Coproparasitological survey on Gastrointestinal Parasites in wild and Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) of Trinidad and Tobago.

Coproparasitological survey on Gastrointestinal Parasites in wild and Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) of Trinidad and Tobago. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Coproparasitological survey on Gastrointestinal Parasites in wild and Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) of Trinidad and Tobago. Waheeda. K. Gafoor, Laura Tardieu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 3 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The Green iguana ( Iguana iguana ) is a popular wildlife species in the LAC region and similar to other reptiles, it has been recognized as being host of various parasites and diseases. Despite this significance, few studies address and coproparasitology and epidemiology of these species in the Caribbean region. This study investigates the presence of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in both captive and wild Green iguana populations in Trinidad and Tobago. A total of 52 faecal samples were obtained from wild (n = 26) and captive (n = 26) iguana populations across both islands and then analysed for parasite egg presence. Results indicate no significant difference between the captive status and sex for parasite load and diversity between captive and wild iguanas. Overall, most individuals exhibited two types of parasite egg in their faeces (Oxyurids and Ascarids), with three distinct parasite egg types identified (Ascarids, Oxyurids and Tapeworms). This study reveals the parasite load and diversity of GI parasites in Trinidad and Tobago iguana populations, offering insights crucial for wildlife disease and conservation management in the region. Ascarids Pinworms Endoparasites Iguana Neo-Tropics Parasites Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Reptiles are known to harbour a broad spectrum of internal parasites including a wide variety of protozoal, nematode, cestode, trematode, pentastomid and acanthocephan species (Wolf et al. 2014 ). Parasitological studies on the popular wild and captive reptilian lizard the Green iguana, Iguana iguana have found this species to be host to a wide variety of different endoparasites including nematodes (Breves et al. 2011 ; Lopes et al. 2009; Otávio et al. 2018 ) trematodes (Ávila and Da Silva 2011 ; Teles et al. 2016 ); cestodes (Ávila and Silva 2010 ) and helminthic parasites known as oxyurids (Breves et al. 2011 ). While Ávila and Silva in their 2010 helminth checklist listed 12 different helminth species hosted by I. iguana from South America. Alaeuris spp. and Ozolaimus spp . have been identified as two of the most common gastrointestinal parasitic nematode species of the South American wild (Teles et al. 2016 ), and captive I. iguana (Chávez C et al. 2015). As a wild animal that is being kept in captivity and therefore coming into greater contact with humans in the region of South America and the Caribbean (García-Quijano et al. 2011 ), greater attention needs to be given toward understanding the Green iguanas role as a reservoir of zoonotic and parasitic diseases. Additionally, the study of parasites, particularly gastrointestinal parasites of this species, will not only aide in providing greater knowledge about the parasitic fauna and its impacts on humans and the host species, but can also serve as a means of wildlife conservation and maintenance of biodiversity in the region (Thompson et al. 2010 ). One of the important methods to study parasitic fauna that is easily adopted, quick, affordable and non-invasive are coproparasitological studies. This involves the examination of the faeces of the hosts and searching for parasite eggs or other evidence or parasite infestation. This type of studies can prove to be significant in describing the parasitic profile of lizards and iguanas (Amaral et al. 2021 ). Although caution must be taken given that this method cannot detect all parasites (Jorge et al. 2013 ), In Trinidad and Tobago, the Green iguana is a popular ‘wildlife’ species as demonstrated by the increased interest in the reptile for the pet trade, farming and consumption as a wild meat (Nanton 2013 ). Yet little parasitological investigations or coproparasitological studies have been done on the Caribbean I. iguana’s helminthological fauna. The objective of this study was therefore to conduct a coprological survey to investigate the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in the faeces of captive and wild caught Green iguanas in Trinidad and Tobago. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study areas The Green Iguana is a protected animal listed under the Second Schedule of the Trinidad and Tobago Wildlife Laws (GORTT 1961 ), thus wild, free roaming specimens were trapped from various locations from across Trinidad and Tobago with the approval and assistance of the Wildlife Section, Ministry of Agriculture, Land & Fisheries in collaboration with the Hunting Association of Trinidad and Tobago (Fig. 1 ). A total of fifty-two faecal samples were collected from both wild, free roaming (n = 26) and captive (n = 26) populations of adult Green iguana, at least 1.2 metres in length. Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers located in Trinidad and Tobago were also utilised for sampling of both wild and captive specimens. An iguana kept in captivity for a minimum of 6 months was considered to be “captive”. Most of the captive iguanas utilized for this study were kept in constant captivity under caged conditions, as single pets and fed a diet of mixed fruit and vegetables often supplemented with cat or dog chow by pet owners. Only one owner kept a colony of iguanas and that was on the island of Tobago (Signal Hill, Tobago). Animal Processing and Collection of Samples Each animal was visually observed before samples were collected to determine health and important vital statistics such as sex and length were noted. Adult male Green iguana specimens at least 0.26 metres in length and adult female Green iguanas no greater than 0.29 metres when measured from snout to vent, were used in this study (Campos and Desbiez 2013 ). Visible signs of sexual dimorphism were also used as an indication of maturity in this species (Campos and Desbiez 2013 ; Rivera-Correa 2013 ). All samples were collected via non-invasive collection of already formed faecal matter. Wild Green iguana specimens were trapped by licensed hunters and placed in individual wire cages. If free-formed faecal matter was not obtained in 48 hours, the animal was held for an additional 24 hours for observation then released. Captive held Green iguana samples were collected under the supervision of their owners, who contacted the researcher when fresh free-formed faecal matter was available for collection. Samples were labelled, stored and transported on ice, they were then analysed within 24–48 hours of collection (Šlapeta et al. 2018 ). Laboratory Analysis Faecal flotation utilizing Willis’s technique (Levitation Flotation) was used for parasite identification (Willis 1921 ). Briefly, 3 g of faeces and 45mls of saturated salt (NaCl) solution was followed by micrometry (Figueiredo et al. 2018 ). Parasite identification was based on size, shape and internal structure of eggs, oocysts and larval stages (Sloss and Kemp 1978 ). Slides were first observed under the microscope under x10 magnification, and any parasite or egg found was observed and measured under x 40 magnification. All observations were recorded. Statistical Analysis Data was analysed via the use of descriptive statistics and Chi Square Tests to indicate the gastrointestinal parasitic prevalence, parasitic burden and its relationship between sex and status (captive and wild caught) of I. iguana . 3. Results Three endoparasites were identified using light microscopy namely oxyurid (pinworms), ascarids and tapeworms (Fig. 2 ). Overall, 92.31% of the samples collected from both captive and wild caught iguanas showed the presence of gastrointestinal parasites. Most of the samples with one egg type showed pinworms with the remaining 5.1% identified as ascarids (roundworm). The samples demonstrating two egg types were found to have a mixture of oxyurid and ascarid eggs and oxyurid and tapeworm eggs (Fig. 3 ). Of the samples which were found with one egg type; 48.72% were obtained from captive iguanas and 51.28% were from wild iguanas. Of the samples which showed the presence of no eggs; 75% of these samples were taken from iguanas held in captivity, whilst the remainder were from wild caught iguanas. Pinworm eggs were the most frequently seen gastrointestinal parasite amongst the sample population followed by Ascarid eggs and Tapeworm eggs. There was no difference between the sexes with respect to the presence of pinworm eggs in both groups. Both sexes tested positive for tapeworm and positive for ascarid eggs (Table 1 ). Mite eggs were also observed in two samples, as an incidental finding, as they are not gastrointestinal parasites (Table 1 ). A chi-square test of independence showed that there was no significant association between parasite burden and status X 2 (N = 52) = 0.748, p = 0.19 and no significant relationship between parasite burden and sex X 2 (N = 52) = 2.073, p = 0.07. Table 1 Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Iguana iguana (Captive vs. Wild, Male vs. Female). Egg Type Status Captive (N = 26) Wild (N = 26) Female (N = 26) Male (N = 26) Total (N = 52) Percentage (%) Ascarid Present 5 3 5 3 8 15.4 Absent 21 23 21 23 44 84.6 Oxyurid Present 21 25 23 23 46 88.5 Absent 5 1 3 3 6 11.5 Tapeworm Present 1 2 2 1 3 5.8 Absent 25 24 24 25 49 94.2 Mite Present 2 0 0 2 2 3.8 Absent 24 26 26 24 50 96.2 4. Discussion Parasites compete with their hosts for resources; it has been evidenced that parasites affect host population growth and regulation, spatial distribution, individual reproductive success and sexual selection. Prevalence of parasitic infections provide a first approach to understand the impact of parasites on a natural population (Amo et al. 2005 ). Parasitic infection is usually inferred indirectly by measuring the types and abundance of parasites present in a host population. Three metrics are commonly used to quantify infection: diversity, prevalence and intensity (Shaw et al. 2018 ). This study investigated the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive and wild free roaming Iguana iguana in Trinidad and Tobago using coproparasitological examination. It further provided information on the diversity and prevalence of parasites and noted the difference in parasite burden with respect to sex and status (captive or wild caught) using the non-invasive method of faecal flotation. This study demonstrated that the Green iguana in Trinidad and Tobago was host to a number of endoparasites. It further showed that no particular type of endoparasite was found exclusively within the captive or wild populations, nor was there a difference between the sexes of the local Green iguana. The sample populations of Iguana iguana from this study demonstrated two nematodes; oxyurids and ascarids and one cestode (tapeworm). Nematode presence is fairly common in Iguanids being identified in recent studies conducted on the Blue Iguana ( Cyclura lewisi ) in the Grand Cayman Islands (Maurer et al. 2020 ) and the Green iguana ( Iguana iguana ) in Piauí, Brazil (Otávio et al. 2018 ). Like these studies nematodes were one of the most common gastrointestinal parasites found in this research. Unlike Maurer et al’s 2020 study however, this study was unable to identify trichomonads, and amoebae which were also identified in the faecal samples of the Caribbean Blue iguana. The majority of the population regardless of sex, or captive vs wild status showed only one type of nematode parasite egg present, most of these were identified as oxyurids, and the remainder were ascarids. A high Oxyuridae presence was also found in (Amaral et al. 2021 ) captive leopard geckoes study with 93,3% of the samples presenting oxyurid eggs and in (Otávio et al. 2018 )’s wild I. iguana studies. No clinical signs of gastrointestinal endoparasitism was noted in this study and this may be due to pinworms being described as less pathogenic nematodes and commonly existing in reptiles in large numbers (Machin 2015 ). For those species with two egg parasite species coexisting oxyurids and ascarids were often seen in the sample population. Previous work though dated on various reptiles in Trinidad, demonstrated the presence of various nematodes and a cestode in other local lizards such as the South American ground lizard ( Ameiba ameiva ) and a single nematode family in the Golden Tegu ( Tupinambis teguixin ) (Everard 1975 ). A small number of the sample iguana population also demonstrated eggs from the phylum Platyhelminthes, specifically tapeworm eggs which were also very few (1 to 2) eggs seen in the positive samples. Reptile tapeworms, are not host specific and require one or more intermediate hosts in order to complete their life cycle (Machin 2015 ). Infected reptiles may be asymptomatic or show clinical signs of endoparasitism such as lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea, debilitation and obstruction (Machin 2015 ). The lack of an observed effect of infection by intestinal parasites on body condition in the current study, suggests the stability of the parasite-host interactions (Amo et al. 2005 ) in the Green Iguana population in Trinidad and Tobago, but this will require further study to be fully supported. It was interesting to note that mite eggs, which are not part of the gastrointestinal fauna, were found in a few of the samples. The presence of mite eggs is not an uncommon phenomena as mites are common ectoparasites of Green iguana especially Hirstiella mites (Cervone et al. 2016 ). Mite eggs were identified Rom et al. ( 2018 ) in twelve percent of the lizards examined inclusive of the Green iguana and Rataj et al. ( 2011 ) also demonstrated eggs of mites known as the Trombiculid mites in another lizard, the Tokay Gecko. The mite eggs observed may have been introduced due to the environmental conditions (Machin 2015 ) in which the iguanas were kept, as ectoparasites such as ticks and mites are rarely found in Green iguanas (Fowler and Cubas 2001 ). Both samples which tested positive for mite eggs, were from iguanas kept in captivity. Wild iguanids are able to traverse larger land spaces, consume a varied diet of their choice including their selection of water sources and carry out courting and mating rituals, all of which can expose them to a greater diversity of parasites and provides greater opportunity for parasite inoculations (Maurer et al. 2020 ). However, this study did not indicate a higher parasite load in comparison to captive specimens as Maurer et al’s 2020 study indiated, it was interesting to note however that the reports of ectoparasites such as mites both came from captive specimens versus the wild free roaming iguanas used in this study. Internal and external parasites are commonly found in captive and wild caught reptiles (Šlapeta et al. 2018 ), and endoparasites have been found to be an important cause of disease in captive reptiles (Pasmans et al. 2008 ). The diversity of parasites seen in this investigation was similar for both captive and wild iguanids. The majority of the samples that tested positive for pinworms were from wild iguanas. Pinworms are frequently present in the lower gastrointestinal tract of herbivorous reptiles such as lizards (Šlapeta et al. 2018 ) which includes Iguanidae. The presence of pinworms is considered to be beneficial to the host as it improves the passage of ingesta through the intestinal tract of the reptile. As such, the complete removal of pinworms may negatively affect digestion in lizards (Šlapeta et al. 2018 ). Most of the wild Green iguana faecal samples obtained from various locations in Trinidad and Tobago, tested positive for the presence of pinworm eggs. This high prevalence was also observed in previous studies done on wild Green iguana in Brazil (Breves et al. 2011 ; Brito et al. 2014 ; Prado et al. 2018 ; Teles et al. 2016 ) and Singapore (Kwak et al. 2020 ). Parasites are a major component of all animal populations. Males and females often differ in their levels of parasite prevalence potentially leading to sex differences in the impact of parasitism on fitness (Hicks et al. 2019 ). In this study there was no significant relationship between parasite burden and sex was found. This is consistent with similar studies on iguanas (Amo et al. 2005 ; Maurer et al. 2020 ; Teles et al. 2016 ; Vrcibradic et al. 2007 ). With respect to ascarids and tapeworms, all of the male samples which tested positive were kept in captivity. Whilst over seventy percent of the positive females were wild caught. This is possibly due to the fact that females in the wild dig nests, therefore exposing themselves intimately to surface and subsurface soil which is not seen with males in the wild. Additionally, female cyclic nutritional reserve depletion related to egg production and oviposition, that may have included a degree of immunosuppression, increases the chances of infection (Maurer et al. 2020 ). The parasite prevalence in the wild iguanids can be attributed to the variability of the host diet, availability of intermediate host and host behaviour which may have a direct effect on parasite transmission (Elmahy and Harras 2019 ) and the ability to cover a greater area (Maurer et al. 2020 ). Conclusion The study of the relationship between parasites and their host populations is essential for understanding their role in the hosts population dynamics and ecology (Amo et al. 2005 ). Apart from the host’s population dynamics, this type of study can also provide important information of the health of the local Green iguana species and the local wildlife population in general. The results obtained in this study show that helminths; nematodes; oxyurid and ascarid family as well as cestodes are common gastrointestinal parasites in both the captive and wild adult Green iguana population. The study also indicated that there was no significant relationship between parasite burden and status as well as parasite burden and sex in adult Green Iguana in Trinidad and Tobago. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Ethics approval and consent to participate The above study was approved by the Campus Research and Ethics Committee, The University of the West Indies Ref: CREC-SA.1224/11/2021 according to the ethical principles of animal research. Approval and support for collection of wild and captive specimens was obtained in accordance with the rules and legislation through the Wildlife Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land & Fisheries, the government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the agency tasked with wildlife protection in Trinidad and Tobago. A special game licence was obtained from the Wildlife Section for the capture and release of wild iguanas for this research during the open hunting season. Informed consent was obtained from all owners of the captive iguanas. Consent for publication Not Applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding The authors received no specific funding for this work. Authors' contributions WG is the main researcher and collected the samples, analysed the data, performed the analyses and assisted with writing the paper. LT contributed to the study design and writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Game wardens from the Forestry Division, Wildlife Section for their assistance in physical data accumulation and the staff from the Parasitology laboratory in the Faculty of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex, Mt. Hope, Trinidad for their assistance with lab analysis. References Amaral CB, Alves ACC, Peroba SC, Martins IVF (2021) Coproparasitologic survey of gastrointestinal parasites in a captive leopard geckos collection (Eublepharis macularius). Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 26:100617 Amo L, Fargallo J, Martinez-Padilla J, Millán J, López P, Martín J (2005) Prevalence and intensity of blood and intestinal parasites in a field population of a Mediterranean lizard, Lacerta lepida. 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Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 56(1):1-13 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editor assigned by journal 10 Jul, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Jul, 2024 First submitted to journal 06 Jul, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4698108","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":324989187,"identity":"291753cc-d968-4765-bcee-e59a4f21b587","order_by":0,"name":"Waheeda. K. Gafoor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of the West Indies, St Augustine","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Waheeda.","middleName":"K.","lastName":"Gafoor","suffix":""},{"id":324989188,"identity":"177b3885-0d4f-45ac-83da-09dd4ec40d8d","order_by":1,"name":"Laura Tardieu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPjDJJsHAwN4DZvLwEdLCxsAM1cJzhoHhAJBiI1ILEEvkgLUwEKGF/+DnijILOYObbw8+/phjJwM05OGjG/htYZY8c07C2OB2XrLBwW3JQIexGRvnEHCYZGObROKG2zlmEge3MQO18LBJE9DC/BOopX7DzTMgLfVEaWED2ZJgcIMHpOUwUVrMLBvOSRjOPJNjbHB223EeNmYCfuFnYHx8s6GsTp7v+BnDB5Xbqu352ZsfPsanhUH+AboIMz7lo2AUjIJRMAqIAgCOfj0ALGVuHgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"The University of the West Indies, St Augustine","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Laura","middleName":"","lastName":"Tardieu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-06 20:29:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":62156086,"identity":"baba3cc8-888e-456a-9712-723ece7d6538","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-09 21:07:47","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":30413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Trinidad and Tobago showing sampling locations of wild and captive Green Iguana\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4698108/v1/ba34d86c1e5ae76211174c6c.png"},{"id":62156084,"identity":"f0bced62-5260-4fce-a7c4-1ecb5d3d6e18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-09 21:07:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":276357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParasite eggs isolated from Iguana iguana A. Tapeworm egg (unidentified species) found in wild female B. Ascarid eggs (unidentified species) found in captive female; C. Oxyurid egg(unidentified species) found in captive male. Magnification x40.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4698108/v1/b6369bdc72c4054b19f2fb72.png"},{"id":62156085,"identity":"0dbcd964-c8f9-488d-a8dd-89d562f41fac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-09 21:07:47","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24346,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiversity of parasites in captive Green iguana and wild Green iguana in Trinidad and Tobago\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4698108/v1/d29f15f1eb56b43002b91e84.png"},{"id":62157226,"identity":"9a267758-6a53-4911-a49f-590647bfbe23","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-09 21:15:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":774976,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4698108/v1/7274a35e-27ef-4fb2-8582-0e0bfd6e5174.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eCoproparasitological survey on Gastrointestinal Parasites in wild and Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) of Trinidad and Tobago.\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eReptiles are known to harbour a broad spectrum of internal parasites including a wide variety of protozoal, nematode, cestode, trematode, pentastomid and acanthocephan species (Wolf et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Parasitological studies on the popular wild and captive reptilian lizard the Green iguana, \u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e have found this species to be host to a wide variety of different endoparasites including nematodes (Breves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Lopes et al. 2009; Ot\u0026aacute;vio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) trematodes (\u0026Aacute;vila and Da Silva \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Teles et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e); cestodes (\u0026Aacute;vila and Silva \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and helminthic parasites known as oxyurids (Breves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile \u0026Aacute;vila and Silva in their 2010 helminth checklist listed 12 different helminth species hosted by \u003cem\u003eI.\u003c/em\u003e iguana from South America. \u003cem\u003eAlaeuris spp. and Ozolaimus spp\u003c/em\u003e. have been identified as two of the most common gastrointestinal parasitic nematode species of the South American wild (Teles et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), and captive \u003cem\u003eI. iguana\u003c/em\u003e (Ch\u0026aacute;vez C et al. 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a wild animal that is being kept in captivity and therefore coming into greater contact with humans in the region of South America and the Caribbean (Garc\u0026iacute;a-Quijano et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), greater attention needs to be given toward understanding the Green iguanas role as a reservoir of zoonotic and parasitic diseases. Additionally, the study of parasites, particularly gastrointestinal parasites of this species, will not only aide in providing greater knowledge about the parasitic fauna and its impacts on humans and the host species, but can also serve as a means of wildlife conservation and maintenance of biodiversity in the region (Thompson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the important methods to study parasitic fauna that is easily adopted, quick, affordable and non-invasive are coproparasitological studies. This involves the examination of the faeces of the hosts and searching for parasite eggs or other evidence or parasite infestation. This type of studies can prove to be significant in describing the parasitic profile of lizards and iguanas (Amaral et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Although caution must be taken given that this method cannot detect all parasites (Jorge et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Trinidad and Tobago, the Green iguana is a popular \u0026lsquo;wildlife\u0026rsquo; species as demonstrated by the increased interest in the reptile for the pet trade, farming and consumption as a wild meat (Nanton \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Yet little parasitological investigations or coproparasitological studies have been done on the Caribbean \u003cem\u003eI. iguana\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e helminthological fauna. The objective of this study was therefore to conduct a coprological survey to investigate the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in the faeces of captive and wild caught Green iguanas in Trinidad and Tobago.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study areas\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Green Iguana is a protected animal listed under the Second Schedule of the Trinidad and Tobago Wildlife Laws (GORTT \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e), thus wild, free roaming specimens were trapped from various locations from across Trinidad and Tobago with the approval and assistance of the Wildlife Section, Ministry of Agriculture, Land \u0026amp; Fisheries in collaboration with the Hunting Association of Trinidad and Tobago (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). A total of fifty-two faecal samples were collected from both wild, free roaming (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) and captive (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) populations of adult Green iguana, at least 1.2 metres in length. Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers located in Trinidad and Tobago were also utilised for sampling of both wild and captive specimens. An iguana kept in captivity for a minimum of 6 months was considered to be \u0026ldquo;captive\u0026rdquo;. Most of the captive iguanas utilized for this study were kept in constant captivity under caged conditions, as single pets and fed a diet of mixed fruit and vegetables often supplemented with cat or dog chow by pet owners. Only one owner kept a colony of iguanas and that was on the island of Tobago (Signal Hill, Tobago).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAnimal Processing and Collection of Samples\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach animal was visually observed before samples were collected to determine health and important vital statistics such as sex and length were noted. Adult male Green iguana specimens at least 0.26 metres in length and adult female Green iguanas no greater than 0.29 metres when measured from snout to vent, were used in this study (Campos and Desbiez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Visible signs of sexual dimorphism were also used as an indication of maturity in this species (Campos and Desbiez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Rivera-Correa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll samples were collected via non-invasive collection of already formed faecal matter. Wild Green iguana specimens were trapped by licensed hunters and placed in individual wire cages. If free-formed faecal matter was not obtained in 48 hours, the animal was held for an additional 24 hours for observation then released. Captive held Green iguana samples were collected under the supervision of their owners, who contacted the researcher when fresh free-formed faecal matter was available for collection. Samples were labelled, stored and transported on ice, they were then analysed within 24\u0026ndash;48 hours of collection (Šlapeta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLaboratory Analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaecal flotation utilizing Willis\u0026rsquo;s technique (Levitation Flotation) was used for parasite identification (Willis \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1921\u003c/span\u003e). Briefly, 3 g of faeces and 45mls of saturated salt (NaCl) solution was followed by micrometry (Figueiredo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Parasite identification was based on size, shape and internal structure of eggs, oocysts and larval stages (Sloss and Kemp \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). Slides were first observed under the microscope under x10 magnification, and any parasite or egg found was observed and measured under x 40 magnification. All observations were recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was analysed via the use of descriptive statistics and Chi Square Tests to indicate the gastrointestinal parasitic prevalence, parasitic burden and its relationship between sex and status (captive and wild caught) of \u003cem\u003eI. iguana\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThree endoparasites were identified using light microscopy namely oxyurid (pinworms), ascarids and tapeworms (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, 92.31% of the samples collected from both captive and wild caught iguanas showed the presence of gastrointestinal parasites. Most of the samples with one egg type showed pinworms with the remaining 5.1% identified as ascarids (roundworm). The samples demonstrating two egg types were found to have a mixture of oxyurid and ascarid eggs and oxyurid and tapeworm eggs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the samples which were found with one egg type; 48.72% were obtained from captive iguanas and 51.28% were from wild iguanas. Of the samples which showed the presence of no eggs; 75% of these samples were taken from iguanas held in captivity, whilst the remainder were from wild caught iguanas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePinworm eggs were the most frequently seen gastrointestinal parasite amongst the sample population followed by Ascarid eggs and Tapeworm eggs. There was no difference between the sexes with respect to the presence of pinworm eggs in both groups. Both sexes tested positive for tapeworm and positive for ascarid eggs (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMite eggs were also observed in two samples, as an incidental finding, as they are not gastrointestinal parasites (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA chi-square test of independence showed that there was no significant association between parasite burden and status X\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.748, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19 and no significant relationship between parasite burden and sex X\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.073, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.07.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in \u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e (Captive vs. Wild, Male vs. Female).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEgg Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaptive (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWild (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAscarid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxyurid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTapeworm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eParasites compete with their hosts for resources; it has been evidenced that parasites affect host population growth and regulation, spatial distribution, individual reproductive success and sexual selection. Prevalence of parasitic infections provide a first approach to understand the impact of parasites on a natural population (Amo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Parasitic infection is usually inferred indirectly by measuring the types and abundance of parasites present in a host population. Three metrics are commonly used to quantify infection: diversity, prevalence and intensity (Shaw et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive and wild free roaming \u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e in Trinidad and Tobago using coproparasitological examination. It further provided information on the diversity and prevalence of parasites and noted the difference in parasite burden with respect to sex and status (captive or wild caught) using the non-invasive method of faecal flotation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrated that the Green iguana in Trinidad and Tobago was host to a number of endoparasites. It further showed that no particular type of endoparasite was found exclusively within the captive or wild populations, nor was there a difference between the sexes of the local Green iguana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample populations of \u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e from this study demonstrated two nematodes; oxyurids and ascarids and one cestode (tapeworm). Nematode presence is fairly common in Iguanids being identified in recent studies conducted on the Blue Iguana (\u003cem\u003eCyclura lewisi\u003c/em\u003e) in the Grand Cayman Islands (Maurer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and the Green iguana (\u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e) in Piauí, Brazil (Otávio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Like these studies nematodes were one of the most common gastrointestinal parasites found in this research. Unlike Maurer et al’s \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e study however, this study was unable to identify trichomonads, and amoebae which were also identified in the faecal samples of the Caribbean Blue iguana.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the population regardless of sex, or captive vs wild status showed only one type of nematode parasite egg present, most of these were identified as oxyurids, and the remainder were ascarids. A high Oxyuridae presence was also found in (Amaral et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) captive leopard geckoes study with 93,3% of the samples presenting oxyurid eggs and in (Otávio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)’s wild \u003cem\u003eI. iguana\u003c/em\u003e studies. No clinical signs of gastrointestinal endoparasitism was noted in this study and this may be due to pinworms being described as less pathogenic nematodes and commonly existing in reptiles in large numbers (Machin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor those species with two egg parasite species coexisting oxyurids and ascarids were often seen in the sample population. Previous work though dated on various reptiles in Trinidad, demonstrated the presence of various nematodes and a cestode in other local lizards such as the South American ground lizard (\u003cem\u003eAmeiba ameiva\u003c/em\u003e) and a single nematode family in the Golden Tegu (\u003cem\u003eTupinambis teguixin\u003c/em\u003e) (Everard \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA small number of the sample iguana population also demonstrated eggs from the phylum Platyhelminthes, specifically tapeworm eggs which were also very few (1 to 2) eggs seen in the positive samples. Reptile tapeworms, are not host specific and require one or more intermediate hosts in order to complete their life cycle (Machin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Infected reptiles may be asymptomatic or show clinical signs of endoparasitism such as lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea, debilitation and obstruction (Machin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of an observed effect of infection by intestinal parasites on body condition in the current study, suggests the stability of the parasite-host interactions (Amo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) in the Green Iguana population in Trinidad and Tobago, but this will require further study to be fully supported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was interesting to note that mite eggs, which are not part of the gastrointestinal fauna, were found in a few of the samples. The presence of mite eggs is not an uncommon phenomena as mites are common ectoparasites of Green iguana especially \u003cem\u003eHirstiella\u003c/em\u003e mites (Cervone et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Mite eggs were identified Rom et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) in twelve percent of the lizards examined inclusive of the Green iguana and Rataj et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) also demonstrated eggs of mites known as the Trombiculid mites in another lizard, the Tokay Gecko.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mite eggs observed may have been introduced due to the environmental conditions (Machin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) in which the iguanas were kept, as ectoparasites such as ticks and mites are rarely found in Green iguanas (Fowler and Cubas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Both samples which tested positive for mite eggs, were from iguanas kept in captivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWild iguanids are able to traverse larger land spaces, consume a varied diet of their choice including their selection of water sources and carry out courting and mating rituals, all of which can expose them to a greater diversity of parasites and provides greater opportunity for parasite inoculations (Maurer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, this study did not indicate a higher parasite load in comparison to captive specimens as Maurer et al’s \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e study indiated, it was interesting to note however that the reports of ectoparasites such as mites both came from captive specimens versus the wild free roaming iguanas used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal and external parasites are commonly found in captive and wild caught reptiles (Šlapeta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and endoparasites have been found to be an important cause of disease in captive reptiles (Pasmans et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The diversity of parasites seen in this investigation was similar for both captive and wild iguanids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the samples that tested positive for pinworms were from wild iguanas. Pinworms are frequently present in the lower gastrointestinal tract of herbivorous reptiles such as lizards (Šlapeta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) which includes Iguanidae. The presence of pinworms is considered to be beneficial to the host as it improves the passage of ingesta through the intestinal tract of the reptile. As such, the complete removal of pinworms may negatively affect digestion in lizards (Šlapeta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the wild Green iguana faecal samples obtained from various locations in Trinidad and Tobago, tested positive for the presence of pinworm eggs. This high prevalence was also observed in previous studies done on wild Green iguana in Brazil (Breves et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Brito et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Prado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Teles et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Singapore (Kwak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasites are a major component of all animal populations. Males and females often differ in their levels of parasite prevalence potentially leading to sex differences in the impact of parasitism on fitness (Hicks et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In this study there was no significant relationship between parasite burden and sex was found. This is consistent with similar studies on iguanas (Amo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Maurer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Teles et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Vrcibradic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to ascarids and tapeworms, all of the male samples which tested positive were kept in captivity. Whilst over seventy percent of the positive females were wild caught. This is possibly due to the fact that females in the wild dig nests, therefore exposing themselves intimately to surface and subsurface soil which is not seen with males in the wild. Additionally, female cyclic nutritional reserve depletion related to egg production and oviposition, that may have included a degree of immunosuppression, increases the chances of infection (Maurer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The parasite prevalence in the wild iguanids can be attributed to the variability of the host diet, availability of intermediate host and host behaviour which may have a direct effect on parasite transmission (Elmahy and Harras \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and the ability to cover a greater area (Maurer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study of the relationship between parasites and their host populations is essential for understanding their role in the hosts population dynamics and ecology (Amo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Apart from the host’s population dynamics, this type of study can also provide important information of the health of the local Green iguana species and the local wildlife population in general. The results obtained in this study show that helminths; nematodes; oxyurid and ascarid family as well as cestodes are common gastrointestinal parasites in both the captive and wild adult Green iguana population. The study also indicated that there was no significant relationship between parasite burden and status as well as parasite burden and sex in adult Green Iguana in Trinidad and Tobago.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe above study was approved by the Campus Research and Ethics Committee, The University of the West Indies Ref: CREC-SA.1224/11/2021 according to the ethical principles of animal research. Approval and support for collection of wild and captive specimens was obtained in accordance with the rules and legislation through the Wildlife Section, Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land \u0026amp; Fisheries, the government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the agency tasked with wildlife protection in Trinidad and Tobago. A special game licence was obtained from the Wildlife Section for the capture and release of wild iguanas for this research during the open hunting season. Informed consent was obtained from all owners of the captive iguanas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no specific funding for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWG is the main researcher and collected the samples, analysed the data, performed the analyses and assisted with writing the paper. LT contributed to the study design and writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to acknowledge the Game wardens from the Forestry Division, Wildlife Section for their assistance in physical data accumulation and the staff from the Parasitology laboratory in the Faculty of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex, Mt. Hope, Trinidad for their assistance with lab analysis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmaral CB, Alves ACC, Peroba SC, Martins IVF (2021) Coproparasitologic survey of gastrointestinal parasites in a captive leopard geckos collection (Eublepharis macularius). Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports 26:100617 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmo L, Fargallo J, Martinez-Padilla J, Mill\u0026aacute;n J, L\u0026oacute;pez P, Mart\u0026iacute;n J (2005) Prevalence and intensity of blood and intestinal parasites in a field population of a Mediterranean lizard, Lacerta lepida. Parasitology Research 96:413-417 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026Aacute;vila R, Silva R (2010) Checklist of helminths from lizards and amphisbaenians (Reptilia, Squamata) of South America. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 16:543-572 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026Aacute;vila RW, Da Silva RJ (2011) Helminths of lizards (Reptilia: Squamata) from Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Comparative Parasitology 78(1):129-139 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBreves P, Porto M, Pissinatti A, Luz D, Menezes R (2011) Helmintos oxiuridae parasitos de Iguana iguana (Squamata, Lacertilia, Iguanidae) procedentes do Brasil. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterin\u0026aacute;ria e Zootecnia 63:1574-1578 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrito S, et al. (2014) Phylogeny and micro-habitats utilized by lizards determine the composition of their endoparasites in the semiarid Caatinga of Northeast Brazil. Parasitology Research 113:3963-3972 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCampos Z, Desbiez AL (2013) Structure of size and reproduction of green iguanas (Iguana iguana) in the Brazilian Pantanal. Reptiles \u0026amp; Amphibians 20(2):75-78 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCervone M, Fichi G, Lami A, Lanza A, Damiani GM, Perrucci S (2016) Internal and external parasitic infections of pet reptiles in Italy. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 26(3-4):122-130 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCh\u0026aacute;vez C L, Serrano-Mart\u0026iacute;nez E, Tantale\u0026aacute;n V M, Quispe H M, Casas V GC (2015) Gastrointestinal parasites in captive reptiles in Metropolitan Lima. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eElmahy R, Harras S (2019) Gastrointestinal helminths of lizards (Reptilia: Squamata) from Egypt. Parasitologists United Journal 12(2):139-146 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEverard CO (1975) Endoparasites of some Amphibia, reptiles and small mammals from Trinidad. Living World, Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists\u0026apos; Club \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFigueiredo M, Manrique W, Nogueira R (2018) Survey of gastrointestinal parasites of the center for screening of wild animals from S\u0026atilde;o Lu\u0026iacute;s, Maranh\u0026atilde;o State, Brazil. 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Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 56(1):1-13\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasitology-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pare","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasitology Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/436)","snPcode":"436","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/436/3","title":"Parasitology Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Ascarids, Pinworms, Endoparasites, Iguana, Neo-Tropics, Parasites","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe Green iguana (\u003cem\u003eIguana iguana\u003c/em\u003e) is a popular wildlife species in the LAC region and similar to other reptiles, it has been recognized as being host of various parasites and diseases. Despite this significance, few studies address and coproparasitology and epidemiology of these species in the Caribbean region. This study investigates the presence of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in both captive and wild Green iguana populations in Trinidad and Tobago. A total of 52 faecal samples were obtained from wild (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) and captive (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) iguana populations across both islands and then analysed for parasite egg presence. Results indicate no significant difference between the captive status and sex for parasite load and diversity between captive and wild iguanas. Overall, most individuals exhibited two types of parasite egg in their faeces (Oxyurids and Ascarids), with three distinct parasite egg types identified (Ascarids, Oxyurids and Tapeworms). This study reveals the parasite load and diversity of GI parasites in Trinidad and Tobago iguana populations, offering insights crucial for wildlife disease and conservation management in the region.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Coproparasitological survey on Gastrointestinal Parasites in wild and Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) of Trinidad and Tobago.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-09 21:07:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4698108/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-10T04:53:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-07-10T03:21:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Parasitology Research","date":"2024-07-06T20:27:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"parasitology-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pare","sideBox":"Learn more about [Parasitology Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/436)","snPcode":"436","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/436/3","title":"Parasitology Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"45545007-896c-4b9f-92b3-0e251b3a71eb","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 9th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-08-09T21:07:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-09 21:07:42","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4698108","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4698108","identity":"rs-4698108","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}