2011 ; Burchinal et al., 2016). As such, reliance on underqualified personnel at entry poses risks to effective curriculum implementation and child development outcomes. Upgrade of Qualifications in Later Years The study found that even though the majority of teachers enter the teaching field with lower-level qualifications, they pursue further studies to improve their academic and professional qualifications. The proportion of teachers with degrees—both in ECE and other education-related disciplines—improved remarkably after appointment. This reflects a strong culture of professional self-improvement among ECE teachers and aligns with findings by Asare and Nti (2014), who observed an increase in teacher motivation to upgrade qualifications in response to evolving professional standards in Ghana. The observed improvement in teachers’ qualifications through in-service upgrading supports the central tenet of Human Capital Theory—that sustained investment in education enhances professional capacity and effectiveness (Becker, 1964 ; Hanushek & Woessmann, 2015 ). However, the relatively slow growth in ECE specialisation is noteworthy. Although overall degree attainment improved, only a minority of teachers upgraded specifically to ECE-focused degrees. This suggests that while teachers are advancing academically, many may still lack deep specialisation in early childhood pedagogy, child development, and age-appropriate instructional strategies. This trend has implications for policy targets, particularly Ghana’s ECE policy goal of ensuring that 85% of KG teachers are trained and certified by 2025 (MoE, 2021), which appears difficult to achieve without targeted incentives and structured upgrading pathways. The results further revealed systematic differences between public and private school ECE teachers, with public school teachers more likely to hold higher and more relevant professional qualifications. This disparity mirrors earlier findings that public schools benefit from clearer recruitment standards, access to government-sponsored upgrading opportunities, and structured CPD systems (Akyeampong et al., 2017 ; World Bank, 2020). Private schools, on the other hand, often rely on less-qualified teachers due to cost considerations and weaker regulatory oversight. This inequality raises concerns about equity in ECE quality, as children's access to qualified teachers may depend heavily on the type of school they attend rather than on their developmental needs. Participation in Continuous Professional Development (CPD) Most teachers in the study reported participating in CPD activities within the past three years, underscoring recognition of CPD as a vital mechanism for professional growth. CPD participation has been identified as a key driver of improved instructional quality, especially in contexts where initial teacher education may be insufficient (OECD, 2019 ; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017 ). Nevertheless, the finding that a sizeable minority of teachers had not participated in CPD due to cost, distance, and family responsibilities highlights persistent access barriers. These constraints disproportionately affect female teachers, who constitute the majority of the ECE workforce, underscoring the need for more flexible, school-based, and technology-enabled CPD models. The adult learning theory supports the study’s finding that targeted CPD can enhance teacher capacity regardless of initial entry qualification. It also underscores the need for CPD programmes that are accessible, contextually relevant, and responsive to the realities of ECE classrooms in Ghana (Knowles et al., 2015 ). Scope and Focus of CPD The CPD programmes attended by teachers covered core areas of ECE, including foundations of early childhood education, early literacy, child development, behaviour guidance, and family–community relationships. The prominence of foundational and literacy-focused CPD aligns with the philosophical underpinnings of Ghana's KG curriculum, which emphasises holistic, developmentally appropriate learning (MoE, 2019). However, the concentration of CPD in a limited number of areas suggests potential gaps in exposure to emerging priorities such as inclusive education, digital pedagogy, classroom leadership, and differentiated instruction. Literature emphasises that CPD should be broad, continuous, and responsive to classroom realities to sustain teacher effectiveness (Timperley et al., 2007; OECD, 2019 ). The study indicated limited knowledge of professional standards among teachers, particularly in child development, curriculum understanding, and instructional competencies. ECE teachers are not only caregivers and instructors but also classroom leaders responsible for decision-making, mentoring assistants, managing learning environments, and engaging families. Studies show that strong teacher leadership positively influences instructional quality and collaborative practice (York-Barr & Duke, 2004; Muijs & Harris, 2017). The limited number of ECE teachers with sufficient leadership capacity, therefore, constrains broader school improvement efforts. Pedagogical Approaches Used by ECE Teachers The predominance of play-based learning reflects strong alignment with developmentally appropriate practice and global best practices in early childhood education (Wood, 2014 ; Kutubiddinova et al., 2016 ). This finding is particularly significant given that many teachers entered the profession with limited formal qualifications, suggesting that pedagogical beliefs and attitudes may partially compensate for structural deficits. However, the relatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods indicates uneven pedagogical depth. These strategies are essential for addressing learner diversity, promoting higher-order thinking, and supporting inclusive learning environments (Tomlinson, 2017 ; MoE, 2019). Their limited use may be attributed to large class sizes, insufficient training, limited resources, and weak instructional support systems. The findings show that play-based learning is widely used. At the same time, differentiation and scaffolding are less prevalent, reflecting variations in process quality that may be linked to differences in training and professional support. The Structural–Process Quality Theory of ECE framework provides a strong conceptual bridge between teachers’ capacity and classroom practice (Burchinal, 2018 ; Litjens & Taguma, 2010 ). Conclusion This study assessed the capacity of ECE teachers in Ghanaian basic schools in a large peri-urban municipal education district by examining entry qualifications, professional upgrading, CPD participation, professionalism, and pedagogical practices. The findings show that while many ECE teachers enter the profession with limited formal qualifications, there is strong evidence of professional growth through further studies and CPD participation. Public school teachers generally have higher qualifications than their private school counterparts at entry, highlighting systemic inequities in teacher preparation. Teachers demonstrated limited knowledge of professional standards, particularly in child development, curriculum understanding, and instructional competencies. Leadership competencies in KG classrooms were also less evident. However, pedagogically, a commendable proportion of teachers reported use of play-based learning, reflecting alignment with ECE principles. Overall, the study suggests that ECE teacher capacity in Ghana is improving, though unevenly, and requires sustained policy attention and targeted interventions. Policy Implications The findings of this study have important implications for Ghana's education policy, particularly regarding teacher qualification standards and professional development in Early Childhood Education. The evidence that a significant proportion of ECE teachers entered the profession with relatively low qualifications, especially in private schools, underscores the need for stronger enforcement of minimum qualification requirements across both public and private sectors. While current policies emphasise teacher professionalism and licensure, inconsistencies in implementation risk undermining the quality of ECE delivery. Additionally, the observed improvement in teachers’ qualifications through further studies highlights the importance of establishing clear, structured upgrading pathways that prioritise specialisation in ECE. Policy frameworks should therefore incentivise ECE-specific training through scholarships, study leave arrangements, and career progression mechanisms. Increased public investment in ECE-focused CPD, particularly in instructional leadership, differentiation, and inclusive pedagogy, is also critical to sustaining gains in teacher capacity and aligning practice with national curriculum expectations. Practice Implications At the school level, the findings suggest a need for stronger instructional leadership and professional collaboration within ECE settings. School leaders, including headteachers and circuit supervisors, play a key role in creating supportive professional environments that encourage continuous learning among teachers. Establishing collaborative professional learning communities (PLCs) can foster peer mentoring, reflective practice, and the sharing of effective pedagogical strategies. While play-based learning is widely practised, the comparatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods indicates a need for targeted instructional support to broaden teachers’ pedagogical repertoires. Teachers should be supported through coaching, mentoring, and practical demonstrations to integrate these approaches into daily classroom practice. Furthermore, the growing role of technology in education presents opportunities to expand access to professional learning. Digital platforms can be leveraged to deliver CPD, share teaching resources, and facilitate professional interaction, particularly for teachers who face constraints related to time, distance, or cost. Research Implications The study also highlights important directions for future research on ECE teacher capacity and quality. While this study provides descriptive evidence on teachers’ qualifications, professional development, and pedagogical practices, further research is needed to examine how improvements in teacher capacity translate into measurable gains in children’s learning and developmental outcomes. Longitudinal studies would be particularly valuable in assessing the sustainability of professional growth resulting from CPD participation and further studies. In addition, comparative research across regions and school types could deepen understanding of systemic inequities in ECE teacher preparation and inform more context-sensitive policy interventions. Such evidence would strengthen the empirical base for decision-making in ECE policy and practice in Ghana. Recommendations Based on the study's findings, it is recommended that targeted upgrading programmes be introduced to support ECE teachers, particularly those who entered the profession with WASSCE or Certificate A qualifications, in pursuing ECE-specific diplomas or degree programmes. These programmes should be flexible, affordable, and aligned with teachers' professional responsibilities to encourage participation and completion. Ensuring equitable access to continuous professional development is also essential. CPD opportunities should be diversified through school-based, cluster-level, and online delivery models to reach a broader range of teachers, including those in private schools and underserved areas. Such approaches help reduce barriers related to cost, distance, and competing personal responsibilities. Given the identified gaps in leadership competencies, leadership development modules should be intentionally integrated into ECE-focused CPD programmes. Strengthening teachers’ classroom and instructional leadership skills can enhance classroom organisation, instructional innovation, and collaboration among colleagues. In addition, regulatory oversight and professional support for private schools should be strengthened to improve teacher quality and reduce disparities in ECE provision between public and private schools. This may include closer monitoring of teacher qualifications, targeted professional development support, and partnerships to improve teaching and learning conditions. Finally, the development of digital repositories of pedagogical resources is recommended to support independent and continuous teacher learning. Such platforms could host curriculum-aligned materials, lesson exemplars, videos of effective practice, and resources on play-based, differentiated, and innovative pedagogical approaches, thereby enhancing teachers’ capacity to deliver high-quality ECE across diverse classroom contexts. Declarations Authors’ Contributions C. Adamba: Conceptualisation, Study Design, Development of Instruments, Manuscript Writing, Editing; E. Adjei-Boateng: Conceptualisation, Study Design, Development of Instruments, Manuscript Writing, Editing; R. N. Ayertey: Study Design, Development of Instruments, Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting; P. M.-L. Quame: Development of Instruments, Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting; N. A. Frimpong: Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting. Funding The authors of this study have received no financial support for the research. Availability of Data The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethics The study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee for the Humanities of the University of Ghana under approval number (Ref. ECH 225/22–23). All fieldwork data collection and analysis procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines, applicable laws, and regulations of the University of Ghana, Ghana’s Data Protection Act, 2012 (Act 843), and the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its subsequent amendments. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and data confidentiality. Both written and oral informed consent were obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. No identifying information (e.g., names, staff IDs, or other direct identifiers) was collected, and all data were analyzed in aggregated and anonymized form. Consent to Participate Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants. Consent for Publication: Not applicable Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all private and public basic schools' KG teachers who participated in the study. References Akyeampong, K., Pryor, J., & Westbrook, J. (2017). Teacher preparation and continuing professional development in Africa . Routledge. Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education . University of Chicago Press. Burchinal, M. (2018). Measuring early care and education quality. Child Development Perspectives, 12 (1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12260 Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development . Learning Policy Institute. Engel, A., Barnett, W. S., Anders, Y., & Taguma, M. (2015). Early childhood education and care policy review: Norway . OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264220881-en Ghana Education Service. (2018). National teachers’ standards for Ghana: Guidelines . Ministry of Education. Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2015). The knowledge capital of nations: Education and the economics of growth . MIT Press. Holdheide, L. R., Hayes, K., & Goe, L. (2014). Evaluating specialised instructional support personnel . Centre on Great Teachers and Leaders. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner (8th ed.). Routledge. Kutubiddinova, R. A., Eromasova, A., & Romanova, M. A. (2016). The use of interactive methods in the educational process. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11 (14), 6557–6572. Litjens, I., & Taguma, M. (2010). Revised literature overview for the 7th meeting of the OECD Network on Early Childhood Education and Care . OECD Publishing. Ministry of Education. (2017). National teachers’ standards for Ghana . Government of Ghana. Ministry of Education. (2019). Kindergarten curriculum (Standards-based curriculum) . National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. Ministry of Education. (2021). Early Childhood Education Policy Framework . Government of Ghana. Mwamwenda, T. S. (2014). Early childhood education in Africa. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 6 (2), 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2014.11890128 Neuman, M. J., & Okeng’o, L. (2019). Early childhood policies in low- and middle-income countries. Early Years, 39 (3), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2018.1464636 OECD. (2019). Providing quality early childhood education and care . OECD Publishing. Opoku, M. P., Agbenyega, J., & Deppeler, J. (2018). Implementing inclusive education in Ghana. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22 (9), 1–15. Osie-Poku, P., & Gyekye-Ampofo, E. (2017). Curriculum delivery in early childhood education: Evidence from selected public kindergartens in Ghana. British Journal of Education, 5 (5), 72–82. Perry, E., & Bevins, S. (2019). Professional learning for early childhood educators. Professional Development in Education, 45 (3), 390–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2018.1529615 Phillips, D., Lipsey, M. W., Dodge, K. A., Haskins, R., Bassok, D., Burchinal, M., Duncan, G., Dynarski, M., Magnuson, K., & Weiland, C. (2017). Puzzling it out: The current state of scientific knowledge on pre-kindergarten effects . Brookings Institution. Sheridan, S. M., Edwards, C. P., Marvin, C. A., & Knoche, L. L. (2011). Professional development in early childhood programs. Early Education and Development, 22 (4), 1–22. Shiyan, I., Shiyan, O., Iakshina, A., & Levan, T. (2021). Development of preschool teachers' competencies to improve ECE quality. In W. Boyd & S. Garvis (Eds.), International perspectives on early childhood teacher education in the 21st century (pp. 235–252). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_11 Taguma, M., Litjens, I., & Makowiecki, K. (2012). Quality matters in early childhood education and care . OECD Publishing. Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). How to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms (3rd ed.). ASCD. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development . United Nations. Wood, E. (2014). Play, learning, and the early childhood curriculum (2nd ed.). SAGE. Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M., Espinosa, L., Gormley, W., Ludwig, J., Magnuson, K., Phillips, D., & Zaslow, M. (2013). Investing in our future: The evidence base on preschool education . Society for Research in Child Development. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 16 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 15 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 27 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 20 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 30 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 27 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 26 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9190632","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":630333464,"identity":"dea3d3ae-62c0-4f57-99b5-bd3948ecdd74","order_by":0,"name":"Clement Adamba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Ghana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clement","middleName":"","lastName":"Adamba","suffix":""},{"id":630333466,"identity":"079182f8-8604-47f8-bab1-30f0a6f2faf5","order_by":1,"name":"Emmanuel 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10:53:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108181654,"identity":"3b333584-7081-4f23-977a-fd0b7d62d779","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-30 08:58:49","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86605,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEntry Qualification of ECE Teachers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/e32702f66352d5763c06dd67.png"},{"id":108072059,"identity":"c88a4858-6f7b-4b40-a3fd-588d35780052","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 06:11:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":81819,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eECE Teachers' upgrade of qualification\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/7625122e2ba11ffb6adc4180.png"},{"id":108072056,"identity":"4f39b864-c9aa-4aa9-9999-eb9373688782","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 06:11:11","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62711,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eECE Teachers' Participation in CPD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/b76a2ffd0da8a3e35d380e71.png"},{"id":108072058,"identity":"a76b8f6f-7b3b-4cf5-92c6-7b0e3c9de4b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 06:11:11","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82813,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScope and Content of CPD for ECE Teachers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/2463a34a7e78db8acb47f33b.png"},{"id":108072060,"identity":"74133d7b-5a2a-44ee-8b17-d3814491005e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 06:11:11","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eECE Teachers' Knowledge of Professionalism and Standard Practices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/f2900d90ae665c3758474fcf.png"},{"id":108184229,"identity":"4860f745-c1b9-4795-83b7-515dc7f48ada","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-30 09:03:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":598674,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9190632/v1/b8f7eb76-ebdb-4610-8b58-03e88ec220f8.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"An Assessment of the Capacity of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Ghanaian Basic Schools","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTeacher capacity remains a central concern in efforts to improve the quality of education, particularly at the early childhood level, where foundations for lifelong learning are established. Instructional leadership at the school, district, and national levels plays a critical role in shaping teachers' professional competencies by ensuring supportive school climates, effective resource deployment, and access to relevant professional learning opportunities. Strengthening teacher capacity is therefore directly linked to the provision of quality, equitable, and inclusive education, a priority for both developed and developing countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe global commitment to Early Childhood Education (ECE) was reinforced through the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, with Goal 4 emphasising inclusive and equitable quality education for all. Target 4.2 specifically calls for expanded access to quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education to ensure children\u0026rsquo;s readiness for primary schooling (United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). ECE is widely recognised as a critical stage of education that requires coherent policies, adequate resourcing, and well-prepared teachers to support children\u0026rsquo;s holistic development (Neuman \u0026amp; Okengo, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its acknowledged importance, ECE historically received limited policy attention in many African contexts. Mwamwenda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) observed that in several countries, ECE was marginalised within national education systems, resulting in inadequate investment and weak professional structures. In Ghana, kindergarten education was for many years peripheral to the formal education system until its integration into the public basic school system in 2007 as part of comprehensive education reforms (Osie-Poku \u0026amp; Gyekye-Ampofo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This policy shift significantly increased access to ECE but also exposed underlying challenges related to teacher supply, qualifications, and pedagogical preparedness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtensive empirical evidence demonstrates that the quality of ECE provision is closely associated with the quality of teachers who deliver it. Studies consistently show that children who participate in high-quality ECE programmes are better prepared for primary education and demonstrate improved cognitive, social, and emotional outcomes (Phillips et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yoshikawa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Central to achieving such outcomes is the presence of professionally trained teachers who possess the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and pedagogical competencies required to support young learners in developmentally appropriate ways.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeacher quality in ECE is commonly conceptualised through both structural and process dimensions. Structural quality includes regulated aspects such as teachers' academic and professional qualifications, certification, and access to teaching resources. In contrast, process quality focuses on classroom interactions, instructional strategies, and the nature of teacher\u0026ndash;child engagement (Burchinal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Effective ECE teachers are therefore expected not only to meet minimum qualification requirements but also to demonstrate competence in play-based pedagogy, differentiated instruction, assessment, and responsive classroom practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ghana, teacher professional standards and reform frameworks increasingly emphasise the need for qualified and licensed teachers at all levels of basic education. The Ghana Education Service requires all basic school teachers, including kindergarten teachers, to undergo approved training and obtain professional licensure (GES, 2018). However, the Early Childhood Education Policy (MoE, 2021) highlights persistent challenges, including unclear role definitions for ECE personnel, inconsistencies in pre-service training curricula, and uneven adoption of play-based and inclusive pedagogical approaches. These challenges raise important questions about the actual capacity of teachers currently delivering ECE in schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuous professional development (CPD) has therefore become a key strategy for addressing capacity gaps among ECE teachers. Research suggests that sustained professional learning opportunities enhance teachers\u0026rsquo; pedagogical knowledge, instructional skills, and professional confidence, enabling them to adapt to curriculum reforms and evolving classroom demands (Engel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Perry \u0026amp; Bevins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). International experiences further demonstrate that systematic in-service training can strengthen teacher effectiveness beyond initial preparation (Shiyan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In Ghana, CPD is expected to complement pre-service training by supporting teachers in implementing the standards-based curriculum and adopting developmentally appropriate practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these policy and practice contexts, empirical evidence on ECE teachers' actual qualifications, professional development experiences, and pedagogical practices is essential for informed decision-making. This study responds to this need by assessing the capacity of Early Childhood Education teachers in Ghanaian basic schools, focusing on entry qualifications, professional upgrading, participation in CPD, knowledge of professional standards, and pedagogical approaches used in classrooms. By providing municipality-level evidence, the study contributes to ongoing national discussions on how best to strengthen the ECE workforce and improve the quality of early childhood education delivery in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following research questions guided the study:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat professional qualifications do most ECE teachers possess upon entry into teaching?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo what extent do ECE teachers participate in continuous professional development?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat pedagogical approaches do ECE teachers employ in their classroom practices?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat professional standards and practices are ECE teachers knowledgeable about?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is anchored in a multi-theoretical framework that integrates Human Capital Theory and the Structural\u0026ndash;Process Quality Theory of Early Childhood Education. Together, these theories provide a coherent lens for understanding how teachers\u0026rsquo; entry qualifications, professional development experiences, and pedagogical practices shape the overall capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in Ghanaian basic schools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Capital Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuman Capital Theory, popularised by Becker (1964), posits that investment in education and training enhances individuals\u0026rsquo; productivity, effectiveness, and economic value. Within the education sector, teachers\u0026rsquo; academic qualifications and professional training are viewed as critical forms of human capital that directly influence instructional quality and learner outcomes. Applied to Early Childhood Education, Human Capital Theory suggests that teachers who enter the profession with higher academic and professional qualifications are more likely to possess the foundational knowledge and skills required to deliver developmentally appropriate instruction. Conversely, teachers who enter with lower-level qualifications may initially lack specialised pedagogical competencies but can enhance their capacity through further education and training.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the context of this study, the theory is particularly relevant for examining:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe nature of ECE teachers\u0026rsquo; entry qualifications (e.g., WASSCE, Certificate A, Diploma, Degree),\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eProfessional upgrading through further studies, and\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDifferences in qualification profiles between public and private school teachers.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theory, therefore, provides a strong justification for policy emphasis on upgrading ECE teachers\u0026rsquo; qualifications and expanding access to specialised ECE training programmes (Becker, 1964; Hanushek \u0026amp; Woessmann, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStructural\u0026ndash;Process Quality Theory of Early Childhood Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Structural\u0026ndash;Process Quality framework, articulated by Burchinal (2018) and widely adopted in ECE research, provides a comprehensive model for understanding quality in early childhood settings. Structural quality refers to regulated and measurable inputs such as teacher qualifications, class size, curriculum, and learning resources. In contrast, process quality focuses on daily classroom interactions, instructional strategies, and teacher\u0026ndash;child relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis framework is particularly useful for linking teacher qualifications and professional development (structural quality) with pedagogical practices and professionalism (process quality). High structural quality is believed to create the conditions for effective process quality, which in turn leads to positive child outcomes. In the present study, the framework is directly relevant for:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAssessing teachers\u0026rsquo; professional and academic qualifications as indicators of structural quality,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eExamining CPD participation and content as mechanisms for strengthening structural capacity, and\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnalysing pedagogical approaches (play-based learning, scaffolding, differentiation, assessment) and professional standards as indicators of process quality.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelevance of the Framework to the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe integration of these three theories provides a comprehensive explanation of ECE teacher capacity in Ghanaian basic schools. Human Capital Theory explains why teacher qualifications and upgrading matter, and the Structural\u0026ndash;Process Quality framework explains how these capacities translate into classroom practices and professionalism. Together, the framework supports the study\u0026rsquo;s focus on:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEntry qualifications and professional upgrading,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eParticipation in CPD and areas of knowledge gain,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDifferences in teacher capacity across public and private schools, and\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe use of diverse pedagogical approaches in ECE classrooms.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy grounding the study in this integrated theoretical framework, the research offers a coherent explanation of how investments in teacher education and professional development can strengthen ECE quality and improve learning experiences for young children in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in a peri-urban municipality in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The municipality has a total of 354 kindergarten (KG) schools, comprising 26 public and 328 private institutions, with an estimated 635 KG teachers (Municipal Education Office, 2022). While most basic schools in the municipality operate a shift system, kindergarten classes run a full-day (straight-day) model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA descriptive research design was adopted for the study, as it allows systematic data collection to describe the existing conditions, practices, and characteristics of a population. Kindergarten teachers were the primary target population, as they are the direct beneficiaries of capacity-building initiatives implemented within the municipality. A stratified random sampling technique was employed to select schools for the study, with schools stratified into public and private categories. Given the relatively small number of public schools (26), all public schools were included in the study. In addition, 26 private schools were randomly selected to ensure comparability between the two strata. Consequently, 52 schools participated in the survey. Each of the sampled participating schools had two kindergarten teachers, one for KG 1 and one for KG 2, except for one school, which had a single teacher responsible for both levels. In total, 101 kindergarten teachers participated in the study. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee for the Humanities (reference number: ECH 359/21\u0026ndash;22), and all ethical protocols relating to informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation were strictly observed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDemographic Characteristics of teachers surveyed\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll teachers in the sampled schools were female (100%). This reflects prevailing staffing patterns in early childhood education, which are commonly characterised by a predominance of female teachers, particularly at the lower levels of the education system. \u0026nbsp;The age distribution of participants indicates that 30% were under 30 years of age, 43% were between 31 and 40 years, 21% were between 41 and 50 years, and 7% were over 50 years. The distribution shows that the ECE teaching workforce in the municipality spans a broad age range, with a predominance of relatively young teachers. Most participants were under 50, suggesting a younger workforce that may be receptive to professional development. This demographic profile suggests a strong capacity to adapt to emerging pedagogical strategies and innovative approaches required to meet the developmental needs of the 21st-century Ghanaian child.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding teaching experience at the kindergarten level, the distribution of respondents suggests a workforce concentrated at the early- to mid-career stage. The largest proportion of teachers (32.5%, n=33) reported between four and six years of experience, followed by those with ten years or more of experience (23.9%, n=24). A substantial share of respondents (27.7%, n = 28) had between 1 and 3 years of teaching experience, while teachers with 7 to 9 years of experience constituted the smallest group (15.9%, n = 16). Taken together, this pattern indicates a bimodal distribution, with a strong presence of relatively less experienced teachers alongside a smaller but notable cohort of long-serving practitioners.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the distribution indicates that a substantial proportion of ECE teachers in the municipality have relatively limited teaching experience, with over 60% having fewer than 7 years of experience in the profession. This pattern suggests a workforce that is still in the developmental stages of professional practice, thereby reinforcing the need for structured capacity-building initiatives and sustained continuous professional development programmes to enhance pedagogical competence and long-term professional effectiveness.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eECE Teachers Entry Qualification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe quality of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers is fundamentally linked to their professional knowledge, pedagogical practice, and professional values and attitudes. Teacher quality in ECE is commonly described in terms of structural and process characteristics. Structural quality refers to regulated aspects, such as academic qualifications and resource availability, whereas process quality focuses on interactive teaching and learning activities that actively promote children\u0026rsquo;s development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProfessional and academic qualifications are key indicators of teacher preparedness and classroom effectiveness. As shown in Figure 1, 42% of the ECE teachers had a WASSCE certificate as their initial qualification. Only 1% of participants held a degree in ECE, and another 1% had a degree in a non-ECE discipline. 15% of teachers held professional qualifications, including Certificate A, a Diploma in Basic Education, or a Diploma in ECE. Additionally, 10% of the respondents held a National Nursery Teacher Training Certificate, while 2% had a Higher National Diploma (HND).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese suggest that ECE teachers in the municipality were recruited with a range of teaching qualifications; however, the majority entered the profession with low-level qualifications. This highlights the need for targeted professional development through in-service training in the early years of recruitment, followed by further studies to upgrade their qualifications and enhance their pedagogical knowledge, professional practice, and overall capacity to deliver quality early childhood education.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCurrent\u0026nbsp;professional certificates\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther studies and Continuing Professional development are key to enhancing the teaching capacity of ECE teachers. To assess trends in professional growth, participants were asked whether they had upgraded their qualifications after becoming ECE teachers. As shown in Figure 2, substantial changes in teachers\u0026apos; qualifications have occurred since entering the profession. The proportion of teachers holding a Teachers\u0026rsquo; Certificate \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo; decreased from 15% at entry to 3% following further training after appointment. In comparison, the percentage of teachers with a degree in ECE increased from 1% to 18% at the time of the study, all due to further schooling after their appointment. Similarly, the proportion of teachers with a degree in other disciplines rose from 1% to 26%. Only 10% of teachers continue to hold only WASSCE compared to the 42% at entry.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings indicate that a majority of ECE teachers actively pursued professional development through further study opportunities, resulting in significant improvement in their academic and professional qualifications. Such upgrades suggest a growing capacity among ECE teachers to enhance their pedagogical knowledge, adopt innovative teaching strategies, and improve the overall quality of early childhood education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublic and Private Schools ECE Teachers\u0026apos; Qualifications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study also examined differences in the qualification levels of ECE teachers between public and private schools. The summary descriptives are shown in Table 1 below. About 22 per cent (11 teachers) of public school teachers hold a degree in ECE, compared with 13.7 per cent (7 teachers) in private schools. Notably, none of the public-school teachers holds a WASSCE as their highest qualification, whereas nearly 20 per cent (10 teachers) of private-school teachers do. In terms of upgrading qualifications, 32 per cent (16 schools) of public-school teachers, compared with about 20 per cent (10 teachers) of private-school teachers, had upgraded their qualifications in educational disciplines other than ECE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results suggest that public-school teachers are generally more likely to upgrade their qualifications in ECE or other educational fields compared to their counterparts in private schools. This highlights potential disparities in professional development opportunities and underscores the importance of targeted capacity-building interventions, particularly in private-school settings, to ensure equitable teaching quality across schools with ECE in the municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: ECE Teachers\u0026apos; Qualifications in Public and Private Schools\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQualification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePublic\u0026nbsp;Schools\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrivate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSchools\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWAASCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCert\u0026nbsp;A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiploma\u0026nbsp;(ECE)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegree\u0026nbsp;(ECE)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNNTTC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiploma (Basic Education)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHND\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegree (Other Discipline)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 149px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTOTAL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data, 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCapacity building of ECE Teachers through CPD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo maintain professional quality, teachers must engage in continuous professional development (CPD). CPD is essential for every ECE teacher, as it helps ensure that the knowledge and skills acquired during initial training are sustained and further enhanced. It also serves as a tool to improve pedagogical competence and adapt to evolving educational demands. Accordingly, the study also examined ECE teachers\u0026rsquo; participation in in-service professional development programmes. In Figure 3, 30% of participants had not attended any CPD in the 3 years preceding the study, while the majority (70%) had participated in at least one CPD activity. Teachers who did not participate cited cost, distance, and maternity responsibilities as barriers to engagement. Remarkably, 70% of ECE teachers participate in CPD opportunities to enhance their knowledge and pedagogical skills; however, it is equally worrying that a sizeable proportion of teachers have not taken advantage of CPD opportunities due to various challenges. This requires deliberate government action to ensure that ECE teachers regularly and consistently upgrade their competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScope and Content of CPD for ECE Teachers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study also explored the scope and content of the CPD programmes in which ECE teachers participate. Figure 4 below shows that the CPD focus areas with the highest participation among ECE teachers were early language and literacy and foundations of early childhood education, each accounting for 18% of respondents. These were followed by child development (16%), how to guide children\u0026rsquo;s behaviour (15%), and family and community relationships (12%). It is important to note that all teachers who received CPD in the foundations of early childhood education were indirectly exposed to the other areas, as the programme covered content on early literacy, child development, behaviour management, and family engagement. This shows that ECE teachers participate in CPD focused on diverse yet important areas relevant to teaching in ECE. These underscore the critical role of CPD in strengthening ECE teachers\u0026apos; knowledge and pedagogical capacity, while highlighting persistent barriers that limit access for some teachers. Ensuring wider, equitable access to CPD is therefore essential to improving the overall quality of early childhood education in the municipality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKnowledge of Professionalism and Standard Practices among ECE Teachers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study further explored teachers\u0026rsquo; understanding and practice of professionalism expected of them. The findings indicate that teachers largely understood the professional practices expected of them. As shown in Figure 5, a limited proportion of respondents reported knowledge of core professional standards, suggesting limited awareness of expectations related to professional conduct and instructional competence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding teachers\u0026rsquo; understanding of child development, about a quarter (25%) reported having knowledge. This suggests that the majority have a limited understanding of child growth and development matters, a critical requirement for effective early childhood teaching. Even a lower proportion of teachers reported adequate knowledge and understanding of other concepts, such as the official Kindergarten (KG) curriculum, age-appropriate strategies for teaching in multi-grade classrooms, and how to teach beginning reading, numeracy, and speaking skills. These findings reflect teachers\u0026rsquo; lack of familiarity with curriculum content and pedagogical competencies within the ECE space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results reveal a notable gap in teacher and teaching qualities within the KG space. This suggests that while teachers are generally confident in their instructional roles and professional conduct, fewer perceive themselves as effective instructional or classroom leaders. The lack of sufficient knowledge and understanding may reflect limited training opportunities focused on classroom leadership, mentoring, decision-making, and initiative-taking at the early childhood level. Overall, the findings suggest that ECE teachers exhibit limited professionalism in their content knowledge, understanding of curriculum, and commitment to lifelong learning. This highlights a serious need for professional development.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePedagogical Approaches Used in Early Childhood Education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral pedagogical approaches are recommended for effective Early Childhood Education (ECE), including scaffolding, differentiation, play-based learning, digital creativity, crossover teaching methods, and assessment strategies. The results presented in Table 2 show that teachers are generally aware of these approaches and apply them to varying extents in their classroom practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eActive play-based learning is the most frequently used pedagogical approach among ECE teachers, accounting for 26% of responses (n = 86). This includes activities such as games, dramatisation, music and dance, reading, art and craft, storytelling, puzzles, and sorting activities. The prominence of play-based learning underscores its central role in early childhood pedagogy. It aligns with widely accepted principles that emphasise learning through play as developmentally appropriate for young children. Assessment practices were the second-most-reported approach, with 22% of responses (n = 73). This suggests that teachers place considerable emphasis on assessing children\u0026apos;s learning and development, often through observation, informal assessments, and continuous assessment strategies commonly used in ECE settings. The use of digital creativity, which allows children to explore and express themselves through digital media, accounted for 17% of responses (n = 55). This indicates a growing, though still moderate, integration of digital tools in ECE classrooms, reflecting increasing awareness of the role of technology in supporting creativity and learning at the early childhood level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, more structured instructional strategies, such as differentiation and scaffolding, were used relatively less. Differentiation accounted for 13% of responses (n = 42), while scaffolding recorded 12% (n = 40). Although these approaches are critical for addressing learner diversity and supporting individual learning needs, their limited use may suggest challenges related to teacher expertise, classroom size, or limited professional development opportunities for effectively applying these strategies. The least utilised approach was crossover teaching methods, including exhibitions, field trips, and project-based activities, which accounted for 11% of responses (n = 35). The low adoption of these methods may reflect practical constraints such as limited resources, time, logistical challenges, or inadequate institutional support for organising such activities within ECE settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings indicate that while ECE teachers employ a range of pedagogical approaches, there is notable variability in their implementation. The dominance of play-based learning highlights its foundational role in early childhood education. In contrast, the relatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods suggests the need for targeted professional development and systemic support to broaden and deepen pedagogical practices in ECE classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Teachers\u0026apos; Use of ECE Pedagogical Approaches\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"\" width=\"619\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 419px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApproaches\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercentage of responses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency of responses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScaffolding\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifferentiation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChildren\u0026nbsp;exploring\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;creating\u0026nbsp;using\u0026nbsp;digital\u0026nbsp;forms\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;expression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrossover\u0026nbsp;teaching\u0026nbsp;(e.g.,\u0026nbsp;exhibition,\u0026nbsp;trips,\u0026nbsp;projects,\u0026nbsp;etc.)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eActive Play-based method (e.g., games, dramatisation, music/dance,\u0026nbsp;reading,\u0026nbsp;art\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;craft, stories,\u0026nbsp;puzzles,\u0026nbsp;sorting, etc.)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssessment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 360px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource (field data 2022)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers is central to providing quality early learning experiences. It is widely understood to rest on teachers' professional knowledge, pedagogical practice, and professional values and attitudes (MoE, 2017). Consistent with Burchinal\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) distinction between structural quality (e.g., teacher qualifications) and process quality (e.g., interactions and pedagogy), this study examined entry qualifications, professional upgrading, continuous professional development (CPD), professionalism, and pedagogical practices of ECE teachers in Ghanaian basic schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNature of Teachers\u0026rsquo; Entry Qualifications\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings reveal that a substantial proportion of ECE teachers entered the profession with lower-level qualifications, particularly the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), which is not a professional teaching qualification. This trend was more pronounced among private school teachers. Similar patterns have been documented in earlier studies in Ghana, where ECE teaching has historically been perceived as requiring minimal professional preparation, particularly in private schools (Opoku, Agbenyega, \u0026amp; Deppeler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; UNICEF, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predominance of non-professional entry qualifications raises concerns about initial teacher readiness, especially given the developmental sensitivity of early childhood education. Research consistently shows that teachers\u0026rsquo; academic and professional preparation significantly influences instructional quality, classroom interactions, and children\u0026rsquo;s learning outcomes (Taguma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sheridan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Burchinal et al., 2016). As such, reliance on underqualified personnel at entry poses risks to effective curriculum implementation and child development outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUpgrade of Qualifications in Later Years\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study found that even though the majority of teachers enter the teaching field with lower-level qualifications, they pursue further studies to improve their academic and professional qualifications. The proportion of teachers with degrees\u0026mdash;both in ECE and other education-related disciplines\u0026mdash;improved remarkably after appointment. This reflects a strong culture of professional self-improvement among ECE teachers and aligns with findings by Asare and Nti (2014), who observed an increase in teacher motivation to upgrade qualifications in response to evolving professional standards in Ghana. The observed improvement in teachers\u0026rsquo; qualifications through in-service upgrading supports the central tenet of Human Capital Theory\u0026mdash;that sustained investment in education enhances professional capacity and effectiveness (Becker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1964\u003c/span\u003e; Hanushek \u0026amp; Woessmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the relatively slow growth in ECE specialisation is noteworthy. Although overall degree attainment improved, only a minority of teachers upgraded specifically to ECE-focused degrees. This suggests that while teachers are advancing academically, many may still lack deep specialisation in early childhood pedagogy, child development, and age-appropriate instructional strategies. This trend has implications for policy targets, particularly Ghana\u0026rsquo;s ECE policy goal of ensuring that 85% of KG teachers are trained and certified by 2025 (MoE, 2021), which appears difficult to achieve without targeted incentives and structured upgrading pathways.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results further revealed systematic differences between public and private school ECE teachers, with public school teachers more likely to hold higher and more relevant professional qualifications. This disparity mirrors earlier findings that public schools benefit from clearer recruitment standards, access to government-sponsored upgrading opportunities, and structured CPD systems (Akyeampong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; World Bank, 2020). Private schools, on the other hand, often rely on less-qualified teachers due to cost considerations and weaker regulatory oversight. This inequality raises concerns about equity in ECE quality, as children's access to qualified teachers may depend heavily on the type of school they attend rather than on their developmental needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipation in Continuous Professional Development (CPD)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost teachers in the study reported participating in CPD activities within the past three years, underscoring recognition of CPD as a vital mechanism for professional growth. CPD participation has been identified as a key driver of improved instructional quality, especially in contexts where initial teacher education may be insufficient (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Darling-Hammond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the finding that a sizeable minority of teachers had not participated in CPD due to cost, distance, and family responsibilities highlights persistent access barriers. These constraints disproportionately affect female teachers, who constitute the majority of the ECE workforce, underscoring the need for more flexible, school-based, and technology-enabled CPD models. The adult learning theory supports the study\u0026rsquo;s finding that targeted CPD can enhance teacher capacity regardless of initial entry qualification. It also underscores the need for CPD programmes that are accessible, contextually relevant, and responsive to the realities of ECE classrooms in Ghana (Knowles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eScope and Focus of CPD\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CPD programmes attended by teachers covered core areas of ECE, including foundations of early childhood education, early literacy, child development, behaviour guidance, and family\u0026ndash;community relationships. The prominence of foundational and literacy-focused CPD aligns with the philosophical underpinnings of Ghana's KG curriculum, which emphasises holistic, developmentally appropriate learning (MoE, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the concentration of CPD in a limited number of areas suggests potential gaps in exposure to emerging priorities such as inclusive education, digital pedagogy, classroom leadership, and differentiated instruction. Literature emphasises that CPD should be broad, continuous, and responsive to classroom realities to sustain teacher effectiveness (Timperley et al., 2007; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study indicated limited knowledge of professional standards among teachers, particularly in child development, curriculum understanding, and instructional competencies. ECE teachers are not only caregivers and instructors but also classroom leaders responsible for decision-making, mentoring assistants, managing learning environments, and engaging families. Studies show that strong teacher leadership positively influences instructional quality and collaborative practice (York-Barr \u0026amp; Duke, 2004; Muijs \u0026amp; Harris, 2017). The limited number of ECE teachers with sufficient leadership capacity, therefore, constrains broader school improvement efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePedagogical Approaches Used by ECE Teachers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe predominance of play-based learning reflects strong alignment with developmentally appropriate practice and global best practices in early childhood education (Wood, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Kutubiddinova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This finding is particularly significant given that many teachers entered the profession with limited formal qualifications, suggesting that pedagogical beliefs and attitudes may partially compensate for structural deficits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the relatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods indicates uneven pedagogical depth. These strategies are essential for addressing learner diversity, promoting higher-order thinking, and supporting inclusive learning environments (Tomlinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; MoE, 2019). Their limited use may be attributed to large class sizes, insufficient training, limited resources, and weak instructional support systems. The findings show that play-based learning is widely used. At the same time, differentiation and scaffolding are less prevalent, reflecting variations in process quality that may be linked to differences in training and professional support. The Structural\u0026ndash;Process Quality Theory of ECE framework provides a strong conceptual bridge between teachers\u0026rsquo; capacity and classroom practice (Burchinal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Litjens \u0026amp; Taguma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the capacity of ECE teachers in Ghanaian basic schools in a large peri-urban municipal education district by examining entry qualifications, professional upgrading, CPD participation, professionalism, and pedagogical practices. The findings show that while many ECE teachers enter the profession with limited formal qualifications, there is strong evidence of professional growth through further studies and CPD participation. Public school teachers generally have higher qualifications than their private school counterparts at entry, highlighting systemic inequities in teacher preparation. Teachers demonstrated limited knowledge of professional standards, particularly in child development, curriculum understanding, and instructional competencies. Leadership competencies in KG classrooms were also less evident. However, pedagogically, a commendable proportion of teachers reported use of play-based learning, reflecting alignment with ECE principles. Overall, the study suggests that ECE teacher capacity in Ghana is improving, though unevenly, and requires sustained policy attention and targeted interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePolicy Implications\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study have important implications for Ghana\u0026apos;s education policy, particularly regarding teacher qualification standards and professional development in Early Childhood Education. The evidence that a significant proportion of ECE teachers entered the profession with relatively low qualifications, especially in private schools, underscores the need for stronger enforcement of minimum qualification requirements across both public and private sectors. While current policies emphasise teacher professionalism and licensure, inconsistencies in implementation risk undermining the quality of ECE delivery. Additionally, the observed improvement in teachers\u0026rsquo; qualifications through further studies highlights the importance of establishing clear, structured upgrading pathways that prioritise specialisation in ECE. Policy frameworks should therefore incentivise ECE-specific training through scholarships, study leave arrangements, and career progression mechanisms. Increased public investment in ECE-focused CPD, particularly in instructional leadership, differentiation, and inclusive pedagogy, is also critical to sustaining gains in teacher capacity and aligning practice with national curriculum expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePractice Implications\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the school level, the findings suggest a need for stronger instructional leadership and professional collaboration within ECE settings. School leaders, including headteachers and circuit supervisors, play a key role in creating supportive professional environments that encourage continuous learning among teachers. Establishing collaborative professional learning communities (PLCs) can foster peer mentoring, reflective practice, and the sharing of effective pedagogical strategies. While play-based learning is widely practised, the comparatively lower use of scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods indicates a need for targeted instructional support to broaden teachers\u0026rsquo; pedagogical repertoires. Teachers should be supported through coaching, mentoring, and practical demonstrations to integrate these approaches into daily classroom practice. Furthermore, the growing role of technology in education presents opportunities to expand access to professional learning. Digital platforms can be leveraged to deliver CPD, share teaching resources, and facilitate professional interaction, particularly for teachers who face constraints related to time, distance, or cost.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResearch Implications\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe study also highlights important directions for future research on ECE teacher capacity and quality. While this study provides descriptive evidence on teachers\u0026rsquo; qualifications, professional development, and pedagogical practices, further research is needed to examine how improvements in teacher capacity translate into measurable gains in children\u0026rsquo;s learning and developmental outcomes. Longitudinal studies would be particularly valuable in assessing the sustainability of professional growth resulting from CPD participation and further studies. In addition, comparative research across regions and school types could deepen understanding of systemic inequities in ECE teacher preparation and inform more context-sensitive policy interventions. Such evidence would strengthen the empirical base for decision-making in ECE policy and practice in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on the study\u0026apos;s findings, it is recommended that targeted upgrading programmes be introduced to support ECE teachers, particularly those who entered the profession with WASSCE or Certificate A qualifications, in pursuing ECE-specific diplomas or degree programmes. These programmes should be flexible, affordable, and aligned with teachers\u0026apos; professional responsibilities to encourage participation and completion.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnsuring equitable access to continuous professional development is also essential. CPD opportunities should be diversified through school-based, cluster-level, and online delivery models to reach a broader range of teachers, including those in private schools and underserved areas. Such approaches help reduce barriers related to cost, distance, and competing personal responsibilities. Given the identified gaps in leadership competencies, leadership development modules should be intentionally integrated into ECE-focused CPD programmes. Strengthening teachers\u0026rsquo; classroom and instructional leadership skills can enhance classroom organisation, instructional innovation, and collaboration among colleagues.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, regulatory oversight and professional support for private schools should be strengthened to improve teacher quality and reduce disparities in ECE provision between public and private schools. This may include closer monitoring of teacher qualifications, targeted professional development support, and partnerships to improve teaching and learning conditions. Finally, the development of digital repositories of pedagogical resources is recommended to support independent and continuous teacher learning. Such platforms could host curriculum-aligned materials, lesson exemplars, videos of effective practice, and resources on play-based, differentiated, and innovative pedagogical approaches, thereby enhancing teachers\u0026rsquo; capacity to deliver high-quality ECE across diverse classroom contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC. Adamba: Conceptualisation, Study Design, Development of Instruments, Manuscript Writing, Editing; E. Adjei-Boateng: Conceptualisation, Study Design, Development of Instruments, Manuscript Writing, Editing; R. N. Ayertey: Study Design, Development of Instruments, Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting; P. M.-L. Quame: Development of Instruments, Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting; N. A. Frimpong: Data Collection and Analysis, Manuscript Drafting.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors of this study have received no financial support for the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee for the Humanities of the University of Ghana under approval number (Ref. ECH 225/22\u0026ndash;23). All fieldwork data collection and analysis procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines, applicable laws, and regulations of the University of Ghana, Ghana\u0026rsquo;s Data Protection Act, 2012 (Act 843), and the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its subsequent amendments. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and data confidentiality. Both written and oral informed consent were obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. No identifying information (e.g., names, staff IDs, or other direct identifiers) was collected, and all data were analyzed in aggregated and anonymized form.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank all private and public basic schools\u0026apos; KG teachers who participated in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkyeampong, K., Pryor, J., \u0026amp; Westbrook, J. 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OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264220881-en\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGhana Education Service. (2018). \u003cem\u003eNational teachers\u0026rsquo; standards for Ghana: Guidelines\u003c/em\u003e. Ministry of Education.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHanushek, E. A., \u0026amp; Woessmann, L. (2015). \u003cem\u003eThe knowledge capital of nations: Education and the economics of growth\u003c/em\u003e. MIT Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHoldheide, L. R., Hayes, K., \u0026amp; Goe, L. (2014). \u003cem\u003eEvaluating specialised instructional support personnel\u003c/em\u003e. Centre on Great Teachers and Leaders.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., \u0026amp; Swanson, R. A. (2015). \u003cem\u003eThe adult learner\u003c/em\u003e (8th ed.). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKutubiddinova, R. A., Eromasova, A., \u0026amp; Romanova, M. A. (2016). 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Professional development in early childhood programs. \u003cem\u003eEarly Education and Development, 22\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShiyan, I., Shiyan, O., Iakshina, A., \u0026amp; Levan, T. (2021). Development of preschool teachers\u0026apos; competencies to improve ECE quality. In W. Boyd \u0026amp; S. Garvis (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eInternational perspectives on early childhood teacher education in the 21st century\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 235\u0026ndash;252). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_11\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaguma, M., Litjens, I., \u0026amp; Makowiecki, K. (2012). \u003cem\u003eQuality matters in early childhood education and care\u003c/em\u003e. OECD Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTomlinson, C. A. (2017). \u003cem\u003eHow to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms\u003c/em\u003e (3rd ed.). ASCD.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUnited Nations. (2015). \u003cem\u003eTransforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development\u003c/em\u003e. United Nations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWood, E. (2014). \u003cem\u003ePlay, learning, and the early childhood curriculum\u003c/em\u003e (2nd ed.). SAGE.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M., Espinosa, L., Gormley, W., Ludwig, J., Magnuson, K., Phillips, D., \u0026amp; Zaslow, M. (2013). \u003cem\u003eInvesting in our future: The evidence base on preschool education\u003c/em\u003e. Society for Research in Child Development.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Early Childhood Education, Kindergarten Teachers, Pedagogy, Professional Development, Teacher Capacity, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHigh-quality early childhood education (ECE) is critical for children\u0026rsquo;s cognitive and socio-emotional development, yet teacher capacity remains a key challenge in many low- and middle-income contexts. This study assessed the capacity of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in Ghanaian basic schools, with a specific focus on entry qualifications, professional upgrading, participation in continuous professional development (CPD), knowledge of professional standards, and pedagogical practices. Employing a descriptive survey design, the study sampled 101 kindergarten (KG) teachers from 52 public and private basic schools in the Kpone\u0026ndash;Katamanso Municipality of the Greater Accra Region using stratified random sampling. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics. Findings indicate that a substantial proportion of teachers (42%) entered the ECE profession with West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) qualifications, while only 1% held a degree in Early Childhood Education at the point of entry. Subsequent professional upgrading showed 18% had obtained ECE degrees and 26% degrees in related fields, with public-school teachers generally more qualified. Participation in CPD was high, with approximately 70% of teachers attending one or more CPD activities in the three years preceding the study, mainly in areas related to early literacy, child development, and foundations of ECE. Teachers reported limited knowledge of professional standards, particularly in child development and curriculum understanding. In terms of pedagogy, play-based learning was the most frequently used approach, while scaffolding, differentiation, and crossover teaching methods were less commonly used. The study concludes that although many ECE teachers enter the profession with lower initial qualifications, sustained professional development and targeted CPD have the potential to significantly enhance teacher capacity. Strengthening access to specialised ECE training, expanding CPD coverage, and promoting a broader range of inclusive pedagogical approaches are recommended to improve the quality of early childhood education delivery in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"An Assessment of the Capacity of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Ghanaian Basic Schools","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-29 06:11:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9190632/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"133638485877972895615185588620987838334","date":"2026-05-16T05:15:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T18:12:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"38893313118154611473239289482271890579","date":"2026-05-14T18:12:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"292777719717225108642077351358987089554","date":"2026-05-03T15:35:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T12:33:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"57978869032723638755850207454068565917","date":"2026-04-22T09:42:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"140050773234009944415994731956890004768","date":"2026-04-21T14:46:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-20T07:35:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-30T04:39:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-27T12:27:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-26T18:38:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Education","date":"2026-03-26T18:36:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a5ea781a-91ad-4ed7-a134-f40d5751f019","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 29th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"133638485877972895615185588620987838334","date":"2026-05-16T05:15:29+00:00","index":84,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T18:12:16+00:00","index":83,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"38893313118154611473239289482271890579","date":"2026-05-14T18:12:36+00:00","index":80,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"292777719717225108642077351358987089554","date":"2026-05-03T15:35:46+00:00","index":65,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-29T06:11:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-29 06:11:06","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9190632","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9190632","identity":"rs-9190632","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}