The contributions of al-Jurjānī to toxicology through the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi

The contributions of al-Jurjānī to toxicology through the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report The contributions of al-Jurjānī to toxicology through the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi Jamal Rezaei Orimi, Sheu Ibrahim Adedayo, Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Poisons and poisonings have always been important threats throughout history, from ancient times to the present day. This paper intended to answer the question whether the science of poisons, toxicology, has been addressed in one of the famous medical texts of Persian medicine al-Jurjānī’s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. To this end, we researched profoundly on the al-Jurjānī’s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. Toxicologically-related keywords were used to investigate in this notable resource of Persian medicine to retrieve the results. Then, current medical literature was exploited using common online databases and toxicological relevant keywords to find the consistency of the book contents with modern medical and toxicological data. Our results indicate that there was a notable information on poisons and toxicology in Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi reflecting a great knowledge of al-Jurjānī on the toxic effects of various poisons. He classified poisons into botanicals, animals, or minerals. Moreover, he discussed about venomous animals and envenomations to facilitate their diagnosis and management. Conclusively, our study revealed that al-Jurjānī contributed to the toxicological science through dedication of a part of his Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi to this area of medical sciences. Persian medicine history toxicology pharmacology Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Throughout history, humans have always been at risk of encountering toxicants in their surroundings. Due to the amazing advances in agriculture, pharmacology, and industrial technology, humans are more exposed to toxic chemicals in the modern world (Prüss-Ustün et al., 2011 ; Sacco et al., 2025 ; Moberg et al., 2023 ). However, cases of exposure to poisonous plants and animals are still among major health issues (WY et al., 2019 ; Jenkins et al., 2021 ). They are threatening human health and life, attributing a large proportion of hospital admissions, allocating many deaths around the world annually, and imposing huge costs on healthcare systems (Ghorani-Azam et al., 2018 ; Karami Matin et al., 2022 ). Persian Medicine (PM) can be considered as one of major sources of medical sciences that still have words to let us know (Alizadeh and Moradi, 2013 ; Mozaffarpur et al., 2020 ; Zargaran, 2022 ; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., 2025 ; Akaberi et al., 2016 ). Among the outstanding sources in this field, the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (also known with similar spellings such as Zakhireh Kharazmshahi, or Dhakhīra-yi Khārazmshāhī in the English scientific literature is one of the most prominent works of Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma'il ibn Husayn Gorgani (1042–1137 AD), also recognized as Seyed Ismail Jurjani, Ismāʻīl Jurjānī, al-Jurjānī or Jorjani (Golshani and Esmaili, 2021 ). Jorjani was a Persian 12th century royal Islamic physician from Gorgan, Iran, who is the founder of the Persian writing school in Iran. He fortified the Persian writings in medicine by authoring of his medical book collections known as Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Zakhireye Khwaram Shah, or the Treasure of the Khwarazm Shah, and dedicated it to the king of the Khwarazm (Shoja et al., 2007 ). This medical encyclopedia collection is among the most important resource of PM that also translated into Turkish, Arabic, and Hebrew (Moattar et al., 2013 ). Through writing this magnanimous and comprehensive encyclopedia of PM, Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Jorjani pioneered the movement of compilation and authoring of medical textbooks (Hosseini et al., 2011 ; Zarshenas et al., 2012 ). This textbook is comparable to the Canon of Avicenna in respect to its contributions to the medical sciences. Considering the medical legacy of PM textbooks such as Jorjani’s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi that are rich in valuable medical knowledge, we have made an attempt in this paper to answer the question whether our predecessors such as al-Jurjānī were aware of toxic substances and how they dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of poisonings. 2. Material and methods We conducted a profound research on the authenticated Persian version of Sayyid Ismail Jorjani’s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi book that has been published by the Iranian Academy of Medical Sciences in Iran (Jorjani, 1992 ). Queried Persian keywords comprised " sam, masmoumiat, giahan-e-sami, gazesh/gazidegi/nish ” which were the English equivalents of “poison, poisoning, poisonous plants, sting/envenoming/bite”. Also, we searched international and national scientific databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Magiran, and IranDoc using toxicological related keywords, as mentioned above, to determine the degree to which the book's contents are consistent with current toxicological knowledge. Finally, the obtained content was reviewed and carefully analyzed and then presented in this article. 3. Results 3-1- Jorjani ’s introductory discourse on poisons Seyyed Ismail Jorjani has divided the poisoning section ( Kitab al-Sumum ) in the ninth book of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (volume IX) into five speeches and forty-four chapters (Fig. 1 ). Based on this, the general framework of knowledge of poisons in the ninth volume of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi is as follows (Table 1 ) Table 1 The structure of subject matters in toxicological sciences in Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (ninth volume) Discourse (speech) Title Chapter Content (subject matter) First discourse Prevention of poisoning, types of poisons and rules and principles of poisoning treatment Chapter 1 Prevention of poisoning Chapter 2 Types of poisons Chapter 3 How to diagnose types of poisoning Chapter 4 Principles of poisoning treatment Chapter 5 Effective drugs in the treatment of poisoning Chapter 6 Harmful mineral drugs Chapter 7 Dangerous and deadly drugs Chapter 8 Harmful stimulating medicines Chapter 9 Harmful depressant medicines Chapter 10 Animal poisons Second discourse General information about the bites of snakes and poisonous animals and the detailed measures to drive insects away Chapter 1 General rules in the treatment of snake bites and venomous animals Chapter 2 Medicines used in the treatment of venomous animal bites Chapter 3 The use of rubbing drugs (unguent) in the treatment of poisonous animals bites Chapter 4 The use of rubbing drugs (unguent) for neutralizing venomous animal bites Chapter 5 Insect repellents Chapter 6 Drugs that kill harmful animals Chapter 7 Ways to get rid of insects and vermin Third discourse Snake bite and its treatment Chapter 1 Types of snakes and symptoms of snakebite Chapter 2 Snake bite (first category) Chapter 3 Snake bite (second category) Chapter 4 Snake bite (third category) Fourth discourse Animal bites Chapter 1 Human bites Chapter 2 Bites from domestic dogs and non-rabid wolves Chapter 3 Characteristics of rabid dogs and wolves Chapter 4 Symptoms of rabid dog bites in humans Chapter 5 The difference between rabid and non-rabid dog bites and how to test it Chapter 6 Treatment of rabid dog bites Chapter 7 Bites by leopard, cheetah and lion Chapter 8 Alligator bite Chapter 9 Cat bite Chapter 10 Monkey bite Chapter 11 Mink bite Chapter 12 Rat bite Fifth discourse Insect bites and other bites Chapter 1 Scorpion bite Chapter 2 The yellow Iranian scorpion bite ( Odontobuthus spp.) Chapter 3 Tarantula bite Chapter 4 Spider bite Chapter 5 Insects and thick bites Chapter 6 Centipede bites Chapter 7 Lizard bite ( varanus spp.) Chapter 8 Bee sting (hornet, wasp, honey bee) Chapter 9 Ant sting Chapter 10 Venomous marine animals Chapter 11 Other marine bites Table 1 . He has divided the toxins into three categories: plant, animal and mineral. Routes of poisoning include ingestion and injections (bites and stings). Jorjani considers all poisons to be in one of two types: The first type is those poisons that are detrimental due to their quality (i.e. effects on the body) such as sea hare, euphorbia, afeyun (i.e. opium), and litharge (lead (II) oxide). The second type is those whose essence is against the essence of the human body (i.e. inherently toxic), such as aconitum species (Jorjani, 1992 ). In the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Jorjani divide poisons into two categories based on their effect on the organs: the first category is local poisons. These types of poisons only damage a specific organ or tissue. For example, cantharidin harms urinary system and causes pain and inflammation in it (i.e. nephrotoxicity) while sea hare toxin, which is derived from sea hare, damages the lungs and causes pulmonary problems (i.e. pulmonotoxicity) The second category is general poisons. These types of poisons damage the whole body. For example, opium, which is derived from the poppy plant ( Papaver somniferum ), causes central nervous system disturbances and can be fatal (Jorjani, 1992 ). Jorjani also classified poisonings based on the onset of symptoms; he divided poisonings into two main categories of acute and chronic types. He mentioned that in the acute poisoning, symptoms appear quickly within minutes to hours, while in the chronic poisoning, symptoms manifested gradually within days, weeks, or months. For instance, he indicated that in case of poisoning with a mineral asfidaj (mixture of tin and lead), the patient shows acute symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, and impaired consciousness, which are immediately manifested. On the other hand, spoiled fish poisoning is a type of chronic poisoning, he mentioned, the symptoms of which appeared after one or two days. This type of poisoning is caused by eating the fish that has not been fully cooked or has been kept in improper conditions (Jorjani, 1992 ). Also, he divides poisonings into two types, lethal and non-lethal, based on the degree of lethality. As an example, he believes that poisoning with valerian plant ( Valeriana officinalis L.) is dangerous and deadly and can cause various symptoms such as nervous (dizziness), digestive (nausea and vomiting), cardiovascular (low blood pressure), respiratory (dyspnea and decrease in blood oxygen), and urinary difficulties (hematuria or the presence of blood in the urine). But he considers iron poisoning to be non-fatal, which can lead to side effects such as headache, dry mouth, and abdominal pain (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-2- Jorjani ’s recommendations for poisoning prevention Jorjani has recommended various suggestions regarding the prevention of poisoning (Jorjani, 1992 ). 1-Choosing foods with a mild taste: Jorjani recommends that to avoid eating foods with a strong taste, such as strong sourness, strong sweetness, saltiness, or strong spiciness. As the strong taste may mask the tasted toxins deliberately added to your food to poison you (Jorjani, 1992 ). 2-Preventing hunger and thirst: Not being hungry and thirsty in times of danger is one of the other recommendations of this doctor. Because in the state of hunger and thirst, firstly, the sensitivity to the odor and taste of poison decreases, and secondly, the poison has an effect sooner (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-Paying attention to how food interacts with toxins: Jorjani pointed out how food interacts inside the body when faced with toxins and states that foods that have already been eaten fight with toxins to prevent to enter the harmful and toxic substances to penetrate into the circulation and thus prohibit the impact of toxins on the internal organs (Jorjani, 1992 ). 4-Use of special oral medications: Jorjani recommends consuming oral medications to prevent poisoning. These medications he numerates included Mithridatum concoction, Teraq-al-Tain , jadwar ( Curcuma zedoaria ), turnip seeds (seeds of Brassica rapa , variety rapa), figs, walnuts, salt, mint leaves, and sadab leaves ( Ruta graveolens ) (Jorjani, 1992 ). 5-Use of special topical medications: Jorjani recommends using some topical medications to prevent poisoning with venomous insects and animals. He believes that these drugs have the property of repelling insects and poisonous animals. By creating a covering on the skin, they try to prevent the penetration of poisons into the body. He recommends pounding fresh leaves poplar ( Populus nigra ) and dipping them in olive oil. Then boil it and apply its oil on the body topically. He also suggests to use other drugs including buds of cypress plant, seeds of Juniperus oxycedrus , leaves of Vitex agnus-castus , leaves of Artemisia vulgaris , roots of Ferula assa-foetida , seeds of Commiphora opobalsamum , and roots of Lepidium draba with the same method of preparation and application (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-3- Jorjani ’s approach for diagnosing the type of poisons and poisonings Jorjani further expresses his opinions on the method of detecting different types of poisons in the ninth volume of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. In this book, he describes three main methods for detecting poisons: 1- Sniffing the body: Jorjani believes that some poisons have a special odor that can be recognized by sniffing the body of a poisoned person. For example, opium has a specific odor that can be detected by sniffing the mouth of a poisoned person. Also, sea hare causes lung infection and the odor of the infection is released from the mouth of the poisoned person (Jorjani, 1992 ), 2- Examining the type of vomited substance: If it is not possible to detect it through sniffing, it is possible to detect the poison by examining the type of vomited substance. For example, minerals such as mortak (lead) and gypsum (calcium sulphate) sometimes causes vomiting and can be seen in the vomitus material (Jorjani, 1992 ), 3- Examining the symptoms and signs: If the body odor and the type of vomitus materials cannot help to identify the poison, it is may possible to recognize the poison by examining the signs and symptoms in the poisoned patients. Jorjani believes that each poison has specific effects on the poisoned patients’ body and thus causes relatively specific signs and symptoms. For instance, he discusses if the poison is a kind of caustic kinds causing burning and cramping sensations in the intestinal tract. Stimulant poisons cause red eyes, high body temperature, and thirst in the poisoned patient. Depressant poisons cause numbness and coldness of the organs, while the deadly poisons cause severe malaise of the body, fainting, and cold sweat, and may lead to death (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-4- Jorjani ’s approach for the treatment of poisonings Jorjani discusses the basic rules and principles of poisoning treatments in which he considers it to be specific according to the type poison. He believes that whenever it is known what kind of poison it is; specific treatment should be applied for it. Consequently, the treatment modalities proposed by his include the following (Jorjani, 1992 ): In order to treat irritating and caustic poisons, Jorjani believes that the treatment includes the consumption of softening food and emollient drugs for relief. For example, he recommended the consumption of cow’s milk and cream to soften and thus reduce the effects of caustic and irritating poisons. Also, the consumption of fine powder of backed starch mixed with almond oil or cow’s oil can help to diminish the effects of these types of poisons (Jorjani, 1992 ). Jorjani considers the treatment of stimulating poisons to include consumption of cold foods and cooling medicines that are included the consumption of cold water, cold rose water, camphor, fresh coriander juice, mucilage of Plantago ovata , Portulaca oleracea extract, and coconut oil can assist to reduce the body temperature and also to quench thirst. Also, using cooling poultices maid of Lemna minor , on the main body parts can be useful. Cold cow's yogurt drink (cow’s Douq) can also be effective for the treatment of this type of poisonings (Jorjani, 1992 ). For the treatment of depressants and hypnotic poisons, Jorjani recommend take of warm foods as well as stimulating and antispasmodic drugs. For example, taking Theriac magna and also using the Ferula assa-foetida that warmed with wine and mixed with crushed garlic, can lead to the stimulation of body’s nerves and thus relieve coldness and numbness of the patients’ body (Jorjani, 1992 ). Moreover, Jorjani believes that some types of poisons are very dangerous and can lead to death (deadly and dangerous poisons). In these cases, he emphasized that for the treatment of these types of poisons, the patient must be visited and treated by a physician. The treatment includes the prescription of some neutralizing foods and drugs. For example, the use of Mithridatum and other antidotes ( Teriaqs ). Also, consuming nourishing fluids and nutritious foods can strengthen the patient’s body to fight with poisons. Also, proving a quieted room with a fresh and pleasant air as well as massaging the stomach and belly of the patient with warmed oils can help to relieve the patient and thus useful for the treatment (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-5- Jorjani ’s approach for treating animal envenomations Jorjani has described in detail the measures to treat animal bite cases. He believes that the following activities should be used to deal with these envenomings: 1-Increase in body temperature: Jorjani believes that body temperature plays an important role in eliminating venoms. He recommends to use medicines such as Theriac magna and Colchicum variegatum to increase the body temperature. These drugs increase the body temperature and thus try to counteract with venoms and thus eliminate toxins from the body. 2-Reducing body moisture: Jorjani believes that body moisture can improve the absorption of toxins and its transfer to vital organs. He recommends to use methods such as emesis, al-fasd (Bloodletting), inducing diarrhea, and urination (diuresis) to reduce body moisture. These methods help to remove the poison from the body (Jorjani, 1992 ). 3-Use of antidote: Jorjani believes that the use of antidote is one of the most effective ways to obliterate poisons. He recommends using Theriac magna and other antidotes in terms of poisons. 4- Use of anti-essence (anti-Mijaz) drugs: Jorjani believes that the use of these agents can also help to eliminate poisons. These drugs that are opposite in nature to the poison’s essence can help to neutralize its effect. For example, Ferula assa-foetida , is suitable for dealing with stimulating poisons. 5-Use of stimulant drugs: Jorjani believes that the use of sweat stimulant drugs can help to eliminate poisons. He recommends the use of these sudorific agents driving the movement of the fluids in the body, and can ultimately help to remove poisons from the body (Jorjani, 1992 ). 4. Discussion Toxicology is a branch of medical science that studies poisons, their effects on the body, and methods of prevention and treatment of poisoning (Thompson et al., 2014 ). This science has been of special importance for human during the history, because it could preserve human health and saving life (Gundert-Remy et al., 2015 ; Eslami et al., 2024 ). Seyed Ismail Jorjani, a famous Persian physician and polymath (also known as Hakim Jorjani) during 11th-12th centuries are known for his 750,000-word encyclopedia of medical textbook, Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi that dedicated to the king of the Khawarazm and thus named as the Treasure of King Khwarazm. This work is comparable with other medical textbook of traditional Persian medicine resources such as Avicenna's Canon of medicine and the Rhazes’ al-Hawi fi al-Tibb (The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber) in regard to the medical and toxicological knowledge (Orimi et al., 2023a ; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., 2024c ; Orimi et al., 2023b ; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., 2024b ). Jorjani has provided valuable information in the field of toxicology in the ninth volume of the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (Hosseini et al., 2011 ; Zarshenas et al., 2012 ). In this book, he examines the classification of poisons in the science of toxicology. Jorjani 's classification of poisons was based on his personal observations and experiences and using the opinions of other scientists (Jorjani, 1992 ). Jorjani 's classification is based on two main factors: the source of poison production and the effect of poison on the body. Classification based on the source of poison production (plant, animal and mineral), can help people to be aware of the risk factors of poisoning. For example, people exposed to poisonous plants should take steps to prevent poisoning. This classification may be still valuable and can be applicable in toxicology. Importantly, this approach of toxic categorization has observed in our previous studies on the Islamic medieval scholar such as Avicenna, Rhazes, and Ṯābit Ibn Qurra h which in turn backs to the ancient Greek scholar such as Dioscorides, Pythagoras, and so forth (Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., 2024a ; Orimi et al., 2023a ; Hernández, 2008 ). Classification based on the effect of the poison on the body can help clinicians to identify the type of poison and choose the appropriate treatment methods. For example, in the case of topical poisoning, the clinician can treat the person by focusing on treating the affected organ or tissue topically. In case of systemic poisonings, the clinician can take some of Jorjani measures to remove the poison from the body. Jorjani believes that the reason for the difference in the effects of poisons on the body is the difference in their nature and composition. Topical poisons usually contain compounds that attach to certain tissues in the body and cause damage to them while systemic poisons usually contain substances that enter the blood and other body fluids and can damage all organs. Certainly, it should be noted that this categorization is not always accurate. For instance, some poisons may show both local and systemic effects (Jorjani, 1992 ). Jorjani has provided various recommendations to prevent poisonings. These recommendations show the importance of maintaining health and preventing diseases in traditional Persian medicine. In traditional Persian medicine, there is a lot of emphasis on the prevention of diseases and various recommendations have been provided for the prevention of diseases (Moeini et al., 2021 ; Mahmoudpour et al., 2018 ). Jorjani pays special attention to the diagnosis of types of poisons and poisonings. Nevertheless, nowadays, there are various methods for detecting toxins, including blood tests, urine tests, tissue tests, and clinical tests. These methods are more accurate than Jorjani methods, but they are less accessible. While, Jorjani methods are simpler, less expensive and more accessible and might be useful in some situations where there is no access to new diagnostic facilities and equipment. Regarding the treatment of food poisoning, Jorjani believes that each type of poison has specific effects on the body and the doctor should treat it with his own treatment method. These effects can include things such as mechanical effects (such as causing ulcers in the digestive system), chemical effects (such as causing acidosis or alkalosis) and neurological effects (such as causing paralysis or convulsions). Jorjani states that specific treatment can reduce the effects of the poison more effectively. For example, in the case of poisoning with corrosive and caustic poisons, the use of softening and healing substances can help reduce the mechanical effects of the poison. Or in the case of poisoning with stimulating poisons, it can help reduce the chemical effects of the poison. In the case of poisoning with depressant poisons, the use of stimulants and antispasmodics can assist to reduce the depressant effects of the poisons on the CNS (Jorjani, 1992 ). Jorjani approaches are to some extent in line with modern therapeutic principles. For instance, to treat poisoning with caustic toxins, it is recommended to consume soothing substances (i.e. demulcent) such as milk and the egg white (Kapoor et al.; Sollmann et al., 1927 ). One of the important issues stressed by Jorjani is deadly and dangerous poisons (poisons against human nature). According to Jorjani, these poisons directly affect the human body and can lead to death. In modern medicine, some strong poisons are lethal poisons, which indicate that the risk of severe poisoning and death with them is higher than some other poisons. Nerve agents such as sarin, soman, tabun; cardiac toxins such as cyanide and cardiac glycoside; metal poisons such as lead, mercury and arsenic and respiratory poisons such as mustard gas and chlorine gas are some examples of deadly poisons that are known in modern medicine. The ways suggested by Jorjani to get rid of toxins were increasing body temperature, reducing body humidity, and using antidotes. Anyway, the use of antidotes is one of the treatment methods for poisoning with certain poisons, although today's antidotes are not comparable to the past. For example, to treat opium poisoning, the use of naloxone is recommended. Jorjani has emphasized the importance and necessity of emergency measures in the treatment of poisoning. There are various reasons for this emphasis. One of the reasons is to prevent the absorption of poison into the body. Actions such as emptying the stomach (with nausea and vomiting) or using absorbents can prevent the absorption of poison into the body. Another reason is to neutralize the effects of poison. Jorjani believed that antidotes can neutralize the effects of poison and prevent further damage to the body. Controlling the symptoms and complications of poisoning is another reason for the necessity of emergency measures. Measures such as seizure control can control the symptoms and complications of poisoning and prevent further damage to the body. 5. Conclusions Our current study elucidated that Jorjani, the 12th century Persian scholar and renown physician, had contributions to the science of toxicology via the ninth volume of the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi providing valuable information in this field. The classification of poisons and their effect on the body is one of Jorjani 's knowledge in toxicology. He also emphasized the need to prevent poisoning and emergency measures in case of its occurrence and discussed various measures to dispose of poisons and treat poisonings. Despite the passage of centuries, Jorjani 's opinions and methods in the field of toxicology are still valuable and can be used alongside modern methods. Future research need to be conducted to elucidate the details of the pharmacological therapies recommended in Jorjani’s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. Also, more research warranted to delve into the rich sources of the traditional medicine books and other historical resources to reveal other aspects of the deep history of toxicology and all the scholars who have always done their contributions helping this branch of science to mature and flourish in our modern status. Declarations Ethics Approval The current research has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Babol University of Medical Sciences and registered under the ethical code IR.MUBABOL.HRI.REC.1402.205 Consent to participate & informed consent Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Acknowledgments The authors would like to appreciate their respective institutions for their continued support. Also, authors are very grateful of the deputy research of Babol University of Medical Sciences and also the Traditional Medicine & History of Medical Sciences Research Center for supporting this research. Availability of Data and Materials : This is a review article. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Competing/Conflict of Interest : None. The authors declare that there are no conflicts of /or competing interests. Funding Traditional Medicine & History of Medical Sciences Research Center of the Health Research Institute of the Babol University of Medical Sciences. Author’s contribution Conceptualization : Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor; Methodology, validation, analysis, investigation, and resources :, Jamal Rezaei Orimi, Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor, Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi; Data curation, original draft preparation, editing, and reviewin g: Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi, Sheu Ibrahim Adedayo,Jamal Rezaei Orimi, Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor; V isualization, supervision, and project administration : all authors. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors confirm that no paper mill and artificial intelligence was used. References Akaberi M, Sobhani Z, Javadi B et al (2016) Therapeutic effects of Aloe spp. in traditional and modern medicine: A review. Biomed Pharmacother 84:759–772 Alizadeh F, Moradi F (2013) Skin pores in Persian medical textbooks. JAMA Dermatol 149:215 Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Musavi SEG, Gholamifard A et al (2024a) Ṯābit Ibn Qurrah’s contributions to toxicology. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol : 1–14 Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Orimi JR, Shams N et al (2025) Avicenna’s approach to the treatment of rabies in the perspective of current medicine. Wien Med Wochenschr : 1–11 Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Orimi JR, Zaidi SMA et al (2024b) Rhazes’ insights on abortion and abortogenic drugs in relation to modern concepts. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol : 1–23 Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Rezaei Orimi J, Adabinia Z et al (2024c) Avicenna’s views on pest control and medicinal plants he prescribed as natural pesticides. Wien Med Wochenschr 174:279–287 Eslami E, Siamian H, Rezaei Orimi J et al (2024) Pattern of bioterrorism in ancient times: lessons to be learned from the microbial and toxicological aspects. Wien Med Wochenschr 174:288–298 Ghorani-Azam A, Sepahi S, Riahi-Zanjani B et al (2018) Plant toxins and acute medicinal plant poisoning in children: A systematic literature review. J Res Med Sci 23:26 Golshani SA, Esmaili E (2021) A Contemplation of the Geographical Origin of Seyyed Isma’il Jurjani. J Res History Med 10:137–146 Gundert-Remy U, Barth H, Bürkle A et al (2015) Toxicology: a discipline in need of academic anchoring—the point of view of the German Society of Toxicology. Arch Toxicol 89:1881–1893 Hernández CF (2008) Venoms and Poisons in 13 th-century Castilla Science, Culture and Tradition. J Wash Acad Sci 94:13–24 Hosseini SF, Alakbarli F, Ghabili K et al (2011) Hakim Esmail Jorjani (1042–1137 ad): Persian physician and jurist. Arch Gynecol Obstet 284:647–650 Jenkins TP, Ahmadi S, Bittenbinder MA et al (2021) Terrestrial venomous animals, the envenomings they cause, and treatment perspectives in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15:e0009880 Jorjani L (1992) Zakhireh kharazmshahi. Bonyade Farhang Iran Tehean : 101–174 Kapoor N, Badiye A, Moon P et al Forensic Toxicology: An Overview 23. Textbook Forensic Sci : 707 Karami Matin B, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Rezaei S et al (2022) Epidemiology and Economic Burden of an Outbreak of Cyclopeptide-Containing Mushroom Poisoning in the West of Iran. Front Public Health 10:910024 Mahmoudpour Z, Shirafkan H, Mojahedi M et al (2018) Digesters in traditional Persian medicine. Caspian J Intern Med 9:1 Moattar F, Ardekani MRS, Ghannadi A (2013) The life of jorjani: one of the persian pioneers of medical encyclopedia compiling: on the occasion of his 1000th birthday anniversary (434, AH-1434, AH). Iran Red Crescent Med J 15:763 Moberg ME, Hamilton EB, Zeng SM et al (2023) Global, regional, and national mortality due to unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning, 2000–2021: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet Public Health 8:e839–e849 Moeini R, Mozaffarpur SA, Mojahedi M et al (2021) The prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine use in the general population of Babol, North of Iran, 2018. BMC Complement Med Ther 21:1–12 Mozaffarpur SA, Naseri M, Kamalinejad M et al (2020) Nine Steps to Discover New Medicines from Traditional Sources: The Example of Persian Medicine. J Altern Complement Med 26:365–368 Orimi JR, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Aghabeiglooei Z et al (2023a) Rhazes's methodology in the science of toxicology. Arch Toxicol 97:93–102 Orimi JR, Eskandarzadeh N, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M et al (2023b) Analyzing the biological traits of snakes in Avicenna's Canon of medicine and making a comparison with contemporary serpentology. Toxicon 231:107198 Prüss-Ustün A, Vickers C, Haefliger P (2011) Knowns and unknowns on burden of disease due to chemicals: a systematic review. Environ Health 10 Sacco MA, Gualtieri S, Princi A et al (2025) Human Deaths Related to Oleander Poisoning: A Review of the Literature. Toxins 17:115 Shoja MM, Tubbs RS, Ardalan MR et al (2007) Anatomy of the cranial nerves in medieval Persian literature: Esmail Jorjani (AD 1042–1137) and the treasure of the Khwarazm shah. Neurosurgery 61:1325–1331 Sollmann T, Barlow OW, Biskind MS (1927) Eggs and milk as antidotes against mercuric chloride. JAMA 88:623–626 Thompson TM, Theobald J, Lu J et al (2014) The general approach to the poisoned patient. Dis Mon 60:509–524 WY N, Hung L, Lam Y et al (2019) Poisoning by toxic plants in Hong Kong: a 15-year review. Hong Kong Med J 25:102 Zargaran A (2022) Pulmonary Circulation Discovery Before Ibn Nafis-Ancient Persian and Greek Theories: A Narrative Review. JAMA Cardiol 7:105–107 Zarshenas MM, Zargaran A, Abolhassanzadeh Z et al (2012) Jorjani (1042–1137). J Neurol 259:2764–2765 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8153471","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Short Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":554914911,"identity":"301649ab-b6a0-4be7-9fbe-955d1a7f1450","order_by":0,"name":"Jamal Rezaei Orimi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jamal","middleName":"Rezaei","lastName":"Orimi","suffix":""},{"id":554914912,"identity":"06477327-10c0-41b0-905c-d0ca6007815f","order_by":1,"name":"Sheu Ibrahim Adedayo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nazarbayev University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sheu","middleName":"Ibrahim","lastName":"Adedayo","suffix":""},{"id":554914913,"identity":"3ed4cc27-73d6-456e-ac91-708c0c96e609","order_by":2,"name":"Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lorestan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"","lastName":"Amrollahi-Sharifabadi","suffix":""},{"id":554914914,"identity":"40660759-0937-428f-8f4e-920fd9e4ee23","order_by":3,"name":"Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpur","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABB0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACNgYZNmb245//VAA5zMwNRGnhYWPnSWPgOQPSwkikFgZ+BjMG3jYQj4AW+fYeM4kPZXY8fMwMaQ8k59VG87cDtfyo2IZTi8GZM2aSM84l87AxMx43MNx2PHfGYcYGxp4zt3Frkcgxk+ZtYwZqYUiQSNx2LLcBqIWZsQ23Fvn5b8yk/7bVg7QYSByccyx3PiEtDDd4zKQZ2w6DtJhJNjbU5G4gpMXgTFqxZc+540AtPMnGDMcO5G4EajmIzy/y7Yc33vhRVi0n33/84GOGmrrceecPH3zwowKPwxg4TCSQeIfB5AE86oGA/fEHJF4dfsWjYBSMglEwIgEAhHFVI5R/DdkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Babol University of Medical Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seyyed","middleName":"Ali","lastName":"Mozaffarpur","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-19 09:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97668003,"identity":"58f927b1-745b-480b-9f26-6dff01368317","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:24:38","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":322407,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscriptmaintext.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/0918b889850606957300a880.docx"},{"id":97468953,"identity":"e041bbe1-f856-4069-9f2a-191f826967f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-04 17:19:47","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":6011,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5280365d0f4141ecbc3ae2c39cc5e741.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/90b4ae84af305847e391ee97.json"},{"id":97668742,"identity":"beff00be-aa7e-4e10-8c7d-1ac1d7e8e486","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:26:14","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":84007,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5280365d0f4141ecbc3ae2c39cc5e7411enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/7eff6e506a473367981290f5.xml"},{"id":97468955,"identity":"e31baf9a-9aec-4d7c-b47b-01563cc10f7c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-04 17:19:47","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1041661,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/2917cbeb2ef2822b5d4786d2.png"},{"id":97468959,"identity":"116bcf81-9e2f-4b07-9a93-821d4239ba61","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-04 17:19:47","extension":"xml","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":83665,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5280365d0f4141ecbc3ae2c39cc5e7411structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/77d564c7c2a517b318723837.xml"},{"id":97468956,"identity":"92d5296f-84e8-446b-84a1-04e9f1398dad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-04 17:19:47","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":89449,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/d05b4ccbc465acc9eb38d271.html"},{"id":97669399,"identity":"848cde1b-124f-4aff-b840-5dea2768f211","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:27:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2107695,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThis is a copy of a depicting double frontispiece of the al-Jurjānī’s \u003cem\u003eZakhireye Khwarazmshahi\u003c/em\u003e, or the Treasure of the Khwarazm Shah\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eIt is publically available with no known copyright here\u003c/em\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double_frontispiece_from_the_Treasure_of_the_Khwarazmshah_(Zakhira-yi_Khwarazmshahi),_by_Zayn_al-Din_al-Jurjani._Chester_Beatty_Library.jpg\"\u003ehttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double_frontispiece_from_the_Treasure_of_the_Khwarazmshah_(Zakhira-yi_Khwarazmshahi),_by_Zayn_al-Din_al-Jurjani._Chester_Beatty_Library.jpg\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/9420118eff7dca0e264294db.jpeg"},{"id":102297035,"identity":"ed9430a3-f3b1-4a41-b078-9b237b883acc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 10:25:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2852458,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8153471/v1/8e5acbd7-7c96-4018-8cc1-2a1c9cf4c7e9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The contributions of al-Jurjānī to toxicology through the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThroughout history, humans have always been at risk of encountering toxicants in their surroundings. Due to the amazing advances in agriculture, pharmacology, and industrial technology, humans are more exposed to toxic chemicals in the modern world (Pr\u0026uuml;ss-Ust\u0026uuml;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sacco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Moberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, cases of exposure to poisonous plants and animals are still among major health issues (WY et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jenkins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). They are threatening human health and life, attributing a large proportion of hospital admissions, allocating many deaths around the world annually, and imposing huge costs on healthcare systems (Ghorani-Azam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Karami Matin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePersian Medicine (PM) can be considered as one of major sources of medical sciences that still have words to let us know (Alizadeh and Moradi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Mozaffarpur et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Zargaran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Akaberi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Among the outstanding sources in this field, the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (also known with similar spellings such as Zakhireh Kharazmshahi, or Dhakhīra-yi Khārazmshāhī in the English scientific literature is one of the most prominent works of Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma'il ibn Husayn Gorgani (1042\u0026ndash;1137 AD), also recognized as Seyed Ismail Jurjani, Ismāʻīl Jurjānī, al-Jurjānī or Jorjani (Golshani and Esmaili, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Jorjani was a Persian 12th century royal Islamic physician from Gorgan, Iran, who is the founder of the Persian writing school in Iran. He fortified the Persian writings in medicine by authoring of his medical book collections known as Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Zakhireye Khwaram Shah, or the Treasure of the Khwarazm Shah, and dedicated it to the king of the Khwarazm (Shoja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). This medical encyclopedia collection is among the most important resource of PM that also translated into Turkish, Arabic, and Hebrew (Moattar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Through writing this magnanimous and comprehensive encyclopedia of PM, Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Jorjani pioneered the movement of compilation and authoring of medical textbooks (Hosseini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Zarshenas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This textbook is comparable to the Canon of Avicenna in respect to its contributions to the medical sciences. Considering the medical legacy of PM textbooks such as Jorjani\u0026rsquo;s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi that are rich in valuable medical knowledge, we have made an attempt in this paper to answer the question whether our predecessors such as al-Jurjānī were aware of toxic substances and how they dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of poisonings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe conducted a profound research on the authenticated Persian version of Sayyid Ismail Jorjani\u0026rsquo;s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi book that has been published by the Iranian Academy of Medical Sciences in Iran (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Queried Persian keywords comprised \"\u003cem\u003esam, masmoumiat, giahan-e-sami, gazesh/gazidegi/nish\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; which were the English equivalents of \u0026ldquo;poison, poisoning, poisonous plants, sting/envenoming/bite\u0026rdquo;. Also, we searched international and national scientific databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Magiran, and IranDoc using toxicological related keywords, as mentioned above, to determine the degree to which the book's contents are consistent with current toxicological knowledge. Finally, the obtained content was reviewed and carefully analyzed and then presented in this article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3-1- Jorjani \u0026rsquo;s introductory discourse on poisons\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeyyed Ismail Jorjani has divided the poisoning section (\u003cem\u003eKitab al-Sumum\u003c/em\u003e) in the ninth book of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (volume IX) into five speeches and forty-four chapters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Based on this, the general framework of knowledge of poisons in the ninth volume of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi is as follows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe structure of subject matters in toxicological sciences in Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (ninth volume)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscourse (speech)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTitle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (subject matter)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrevention of poisoning, types of poisons and rules and principles of poisoning treatment\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevention of poisoning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTypes of poisons\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow to diagnose types of poisoning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrinciples of poisoning treatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffective drugs in the treatment of poisoning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHarmful mineral drugs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDangerous and deadly drugs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHarmful stimulating medicines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHarmful depressant medicines\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnimal poisons\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeneral information about the bites of snakes and poisonous animals and the detailed measures to drive insects away\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral rules in the treatment of snake bites and venomous animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedicines used in the treatment of venomous animal bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of rubbing drugs (unguent) in the treatment of poisonous animals bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of rubbing drugs (unguent) for neutralizing venomous animal bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsect repellents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDrugs that kill harmful animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWays to get rid of insects and vermin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSnake bite and its treatment\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTypes of snakes and symptoms of snakebite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSnake bite (first category)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSnake bite (second category)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSnake bite (third category)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourth discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnimal bites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBites from domestic dogs and non-rabid wolves\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of rabid dogs and wolves\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSymptoms of rabid dog bites in humans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe difference between rabid and non-rabid dog bites and how to test it\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment of rabid dog bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBites by leopard, cheetah and lion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlligator bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCat bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMonkey bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMink bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRat bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFifth discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInsect bites and other bites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScorpion bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe yellow Iranian scorpion bite (\u003cem\u003eOdontobuthus\u003c/em\u003e spp.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTarantula bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpider bite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsects and thick bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCentipede bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLizard bite (\u003cem\u003evaranus\u003c/em\u003e spp.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBee sting (hornet, wasp, honey bee)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnt sting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVenomous marine animals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter\u0026nbsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther marine bites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHe has divided the toxins into three categories: plant, animal and mineral. Routes of poisoning include ingestion and injections (bites and stings). Jorjani considers all poisons to be in one of two types: The first type is those poisons that are detrimental due to their quality (i.e. effects on the body) such as sea hare, euphorbia, afeyun (i.e. opium), and litharge (lead (II) oxide). The second type is those whose essence is against the essence of the human body (i.e. inherently toxic), such as \u003cem\u003eaconitum\u003c/em\u003e species (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi, Jorjani divide poisons into two categories based on their effect on the organs: the first category is local poisons. These types of poisons only damage a specific organ or tissue. For example, cantharidin harms urinary system and causes pain and inflammation in it (i.e. nephrotoxicity) while sea hare toxin, which is derived from sea hare, damages the lungs and causes pulmonary problems (i.e. pulmonotoxicity) The second category is general poisons. These types of poisons damage the whole body. For example, opium, which is derived from the poppy plant (\u003cem\u003ePapaver somniferum\u003c/em\u003e), causes central nervous system disturbances and can be fatal (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJorjani also classified poisonings based on the onset of symptoms; he divided poisonings into two main categories of acute and chronic types. He mentioned that in the acute poisoning, symptoms appear quickly within minutes to hours, while in the chronic poisoning, symptoms manifested gradually within days, weeks, or months. For instance, he indicated that in case of poisoning with a mineral \u003cem\u003easfidaj\u003c/em\u003e (mixture of tin and lead), the patient shows acute symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, and impaired consciousness, which are immediately manifested. On the other hand, spoiled fish poisoning is a type of chronic poisoning, he mentioned, the symptoms of which appeared after one or two days. This type of poisoning is caused by eating the fish that has not been fully cooked or has been kept in improper conditions (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlso, he divides poisonings into two types, lethal and non-lethal, based on the degree of lethality. As an example, he believes that poisoning with valerian plant (\u003cem\u003eValeriana officinalis\u003c/em\u003e L.) is dangerous and deadly and can cause various symptoms such as nervous (dizziness), digestive (nausea and vomiting), cardiovascular (low blood pressure), respiratory (dyspnea and decrease in blood oxygen), and urinary difficulties (hematuria or the presence of blood in the urine). But he considers iron poisoning to be non-fatal, which can lead to side effects such as headache, dry mouth, and abdominal pain (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3-2- Jorjani ’s recommendations for poisoning prevention\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJorjani has recommended various suggestions regarding the prevention of poisoning (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 1-Choosing foods with a mild taste: Jorjani recommends that to avoid eating foods with a strong taste, such as strong sourness, strong sweetness, saltiness, or strong spiciness. As the strong taste may mask the tasted toxins deliberately added to your food to poison you (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 2-Preventing hunger and thirst: Not being hungry and thirsty in times of danger is one of the other recommendations of this doctor. Because in the state of hunger and thirst, firstly, the sensitivity to the odor and taste of poison decreases, and secondly, the poison has an effect sooner (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 3-Paying attention to how food interacts with toxins: Jorjani pointed out how food interacts inside the body when faced with toxins and states that foods that have already been eaten fight with toxins to prevent to enter the harmful and toxic substances to penetrate into the circulation and thus prohibit the impact of toxins on the internal organs (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 4-Use of special oral medications: Jorjani recommends consuming oral medications to prevent poisoning. These medications he numerates included \u003cem\u003eMithridatum\u003c/em\u003e concoction, \u003cem\u003eTeraq-al-Tain\u003c/em\u003e, jadwar (\u003cem\u003eCurcuma zedoaria\u003c/em\u003e), turnip seeds (seeds of \u003cem\u003eBrassica rapa\u003c/em\u003e, variety rapa), figs, walnuts, salt, mint leaves, and sadab leaves (\u003cem\u003eRuta graveolens\u003c/em\u003e) (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 5-Use of special topical medications: Jorjani recommends using some topical medications to prevent poisoning with venomous insects and animals. He believes that these drugs have the property of repelling insects and poisonous animals. By creating a covering on the skin, they try to prevent the penetration of poisons into the body. He recommends pounding fresh leaves poplar (\u003cem\u003ePopulus nigra\u003c/em\u003e) and dipping them in olive oil. Then boil it and apply its oil on the body topically. He also suggests to use other drugs including buds of cypress plant, seeds of \u003cem\u003eJuniperus oxycedrus\u003c/em\u003e, leaves of \u003cem\u003eVitex agnus-castus\u003c/em\u003e, leaves of \u003cem\u003eArtemisia vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e, roots of \u003cem\u003eFerula assa-foetida\u003c/em\u003e, seeds of \u003cem\u003eCommiphora opobalsamum\u003c/em\u003e, and roots of \u003cem\u003eLepidium draba\u003c/em\u003e with the same method of preparation and application (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3-3- Jorjani ’s approach for diagnosing the type of poisons and poisonings\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJorjani further expresses his opinions on the method of detecting different types of poisons in the ninth volume of Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. In this book, he describes three main methods for detecting poisons: 1- Sniffing the body: Jorjani believes that some poisons have a special odor that can be recognized by sniffing the body of a poisoned person. For example, opium has a specific odor that can be detected by sniffing the mouth of a poisoned person. Also, sea hare causes lung infection and the odor of the infection is released from the mouth of the poisoned person (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), 2- Examining the type of vomited substance: If it is not possible to detect it through sniffing, it is possible to detect the poison by examining the type of vomited substance. For example, minerals such as \u003cem\u003emortak\u003c/em\u003e (lead) and \u003cem\u003egypsum\u003c/em\u003e (calcium sulphate) sometimes causes vomiting and can be seen in the vomitus material (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), 3- Examining the symptoms and signs: If the body odor and the type of vomitus materials cannot help to identify the poison, it is may possible to recognize the poison by examining the signs and symptoms in the poisoned patients. Jorjani believes that each poison has specific effects on the poisoned patients\u0026rsquo; body and thus causes relatively specific signs and symptoms. For instance, he discusses if the poison is a kind of caustic kinds causing burning and cramping sensations in the intestinal tract. Stimulant poisons cause red eyes, high body temperature, and thirst in the poisoned patient. Depressant poisons cause numbness and coldness of the organs, while the deadly poisons cause severe malaise of the body, fainting, and cold sweat, and may lead to death (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3-4- Jorjani ’s approach for the treatment of poisonings\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJorjani discusses the basic rules and principles of poisoning treatments in which he considers it to be specific according to the type poison. He believes that whenever it is known what kind of poison it is; specific treatment should be applied for it. Consequently, the treatment modalities proposed by his include the following (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e): In order to treat irritating and caustic poisons, Jorjani believes that the treatment includes the consumption of softening food and emollient drugs for relief. For example, he recommended the consumption of cow\u0026rsquo;s milk and cream to soften and thus reduce the effects of caustic and irritating poisons. Also, the consumption of fine powder of backed starch mixed with almond oil or cow\u0026rsquo;s oil can help to diminish the effects of these types of poisons (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJorjani considers the treatment of stimulating poisons to include consumption of cold foods and cooling medicines that are included the consumption of cold water, cold rose water, camphor, fresh coriander juice, mucilage of \u003cem\u003ePlantago ovata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePortulaca oleracea\u003c/em\u003e extract, and coconut oil can assist to reduce the body temperature and also to quench thirst. Also, using cooling poultices maid of \u003cem\u003eLemna minor\u003c/em\u003e, on the main body parts can be useful. Cold cow's yogurt drink (cow\u0026rsquo;s Douq) can also be effective for the treatment of this type of poisonings (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). For the treatment of depressants and hypnotic poisons, Jorjani recommend take of warm foods as well as stimulating and antispasmodic drugs. For example, taking Theriac magna and also using the \u003cem\u003eFerula assa-foetida\u003c/em\u003e that warmed with wine and mixed with crushed garlic, can lead to the stimulation of body\u0026rsquo;s nerves and thus relieve coldness and numbness of the patients\u0026rsquo; body (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, Jorjani believes that some types of poisons are very dangerous and can lead to death (deadly and dangerous poisons). In these cases, he emphasized that for the treatment of these types of poisons, the patient must be visited and treated by a physician. The treatment includes the prescription of some neutralizing foods and drugs. For example, the use of \u003cem\u003eMithridatum\u003c/em\u003e and other antidotes (\u003cem\u003eTeriaqs\u003c/em\u003e). Also, consuming nourishing fluids and nutritious foods can strengthen the patient\u0026rsquo;s body to fight with poisons. Also, proving a quieted room with a fresh and pleasant air as well as massaging the stomach and belly of the patient with warmed oils can help to relieve the patient and thus useful for the treatment (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3-5- Jorjani ’s approach for treating animal envenomations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJorjani has described in detail the measures to treat animal bite cases. He believes that the following activities should be used to deal with these envenomings:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1-Increase in body temperature: Jorjani believes that body temperature plays an important role in eliminating venoms. He recommends to use medicines such as \u003cem\u003eTheriac magna\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eColchicum variegatum\u003c/em\u003e to increase the body temperature. These drugs increase the body temperature and thus try to counteract with venoms and thus eliminate toxins from the body.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2-Reducing body moisture: Jorjani believes that body moisture can improve the absorption of toxins and its transfer to vital organs. He recommends to use methods such as emesis, \u003cem\u003eal-fasd\u003c/em\u003e (Bloodletting), inducing diarrhea, and urination (diuresis) to reduce body moisture. These methods help to remove the poison from the body (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). 3-Use of antidote: Jorjani believes that the use of antidote is one of the most effective ways to obliterate poisons. He recommends using \u003cem\u003eTheriac magna\u003c/em\u003e and other antidotes in terms of poisons. 4- Use of anti-essence (anti-Mijaz) drugs: Jorjani believes that the use of these agents can also help to eliminate poisons. These drugs that are opposite in nature to the poison\u0026rsquo;s essence can help to neutralize its effect. For example, \u003cem\u003eFerula assa-foetida\u003c/em\u003e, is suitable for dealing with stimulating poisons. 5-Use of stimulant drugs: Jorjani believes that the use of sweat stimulant drugs can help to eliminate poisons. He recommends the use of these sudorific agents driving the movement of the fluids in the body, and can ultimately help to remove poisons from the body (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eToxicology is a branch of medical science that studies poisons, their effects on the body, and methods of prevention and treatment of poisoning (Thompson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This science has been of special importance for human during the history, because it could preserve human health and saving life (Gundert-Remy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Eslami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Seyed Ismail Jorjani, a famous Persian physician and polymath (also known as Hakim Jorjani) during 11th-12th centuries are known for his 750,000-word encyclopedia of medical textbook, Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi that dedicated to the king of the Khawarazm and thus named as the Treasure of King Khwarazm. This work is comparable with other medical textbook of traditional Persian medicine resources such as Avicenna's Canon of medicine and the Rhazes\u0026rsquo; al-Hawi fi al-Tibb (The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber) in regard to the medical and toxicological knowledge (Orimi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024c\u003c/span\u003e; Orimi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e; Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e). Jorjani has provided valuable information in the field of toxicology in the ninth volume of the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi (Hosseini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Zarshenas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In this book, he examines the classification of poisons in the science of toxicology. Jorjani 's classification of poisons was based on his personal observations and experiences and using the opinions of other scientists (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Jorjani 's classification is based on two main factors: the source of poison production and the effect of poison on the body. Classification based on the source of poison production (plant, animal and mineral), can help people to be aware of the risk factors of poisoning. For example, people exposed to poisonous plants should take steps to prevent poisoning. This classification may be still valuable and can be applicable in toxicology. Importantly, this approach of toxic categorization has observed in our previous studies on the Islamic medieval scholar such as Avicenna, Rhazes, and Ṯābit Ibn Qurra\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e which in turn backs to the ancient Greek scholar such as Dioscorides, Pythagoras, and so forth (Amrollahi-Sharifabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e; Orimi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e; Hern\u0026aacute;ndez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClassification based on the effect of the poison on the body can help clinicians to identify the type of poison and choose the appropriate treatment methods. For example, in the case of topical poisoning, the clinician can treat the person by focusing on treating the affected organ or tissue topically. In case of systemic poisonings, the clinician can take some of Jorjani measures to remove the poison from the body. Jorjani believes that the reason for the difference in the effects of poisons on the body is the difference in their nature and composition. Topical poisons usually contain compounds that attach to certain tissues in the body and cause damage to them while systemic poisons usually contain substances that enter the blood and other body fluids and can damage all organs. Certainly, it should be noted that this categorization is not always accurate. For instance, some poisons may show both local and systemic effects (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Jorjani has provided various recommendations to prevent poisonings. These recommendations show the importance of maintaining health and preventing diseases in traditional Persian medicine. In traditional Persian medicine, there is a lot of emphasis on the prevention of diseases and various recommendations have been provided for the prevention of diseases (Moeini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mahmoudpour et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJorjani pays special attention to the diagnosis of types of poisons and poisonings. Nevertheless, nowadays, there are various methods for detecting toxins, including blood tests, urine tests, tissue tests, and clinical tests. These methods are more accurate than Jorjani methods, but they are less accessible. While, Jorjani methods are simpler, less expensive and more accessible and might be useful in some situations where there is no access to new diagnostic facilities and equipment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding the treatment of food poisoning, Jorjani believes that each type of poison has specific effects on the body and the doctor should treat it with his own treatment method. These effects can include things such as mechanical effects (such as causing ulcers in the digestive system), chemical effects (such as causing acidosis or alkalosis) and neurological effects (such as causing paralysis or convulsions). Jorjani states that specific treatment can reduce the effects of the poison more effectively. For example, in the case of poisoning with corrosive and caustic poisons, the use of softening and healing substances can help reduce the mechanical effects of the poison. Or in the case of poisoning with stimulating poisons, it can help reduce the chemical effects of the poison. In the case of poisoning with depressant poisons, the use of stimulants and antispasmodics can assist to reduce the depressant effects of the poisons on the CNS (Jorjani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Jorjani approaches are to some extent in line with modern therapeutic principles. For instance, to treat poisoning with caustic toxins, it is recommended to consume soothing substances (i.e. demulcent) such as milk and the egg white (Kapoor et al.; Sollmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1927\u003c/span\u003e). One of the important issues stressed by Jorjani is deadly and dangerous poisons (poisons against human nature). According to Jorjani, these poisons directly affect the human body and can lead to death. In modern medicine, some strong poisons are lethal poisons, which indicate that the risk of severe poisoning and death with them is higher than some other poisons. Nerve agents such as sarin, soman, tabun; cardiac toxins such as cyanide and cardiac glycoside; metal poisons such as lead, mercury and arsenic and respiratory poisons such as mustard gas and chlorine gas are some examples of deadly poisons that are known in modern medicine. The ways suggested by Jorjani to get rid of toxins were increasing body temperature, reducing body humidity, and using antidotes. Anyway, the use of antidotes is one of the treatment methods for poisoning with certain poisons, although today's antidotes are not comparable to the past. For example, to treat opium poisoning, the use of naloxone is recommended.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJorjani has emphasized the importance and necessity of emergency measures in the treatment of poisoning. There are various reasons for this emphasis. One of the reasons is to prevent the absorption of poison into the body. Actions such as emptying the stomach (with nausea and vomiting) or using absorbents can prevent the absorption of poison into the body. Another reason is to neutralize the effects of poison. Jorjani believed that antidotes can neutralize the effects of poison and prevent further damage to the body. Controlling the symptoms and complications of poisoning is another reason for the necessity of emergency measures. Measures such as seizure control can control the symptoms and complications of poisoning and prevent further damage to the body.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur current study elucidated that Jorjani, the 12th century Persian scholar and renown physician, had contributions to the science of toxicology via the ninth volume of the book Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi providing valuable information in this field. The classification of poisons and their effect on the body is one of Jorjani 's knowledge in toxicology. He also emphasized the need to prevent poisoning and emergency measures in case of its occurrence and discussed various measures to dispose of poisons and treat poisonings. Despite the passage of centuries, Jorjani 's opinions and methods in the field of toxicology are still valuable and can be used alongside modern methods. Future research need to be conducted to elucidate the details of the pharmacological therapies recommended in Jorjani\u0026rsquo;s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. Also, more research warranted to delve into the rich sources of the traditional medicine books and other historical resources to reveal other aspects of the deep history of toxicology and all the scholars who have always done their contributions helping this branch of science to mature and flourish in our modern status.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current research has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Babol University of Medical Sciences and registered under the ethical code IR.MUBABOL.HRI.REC.1402.205\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026amp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;informed consent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to appreciate their respective institutions for their continued support. Also, authors are very grateful of the deputy research of Babol University of Medical Sciences and also the Traditional Medicine \u0026amp; History of Medical Sciences Research Center for supporting this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/strong\u003e: This is a review article. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting/Conflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e: None. The authors declare that there are no conflicts of /or competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditional Medicine \u0026amp; History of Medical Sciences Research Center of the Health Research Institute of the Babol University of Medical Sciences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor’s contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptualization\u003c/strong\u003e: Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor; \u003cstrong\u003eMethodology, validation, analysis, investigation, and resources\u003c/strong\u003e:, Jamal Rezaei Orimi, Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor, Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Data curation, original draft preparation, editing, and reviewin\u003c/strong\u003eg: Mohammad Amrollahi-Sharifabadi, Sheu Ibrahim Adedayo,Jamal Rezaei Orimi, Seyyed Ali Mozaffarpoor; V\u003cstrong\u003eisualization, supervision, and project administration\u003c/strong\u003e: all authors. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors confirm that no paper mill and artificial intelligence was used. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkaberi M, Sobhani Z, Javadi B et al (2016) Therapeutic effects of Aloe spp. in traditional and modern medicine: A review. Biomed Pharmacother 84:759\u0026ndash;772\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlizadeh F, Moradi F (2013) Skin pores in Persian medical textbooks. JAMA Dermatol 149:215\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Musavi SEG, Gholamifard A et al (2024a) Ṯābit Ibn Qurrah\u0026rsquo;s contributions to toxicology. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol : 1\u0026ndash;14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Orimi JR, Shams N et al (2025) Avicenna\u0026rsquo;s approach to the treatment of rabies in the perspective of current medicine. Wien Med Wochenschr : 1\u0026ndash;11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Orimi JR, Zaidi SMA et al (2024b) Rhazes\u0026rsquo; insights on abortion and abortogenic drugs in relation to modern concepts. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol : 1\u0026ndash;23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Rezaei Orimi J, Adabinia Z et al (2024c) Avicenna\u0026rsquo;s views on pest control and medicinal plants he prescribed as natural pesticides. Wien Med Wochenschr 174:279\u0026ndash;287\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEslami E, Siamian H, Rezaei Orimi J et al (2024) Pattern of bioterrorism in ancient times: lessons to be learned from the microbial and toxicological aspects. Wien Med Wochenschr 174:288\u0026ndash;298\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGhorani-Azam A, Sepahi S, Riahi-Zanjani B et al (2018) Plant toxins and acute medicinal plant poisoning in children: A systematic literature review. J Res Med Sci 23:26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGolshani SA, Esmaili E (2021) A Contemplation of the Geographical Origin of Seyyed Isma\u0026rsquo;il Jurjani. J Res History Med 10:137\u0026ndash;146\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGundert-Remy U, Barth H, B\u0026uuml;rkle A et al (2015) Toxicology: a discipline in need of academic anchoring\u0026mdash;the point of view of the German Society of Toxicology. Arch Toxicol 89:1881\u0026ndash;1893\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHern\u0026aacute;ndez CF (2008) Venoms and Poisons in 13 th-century Castilla Science, Culture and Tradition. J Wash Acad Sci 94:13\u0026ndash;24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHosseini SF, Alakbarli F, Ghabili K et al (2011) Hakim Esmail Jorjani (1042\u0026ndash;1137 ad): Persian physician and jurist. Arch Gynecol Obstet 284:647\u0026ndash;650\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJenkins TP, Ahmadi S, Bittenbinder MA et al (2021) Terrestrial venomous animals, the envenomings they cause, and treatment perspectives in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15:e0009880\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJorjani L (1992) Zakhireh kharazmshahi. Bonyade Farhang Iran Tehean : 101\u0026ndash;174\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKapoor N, Badiye A, Moon P et al Forensic Toxicology: An Overview 23. Textbook Forensic Sci : 707\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarami Matin B, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Rezaei S et al (2022) Epidemiology and Economic Burden of an Outbreak of Cyclopeptide-Containing Mushroom Poisoning in the West of Iran. Front Public Health 10:910024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahmoudpour Z, Shirafkan H, Mojahedi M et al (2018) Digesters in traditional Persian medicine. Caspian J Intern Med 9:1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoattar F, Ardekani MRS, Ghannadi A (2013) The life of jorjani: one of the persian pioneers of medical encyclopedia compiling: on the occasion of his 1000th birthday anniversary (434, AH-1434, AH). Iran Red Crescent Med J 15:763\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoberg ME, Hamilton EB, Zeng SM et al (2023) Global, regional, and national mortality due to unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning, 2000\u0026ndash;2021: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet Public Health 8:e839\u0026ndash;e849\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMoeini R, Mozaffarpur SA, Mojahedi M et al (2021) The prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine use in the general population of Babol, North of Iran, 2018. BMC Complement Med Ther 21:1\u0026ndash;12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMozaffarpur SA, Naseri M, Kamalinejad M et al (2020) Nine Steps to Discover New Medicines from Traditional Sources: The Example of Persian Medicine. J Altern Complement Med 26:365\u0026ndash;368\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOrimi JR, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M, Aghabeiglooei Z et al (2023a) Rhazes's methodology in the science of toxicology. Arch Toxicol 97:93\u0026ndash;102\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOrimi JR, Eskandarzadeh N, Amrollahi-Sharifabadi M et al (2023b) Analyzing the biological traits of snakes in Avicenna's Canon of medicine and making a comparison with contemporary serpentology. Toxicon 231:107198\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePr\u0026uuml;ss-Ust\u0026uuml;n A, Vickers C, Haefliger P (2011) Knowns and unknowns on burden of disease due to chemicals: a systematic review. Environ Health 10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSacco MA, Gualtieri S, Princi A et al (2025) Human Deaths Related to Oleander Poisoning: A Review of the Literature. Toxins 17:115\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShoja MM, Tubbs RS, Ardalan MR et al (2007) Anatomy of the cranial nerves in medieval Persian literature: Esmail Jorjani (AD 1042\u0026ndash;1137) and the treasure of the Khwarazm shah. Neurosurgery 61:1325\u0026ndash;1331\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSollmann T, Barlow OW, Biskind MS (1927) Eggs and milk as antidotes against mercuric chloride. JAMA 88:623\u0026ndash;626\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThompson TM, Theobald J, Lu J et al (2014) The general approach to the poisoned patient. Dis Mon 60:509\u0026ndash;524\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWY N, Hung L, Lam Y et al (2019) Poisoning by toxic plants in Hong Kong: a 15-year review. Hong Kong Med J 25:102\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZargaran A (2022) Pulmonary Circulation Discovery Before Ibn Nafis-Ancient Persian and Greek Theories: A Narrative Review. JAMA Cardiol 7:105\u0026ndash;107\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZarshenas MM, Zargaran A, Abolhassanzadeh Z et al (2012) Jorjani (1042\u0026ndash;1137). J Neurol 259:2764\u0026ndash;2765\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Persian medicine, history, toxicology, pharmacology, Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePoisons and poisonings have always been important threats throughout history, from ancient times to the present day. This paper intended to answer the question whether the science of poisons, toxicology, has been addressed in one of the famous medical texts of Persian medicine al-Jurjānī\u0026rsquo;s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. To this end, we researched profoundly on the al-Jurjānī\u0026rsquo;s Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi. Toxicologically-related keywords were used to investigate in this notable resource of Persian medicine to retrieve the results. Then, current medical literature was exploited using common online databases and toxicological relevant keywords to find the consistency of the book contents with modern medical and toxicological data. Our results indicate that there was a notable information on poisons and toxicology in Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi reflecting a great knowledge of al-Jurjānī on the toxic effects of various poisons. He classified poisons into botanicals, animals, or minerals. Moreover, he discussed about venomous animals and envenomations to facilitate their diagnosis and management. Conclusively, our study revealed that al-Jurjānī contributed to the toxicological science through dedication of a part of his Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi to this area of medical sciences.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The contributions of al-Jurjānī to toxicology through the Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-04 17:19:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8153471/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"178f9254-6063-45c3-a057-26b732b751a4","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-09T02:09:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-04 17:19:42","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8153471","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8153471","identity":"rs-8153471","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}