Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From Urine of University of Abuja Female Students

Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From Urine of University of Abuja Female Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From Urine of University of Abuja Female Students Oladele Faridah Okikiola, Joy Chinyere Ogbu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common bacterial infections, often caused by various pathogenic microorganisms. This study investigated the prevalence and distribution of bacterial isolates in urine samples, focusing on their identification and potential clinical significance. A total of 30 urine samples were analyzed, revealing that E scherichia coli was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (23.3%), Proteus mirabilis (16.6%) and Staphylococcus saprophyticus (13.3%). The total bacteria loads ranged from 2.9×10 4 to 6.3×10 5 Cfu/mL and the coliform counts observed ranged from 2.1×10 3 to 3.9×10 3 . The predominance of Gram-negative bacteria, particularly E. coli , highlights its role as a primary etiological agent in UTIs. Staphylococcus saprophyticus , although less frequent, confirms its significance in urinary infections, especially among young females. These findings emphasizes the importance of regular microbiological surveillance, proper hygiene practices, and effective infection control measures. Immunology Applied & Industrial Microbiology General Microbiology Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns Urine University of Abuja Female Gram-negative INTRODUCTION The urinary system also known as the urinary tract or renal system is a system that consist of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, which primarily filters blood by eliminating waste materials and excess water (Sabih and Leslie, 2023). The urinary system removes metabolic waste materials from the circulation. In healthy persons, urine is either sterile or contains very few bacteria which can cause an infection called Urinary tract infection (UTIs) (Dickson et al ., 2024). Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infections affecting individuals globally having a significant impact on public health. It occurs when pathogens, predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, invade parts of the urinary system, including the urethra, bladder, ureters, or kidneys (Mancuso et al ., 2023). These bacteria, including Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa , are responsible for the majority of both community-acquired and healthcare-associated UTIs (Flores-Mireles et al ., 2015). The high prevalence of UTIs is associated with several risk factors which include age, sex, urinary tract abnormalities, catheterization, and immune system status (Sabih et al ., 2023). Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are mostly common bacterial infections in women, with half of all women experiencing at least one in their lifetime (Medina and Castillo-Pino, 2019). Women are particularly susceptible to UTIs, with studies indicating that approximately 50% of women will experience at least one UTI in their lifetime (Foxman, 2014). The anatomical proximity of the female urethra to the anus facilitates the colonization of the urinary tract by Gram-negative bacteria, which predominantly reside in the gastrointestinal tract (Flores-Mireles et al ., 2015). Most UTIs in women, which are episodes of acute uncomplicated cystitis occurring in women of childbearing age, may not be considered serious but significantly affect the patient’s quality of life by causing an estimated six days of discomfort (Colgan, and Williams, 2011). Approximately 95% of UTIs are caused by bacteria going up the urethra to the bladder or, in the case of pyelonephritis, ascending the ureter to the kidney (Murray et al ., 2021). In rare cases, hematogenous UTI can arise when the pathogen enters the urinary system through the circulation from a distant source of infection, such as the lungs in a pneumonia patient (Flores-Mireles et al ., 2015). Several risk factors for UTIs include frequent sexual intercourse, a lack of urination following sexual intercourse, several sexual partners, the use of a diaphragm or spermicide, a history of recurrent UTIs, and the presence of a UTI in a first-degree female relative (Dickson et al ., 2024). The increasing incidence of antibiotic resistance among Gram-negative bacteria poses a significant challenge in the treatment of UTIs especially with Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria becoming more common, which makes treating UTIs extremely difficult and increases the risk of treatment failure, extended hospital stays, and higher medical expenses (Gupta et al ., 2011). Gram-negative bacteria's growing resistance to widely prescribed antibiotics continues to jeopardize the efficacious treatment of UTIs, notwithstanding improvements in diagnostic methods (Zowawi et al ., 2015). Treatment decisions based on local antimicrobial susceptibility data are crucial to the current guidelines for managing UTIs (Hooton, 2012). MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials and reagents Culture Media : Nutrient agar, MacConkey agar and Eosin-methylene blue agar. Glass wares: Petri dishes, microscopic slides, cover slips, test tubes, pipettes. Reagents: Buffered peptone water, distilled water, hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). Culture Media and Preparation All media were prepared in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. Media used included MacConkey agar, Nutrient agar, and Eosin-methylene blue agar. They were autoclaved at 121 o C for 15 minutes. The cooled media were poured into Petri dishes and then allowed to cool and solidify. These were used for the isolation, identification, growth and maintenance of microorganisms. Nutrient agar Exactly 5.6g of Nutrient agar was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask, then 200mL of water were added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclaved at 121 o C for 15minutes. The medium was then allowed to cool to 45 o C – 50 o C and aseptically dispensed into sterile petri dishes on flat surface of the laboratory bench and allowed to solidify. MacConkey agar A 5.6g was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask. 100mL of water was added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclave at 121 o C for 15 minutes. The medium was then allowed for some seconds before being poured aseptically into a sterile Petri dish. The medium was then allowed to cool and solidify on the media at 45 o C - 50 o C on the laboratory bench before use. Eosin-methylene blue agar Exactly 3.6g of Eosin-methylene blue agar was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask. 100mL of water was added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclave at 121 o C for 15 minutes. The medium were allowed to cool to 45 o C-50 o C before being poured aseptically into sterile Petri dishes. The medium was then allowed to cool and solidify on the laboratory bench before use. Study A rea The study was conducted in the University of Abuja which is located in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria. Geographically, it is located between latitude 9.0765 o N and longitude 7.3986 o E. In terms of its physical space, the University of Abuja covers an area of approximately 11,824 hectares (29,181 acres) and it is situated on the plains of the Guinean savannah in central Nigeria. Sample collection A total of thirty (30) urine samples were collected from female students at the University of Abuja female hostel. These samples were collected in sterile, screw-capped containers and transported to the Microbiological Laboratory in the University of Abuja within one hour of collection and processed within four hours to maintain the viability of the organisms. To preserve samples not being able to process within 2 hours for spoilage, preservatives such as boric acid or formalin were added and the samples were refrigerated at 2-8 o C to preserve chemical components for up to 24 hours. Sample Processing for Microbial Analysis Serial Dilution Three (3) test tubes were used, 9ml of distilled water were poured into each test tube using a syringe that were sterilized in between by putting the needle over a Bunsen burner and waving it gently to reduce the heat. 1ml of each of the urine samples were poured into the first test tube (10 -1 ), the test tube is swirled gently to enable the distilled water and the sample mix properly. One ml (1ml) of the mixture were taken from the test tube and added to the next test tube (10 -2 )another one ml (1ml) were taken from the second test tube and added to the last test tube(10 -3 ). Spread Plate Method The sterilized nutrient agar were poured into three Petri dishes and left to solidify. Using a syringe, 0.1 ML of the sample in the test tubes were dispensed onto the agar plates which were labelled 10 -1 , 10 -2 and 10 -3 respectively. The agar plate were swirled gently to enabled the sample spread evenly on the surface of the agar. A glass spreader were sterilized by passing it through a flame and moving it back and forth. The glass spreader were left to cool down for a few seconds, then it were used to gently spread the sample on the top of the agar plate evenly which helped to improve the growth of individual colonies. The agar plates were kept in the incubator at 37 o C and then observed after 24 hours. Colonies (between 1 and 100) were counted and noted. EMB Streaking Method The sterilized EMB agar was poured into three petri dishes and left to solidify. Using a sterile inoculating loop, the sample in the test tubes were inoculated onto the agar plates by streaking quadrantly on the surface of the agar. The plates were labelled 10 1 - 10 3 respectively and kept in the incubator at 37°C then observed after 24 hours. After 24 hours, the plates were taken out of the incubator and observed for bacteria and coliforms. Subculture onto Nutrient Agar Distinct colonies from nutrient agar plates were sub cultured onto fresh nutrient agar plates, after streaking the urine sample on nutrient agar, plates were incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Colonies appearing on the plate were identified and further characterized. Different types of colonies with varied morphology grown on nutrient agar were used for identification. Colony characteristics such as size, shape, color, and texture were used for preliminary identification of the bacteria. Subculture onto MacConkey Agar Colonies on MacConkey agar were sub cultured onto fresh nutrient agar and incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Lactose fermenters produce Pink to red colonies due to acid production, while non-lactose fermenters produce colorless or pale colonies. Subculture on Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) Agar Colonies from EMB agar were streaked on fresh afar plates and incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Lactose fermenters produced dark purple to black colonies. Strong lactose fermenters show a distinctive green metallic sheen, while non-fermenters produce colorless colonies. Colonies that have a green metallic sheen are indicative of E. coli , while other lactose fermenters may produce dark purple colonies. Non-lactose fermenters will appear as pale or colorless colonies. Identification of Bacteria Morphological Characterisation Gram staining test A loopful of sterile distilled water were placed on a clean, grease-free slide using a sterile inoculating loop. An inoculum from the culture was then mixed with the water on the slide. The smear were allowed to air dry and was then heat-fixed by quickly passing it through a Bunsen flame. The smear were covered with crystal violet solution for 60 seconds and then rinsed with water. It were subsequently flooded with Lugol’s iodine for 30 seconds and rinsed again with water. A 70% alcohol solution were applied to the slide for 15 seconds, or until the crystal violet were completely washed away. The smear was then counterstained with safranin for 60 seconds and allowed to air dry. Finally, the slide were examined under an oil immersion objective. Gram-positive cells appeared purple, while Gram-negative cells appeared red or pink. Biochemical / Confirmatory tests Catalase test Catalase test were carried out for all the bacteria isolates. A drop of hydrogen per oxide were put on a glass slide. Colonies were picked with a sterile loop and added to the drop. Observation were made for bubbles production. Colonies that have catalase are able to break down hydrogen per oxide into water and oxygen, which can be seen in the form of air bubbles leaving the solution. Citrate test Unique colonies were picked during the citrate test with a sterilized loop and streaked across the plates containing citrate media without breaking the agar and then incubated for 24 hours. Data were collected based on color change. Methyl Red Test Five millimeters of glucose phosphate broth (1g glucose, 0.5% KH 2 PO 4 , 0.5% peptone and 100 mL distilled water) was dispensed into a clean test tube and sterilized. The tube was then inoculated with the isolates and incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. At the end of incubation, few drops of methyl red solution was added. This was repeated for each isolate and any color change observed. A red color indicated a positive reaction. Oxidase Test This test was done by dropping 2–5 drops of a freshly prepared oxidase (p- aminodimethylanine) reagent on a filter paper, the suspected organism was picked using a sterile wire loop and mixed with the oxidase reagent. This was repeated for each isolates. A change from the normal color to deep purple means a positive result, while no change meant negative. Indole Test The isolate was inoculated in a test tube containing 3mL of sterile tryptone water. It was then incubated at 37 o C for 24 hours. The test for indole was done by adding 0.5mL of Kovac’s reagent and shaken gently. Then it was examined for a color change. Examination for a red color in the surface of the layer within 10 minutes means positive, while no color change means negative. Antibiotic sensitivity Disc Testing The sensitivity tests were performed by disc diffusion in accordance with the standards of the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the manual of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). A sterile conical flask was filled with 4.5 g of Eosin-methylene blue agar, and 125ml of distilled water was added. The agar was then swirled to dissolve. After being autoclaved, the mixture was put into petri dishes. A colony was chosen from the isolates and placed on the nutrient agar-coated plate. Using sterile forceps, the gram negative antibiotic sensitivity disc was added, inverted and it was then incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. The antibiotics that were intermediately susceptible, resistant, or both were recorded. RESULTS Total Bacterial Load from Urine Samples Table below shows the total bacterial load from thirty (30) urine samples. The total heterotrophic bacterial counts of bacteria isolated from urine samples ranged from the 2.9×10 4 to 6.3×10 5 Cfu/mL while the total coliform count observed ranged from 2.1×10 3 to 3.9×10 3 Total Bacterial Load from Urine Samples Sample No. Total Heterotrophic count (CFU/mL) 10⁴ Coliform Sample (CFU/mL) 10 3 1 3.4 2.4 2 4.6 3.6 3 3.3 2.3 4 4.7 3.7 5 3.1 2.1 6 6.2 3.2 7 3.8 3.8 8 4.1 3.1 9 3.9 2.9 10 5.2 3.2 11 3.5 2.5 12 6.0 3.0 13 2.9 2.9 14 4.5 3.5 15 3.8 3.8 16 5.8 3.8 17 2.7 2.7 18 4.9 3.9 19 3.2 3.2 20 6.1 3.1 21 3.6 3.6 22 5.4 3.4 23 3.4 3.4 24 4.3 3.3 25 3.7 3.7 26 5.9 3.9 27 3.6 3.6 28 4.8 3.8 29 3.0 3.0 30 6.3 3.3 Prevalence of Bacteria Isolates Table below shows the results of the bacterial isolates. Escherichia coli was 26.6% had the most frequency, Pseudomonas aeruginosa with 20% was the second most common isolate, Klebsiella pneumonia had 23.3%, Staphylococcus saprophyticus with 16.6% and Proteus mirabilis 13.3% was the least prevalent isolate. Prevalence of Bacteria Isolates Bacterial Isolate Number of Isolates Percentage Prevalence (%) Escherichia coli 8 26.6% Klebsiella pneumonia 7 23.3% Proteus mirabilis 4 13.3% Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6 20% Staphylococcus saprophyticus 5 16.6% Total 30 100% Colonial Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Bacteria isolates Table below shows the macroscopic characteristics of the bacteria isolates from the 30 urine samples. The shape of the isolates varies with rod-shaped bacteria, cocci, circular and irregular commonly observed. The colour of the colonies ranges from off-white to Grayish white, whitw and yellow with some isolates showing a slight variation. The edge of the colonies are described as either undulate and entire suggesting differences in growth patterns. The consistency of the colonies were mostly moist or sticky gelatinous. The elevation of the colonies is typically raised though some are flat or convex or spreading. The surface characteristics vary from smooth to rough or mucoid differences in the colony texture. Finally the optical characteristics ranges from opaque to translucent indicating variations in light transmission through the colonies between bacterial species. Colonial Morphological and Biochemical C haracteristics of Bacteria isolates Isolate Gram Reaction Shape Elevation Color Surface Edge Consistency Opacity GR IN CA MR CI OX Probable Identities A -ve Circular Slightly raised Grayish-white Smooth Entire Moist Opaque - + + - - - Escherichia coli B -ve Circular Raised Off-white Mucoid Entire Sticky, gelatinous Opaque - - + - + + Pseudomonas aeruginosa C +ve Irregular Flat, spreading Yellow Rough Undulate Dry to moist Translucent - - + - + - Klebsiella pneumoniae D +ve Circular Convex White Smooth Entire Moist Opaque + - + - - - Staphylococcus saprophyticus E -ve Rod Spreading Pale- green Mucoid Undulate Moist Opaque - + + + + - Proteus mirabilis KEY: CA= Catalase test += Positive GR= Gram reaction - = Negative MR= Methyl Red IN= Indole CI= Citrate utilization test OX= Oxidase test Antimicrobial Susceptible Pattern of Bacteria Isolates Table below shows the antimicrobial susceptible pattern of the isolates. The bacteria isolated from all samples showed varying levels of susceptibility and resistance to the tested antibiotics. Most isolates displayed intermediate susceptibility to Ofloxacin, Pefloxacin, and Ciprofloxacin. High resistance was observed for Gentamicin, Cephalexin, Nalidixic Acid, Septrin, and Ampicillin. Antimicrobial susceptibility test of bacteria Isolates Sample ID Ofloxacin Pefloxacin Ciprofloxacin Gentamicin Streptomycin Cephalexin Nalidixic Septrin Amplicin E. coli 11mm (I) 8mm (R) 7mm (R) 6mm (R) 9mm (R) 8mm (R) No Zone No Zone 7mm (R) Klebsiella pneumonia 13mm (I) 10mm (I) 13mm (I) 9mm (R) 10mm (I) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone 5mm (R) Proteus mirabilis 11mm (I) 8mm (R) 7mm (R) 6mm (R) 9mm (R) 8mm (R) No Zone No Zone 7mm (R) Pseudomonas aeruginosa 14mm (I) 10mm (I) 13mm (I) 3mm (R) 11mm (I) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone 8mm (R) Staphylococcus saprophyticus 10mm (I) 9mm (R) 12mm (I) 6mm (R) 10mm (I) 6mm (R) No Zone No Zone 9mm (R) E.coli 12mm (I) 10mm (I) 10mm (I) 7mm (R) 8mm (R) 7mm (R) No Zone No Zone 5mm (R) E. coli 11mm (I) 7mm (R) 9mm (R) 9mm (R) 7mm (R) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone 8mm (R) Klebsiella pneumonia 13mm (I) 11mm (I) 7mm (R) 8mm (R) 12mm (I) 7mm (R) No Zone No Zone 5mm (R) Proteus mirabilis 14mm (I) 9mm (R) 6mm (R) 5mm (R) 10mm (I) 8mm (R) No Zone No Zone 9mm (R) Pseudomonas aeruginosa 7mm (R) 9mm (R) 9mm (R) 7mm (R) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone No Zone 7mm (R) Staphylococcus saprophyticus 11mm (I) 7mm (R) 8mm (R) 12mm (I) 7mm (R) No Zone No Zone No Zone 5mm (R) E. coli 11mm (I) 8mm (R) 7mm (R) 6mm (R) 9mm (R) 8mm (R) No Zone No Zone 7mm (R) Klebsiella pneumonia 10mm (I) 13mm (I) 9mm (R) 10mm (I) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone 5mm (R) 10mm (I) Proteus mirabilis 8mm (R) 7mm (R) 6mm (R) 9mm (R) 8mm (R) No Zone No Zone 7mm (R) 8mm (R) Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10mm (I) 13mm (I) 3mm (R) 11mm (I) 9mm (R) No Zone No Zone 8mm (R) 10mm (I) Staphylococcus saprophyticus NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG NG Interpretation Criteria ≤ 8mm: Resistant (R). 9–18mm: Intermediate (I). ≥ 19mm: Susceptible (S) NG: No Growth Discussion This study was aimed to isolate and identify Gram-negative bacteria possibly associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs) in Female Students at the University of Abuja Female Hostels. The results of this study demonstrate the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from urine samples of female university students, highlighting significant concerns regarding antibiotic resistance. Among the isolates, E scherichia coli was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (23.3%), Proteus mirabilis (16.6%) and Staphylococcus saprophyticus (13.3%). These findings align with other studies, such as Jombo et al . (2021), who reported E. coli as the predominant uropathogen in similar populations due to its opportunistic nature and prevalence in the urinary tract. The high resistance observed in this study to first-line antibiotics, such as gentamicin, cephalexin, and ampicillin, mirrors global trends in antibiotic resistance. For example, Tambo et al . (2022) reported a resistance rate exceeding 70% for E. coli to ampicillin in their study of urinary isolates, citing overuse and misuse of antibiotics as primary drivers. Similarly, our findings show that no zones of inhibition were observed for several antibiotics, particularly cephalexin, nalidixic acid, and septrin, suggesting these antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective against Gram-negative bacteria. Conversely, the moderate levels of intermediate susceptibility observed for fluoroquinolones such as ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and pefloxacin are promising. However, continuous reliance on these drugs may lead to diminished efficacy over time. This aligns with findings from Dada et al . (2023), who emphasized the need for controlled prescription policies for fluoroquinolones to preserve their effectiveness. Unlike other studies, which reported higher susceptibility rates for aminoglycosides like gentamicin (Olowe et al ., 2020), the isolates in this study showed significant resistance, with most zones of inhibition measuring less than 9 mm. This discrepancy could be attributed to differences in regional antibiotic use practices or the unique antibiotic exposure history of the studied population. Interestingly, the intermediate susceptibility pattern to streptomycin observed in this study contrasts with reports of complete resistance in other studies conducted in similar urban settings (Omale et al ., 2022). This suggests a variation in resistance dynamics that may reflect localized antibiotic stewardship efforts or environmental factors. The high prevalence of resistant Gram-negative bacteria poses a threat to effective urinary tract infection (UTI) management in this population. The results emphasize the urgent need for routine antibiotic susceptibility testing to guide treatment decisions, as reliance on empirical treatment regimens may exacerbate resistance trends. Furthermore, the antibiotic susceptibility patterns observed in this study reveal significant resistance among Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the urine of female university students. Conclusion This study was aimed to isolate and identify Gram-negative bacteria possibly associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs) in Female Students at the University of Abuja Female Hostels. The results highlights the prevalence and distribution of bacterial isolates in urine samples, with E scherichia coli was the most predominant isolate E scherichia coli was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (23.3%), Proteus mirabilis (16.6%) and Staphylococcus saprophyticus (13.3%). The predominance of Gram-negative bacteria, particularly E. coli , emphasizes its well-established role as a leading cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs). The presence of Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae indicates a significant contribution from opportunistic pathogens, which are often associated with hospital-acquired infections or environmental contamination. Similarly, the detection of Staphylococcus saprophyticus reaffirms its importance as a common etiological agent of UTIs, especially in young females. These findings demonstrate the need for effective infection control measures, proper hygiene practices, and continuous surveillance to minimize the risk of bacterial infections. 5.3 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed: Emphasis should be placed on proper hygiene and sanitation practices, both in healthcare facilities and at the community level, to reduce the risk of bacterial contamination and infection. Public health campaigns should educate individuals, especially women and at-risk groups, on the importance of personal hygiene, adequate water intake, and early medical consultation when symptoms of UTIs occur. Government health agencies should develop and enforce policies aimed at improving water quality, sanitation, and access to healthcare, as these factors significantly contribute to reducing the prevalence of bacterial infections. Regular microbiological analysis of urine samples should be implemented in healthcare settings to monitor the prevalence and distribution of bacterial pathogens. Declarations The study was approved by the microbiology department ethics committee of the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital. References Colgan R, Williams M (2011) Diagnosis and treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis. Am Family Phys 84(7):771–776 Dickson K, Zhou J, Lehmann C (2024) Lower Urinary Tract Inflammation and Infection: Key Microbiological and Immunological Aspects. J Clin Med 13(2):315 Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ (2015) Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options. Nat Rev Microbiol 13(5):269–284 Foxman B (2014) Urinary tract infection syndromes: occurrence, recurrence, bacteriology, risk factors, and disease burden. 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Surg Infect 22(1):45–51 Sabih A, Leslie SW (2023) Complicated Urinary Tract Infections. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK436013/ Zowawi HM, Harris PN, Roberts MJ, Tambyah PA, Schembri MA, Pezzani MD, Paterson DL (2015) The emerging threat of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in urology. Nat Reviews Urol 12(10):570–584 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7617600","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":515130263,"identity":"95451991-679b-49c1-8907-844343a06463","order_by":0,"name":"Oladele Faridah Okikiola","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCcYGKIuHgSGhAkgzMzfgVo6h5cEZkBa4CC4tcBYPA+PDNhCDgBb+2c1tEh/32DDw8689JpE4rzaavx2o5UfFNtyW3DnYJjnjWRqD5Ix3aRKJ247nzjjM2MDYc+Y2Ti0GEolt0jwHDjMY3DhjBtRyLLcBqIWZsY2Alj8H/kO1zDmWO58oLQwHDjAYnO8Bammoyd1ASIvEjcRmy54DyTySM/iSLRKOHcjdCNRyEJ9f+GekP7zx44CdHD//2YM3f9TU5c47f/jggx8VuLUAAQsoangYJBJAnMNgoQP41AMB8weIfWB1dQQUj4JRMApGwUgEANHRXnbkEC8JAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Abuja","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oladele","middleName":"Faridah","lastName":"Okikiola","suffix":""},{"id":515130264,"identity":"e0a613c1-098c-4497-975d-7e4f03dc9649","order_by":1,"name":"Joy Chinyere Ogbu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCcYGKIuHgfnnHxsgg7HxAPFaGBvSQFoaCGiBs8BaDoOZeLXwz25ue8xTcU+On3/tMenCHeft1rYfBtpSYxON05I7B9uNec4UG0vOeJcmPfPM7eRtZxKBWo6l5Tbg0GIgkdgmzduWkLjhxhkzCR6228lmB4BagC4koOVfQj1Uy7lks/MPidHSkJBgcL7HDGjdATuzGwRskbiR2CY551iC4cwZfMmWM84kJ5jdANqSgMcv/DPSn0m8qUmQ5+c/e/DGhwo7e7Pz6Q8ffKixwakFBJh4wPYlgDmJYJUJeJSDAOMPsH0HwBx7AopHwSgYBaNgBAIAHB1lakcFiPYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Abuja","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joy","middleName":"Chinyere","lastName":"Ogbu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-15 07:43:37","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91605465,"identity":"e0effd83-a014-4f38-883a-c6a6f0869f6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-18 09:17:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1114919,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7617600/v1/5bfa676f-ee36-432d-88fa-1c623b3d3fdf.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eAntibiotics Susceptibility Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From Urine of University of Abuja Female Students\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe urinary system also known as the urinary tract or renal system is a system that consist of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, which primarily filters blood by eliminating waste materials and excess water (Sabih and Leslie, 2023). The urinary system removes metabolic waste materials from the circulation. In healthy persons, urine is either sterile or contains very few bacteria which can cause an infection called Urinary tract infection (UTIs) (Dickson \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUrinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infections affecting individuals globally having a significant impact on public health. It occurs when pathogens, predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, invade parts of the urinary system, including the urethra, bladder, ureters, or kidneys (Mancuso \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023). These bacteria, including \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e, are responsible for the majority of both community-acquired and healthcare-associated UTIs (Flores-Mireles \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015). The high prevalence of UTIs is associated with several risk factors which include age, sex, urinary tract abnormalities, catheterization, and immune system status (Sabih \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUrinary tract infections (UTIs) are mostly common bacterial infections in women, with half of all women experiencing at least one in their lifetime (Medina and Castillo-Pino, 2019). Women are particularly susceptible to UTIs, with studies indicating that approximately 50% of women will experience at least one UTI in their lifetime (Foxman, 2014). The anatomical proximity of the female urethra to the anus facilitates the colonization of the urinary tract by Gram-negative bacteria, which predominantly reside in the gastrointestinal tract (Flores-Mireles \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015). Most UTIs in women, which are episodes of acute uncomplicated cystitis occurring in women of childbearing age, may not be considered serious but significantly affect the patient’s quality of life by causing an estimated six days of discomfort (Colgan, and Williams, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproximately 95% of UTIs are caused by bacteria going up the urethra to the bladder or, in the case of pyelonephritis, ascending the ureter to the kidney (Murray \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). In rare cases, hematogenous UTI can arise when the pathogen enters the urinary system through the circulation from a distant source of infection, such as the lungs in a pneumonia patient (Flores-Mireles \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015). Several risk factors for UTIs include frequent sexual intercourse, a lack of urination following sexual intercourse, several sexual partners, the use of a diaphragm or spermicide, a history of recurrent UTIs, and the presence of a UTI in a first-degree female relative (Dickson \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe increasing incidence of antibiotic resistance among Gram-negative bacteria poses a significant challenge in the treatment of UTIs especially with Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria becoming more common, which makes treating UTIs extremely difficult and increases the risk of treatment failure, extended hospital stays, and higher medical expenses (Gupta \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2011). Gram-negative bacteria's growing resistance to widely prescribed antibiotics continues to jeopardize the efficacious treatment of UTIs, notwithstanding improvements in diagnostic methods (Zowawi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015). Treatment decisions based on local antimicrobial susceptibility data are crucial to the current guidelines for managing UTIs (Hooton, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterials and reagents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCulture Media\u003c/strong\u003e: Nutrient agar, MacConkey agar and Eosin-methylene blue agar.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGlass wares:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePetri dishes, microscopic slides, cover slips, test tubes, pipettes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReagents:\u003c/strong\u003e Buffered peptone water, distilled water, hydrogen peroxide (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCulture Media and Preparation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll media were prepared in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. Media used included MacConkey agar, Nutrient agar, and Eosin-methylene blue agar. They were autoclaved at 121\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 15 minutes. The cooled media were poured into Petri dishes and then allowed to cool and solidify. These were used for the isolation, identification, growth and maintenance of microorganisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNutrient agar \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExactly 5.6g of Nutrient agar was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask, then 200mL of water were added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclaved at 121\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 15minutes. The medium was then allowed to cool to 45\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC – 50\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and aseptically dispensed into sterile petri dishes on flat surface of the laboratory bench and allowed to solidify.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMacConkey agar\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA 5.6g was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask. 100mL of water was added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclave at 121\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 15 minutes. The medium was then allowed for some seconds before being poured aseptically into a sterile Petri dish. The medium was then allowed to cool and solidify on the media at 45\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC - 50\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC on the laboratory bench before use. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEosin-methylene blue agar\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExactly 3.6g of Eosin-methylene blue agar was weighed and poured into a sterile conical flask. 100mL of water was added and swirled to dissolve. The medium was autoclave at 121\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 15 minutes. The medium were allowed to cool to 45\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;o\u003c/sup\u003eC-50\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;o\u003c/sup\u003eC before being poured aseptically into sterile Petri dishes. The medium was then allowed to cool and solidify on the laboratory bench before use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003erea\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the University of Abuja which is\u0026nbsp;located in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria. Geographically, it is located between latitude 9.0765\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e N and longitude 7.3986\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eE. In terms of its physical space, the University of Abuja covers an area of approximately 11,824 hectares (29,181 acres) and it is situated on the plains of the Guinean savannah in central Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of thirty (30) urine samples were collected from female students at the University of Abuja female hostel. These samples were collected in sterile, screw-capped containers and transported to the Microbiological Laboratory in the University of Abuja within one hour of collection and processed within four hours to maintain the viability of the organisms. To preserve samples not being able to process within 2 hours for spoilage, preservatives such as boric acid or formalin were added and the samples were refrigerated at 2-8\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC to preserve chemical components for up to 24 hours.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample Processing for Microbial Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSerial Dilution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree (3) test tubes were used, 9ml of distilled water were poured into each test tube using a syringe that were sterilized in between by putting the needle over a Bunsen burner and waving it gently to reduce the heat. 1ml of each of the urine samples were poured into the first test tube (10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e), the test tube is swirled gently to enable the distilled water and the sample mix properly. One ml (1ml) of the mixture were taken from the test tube and added to the next test tube (10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e)another one ml (1ml) were taken from the second test tube and added to the last test tube(10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpread Plate Method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sterilized nutrient agar were poured into three Petri dishes and left to solidify. Using a syringe, 0.1 ML of the sample in the test tubes were dispensed onto the agar plates which were labelled 10\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, 10\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e and 10\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e respectively. The agar plate were swirled gently to enabled the sample spread evenly on the surface of the agar. A glass spreader were sterilized by passing it through a flame and moving it back and forth. The glass spreader were left to cool down for a few seconds, then it were used to gently spread the sample on the top of the agar plate evenly which helped to improve the growth of individual colonies. The agar plates were kept in the incubator at 37\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and then observed after 24 hours. Colonies (between 1 and 100) were counted and noted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEMB Streaking Method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sterilized EMB agar was poured into three petri dishes and left to solidify. Using a sterile inoculating loop, the sample in the test tubes were inoculated onto the agar plates by streaking quadrantly on the surface of the agar. The plates were labelled 10\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e - 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e respectively and kept in the incubator at 37°C then observed after 24 hours.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter 24 hours, the plates were taken out of the incubator and observed for bacteria and coliforms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubculture onto Nutrient Agar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDistinct colonies from nutrient agar plates were sub cultured onto fresh nutrient agar plates, \u0026nbsp;after streaking the urine sample on nutrient agar, plates were incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Colonies appearing on the plate were identified and further characterized. Different types of colonies with varied morphology grown on nutrient agar were used for identification. Colony characteristics such as size, shape, color, and texture were used for preliminary identification of the bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubculture onto MacConkey Agar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies on MacConkey agar were sub cultured onto fresh nutrient agar and incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Lactose fermenters produce Pink to red colonies due to acid production, while non-lactose fermenters produce colorless or pale colonies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubculture on Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) Agar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColonies from \u0026nbsp;EMB agar were streaked on fresh afar plates and incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours. Lactose fermenters produced dark purple to black colonies. Strong lactose fermenters show a distinctive green metallic sheen, while non-fermenters produce colorless colonies. Colonies that have a green metallic sheen are indicative of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, while other lactose fermenters may produce dark purple colonies. Non-lactose fermenters will appear as pale or colorless colonies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIdentification of Bacteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMorphological Characterisation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGram staining test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA loopful of sterile distilled water were placed on a clean, grease-free slide using a sterile inoculating loop. An inoculum from the culture was then mixed with the water on the slide. The smear were allowed to air dry and was then heat-fixed by quickly passing it through a Bunsen flame. The smear were covered with crystal violet solution for 60 seconds and then rinsed with water. It were subsequently flooded with Lugol’s iodine for 30 seconds and rinsed again with water. A 70% alcohol solution were applied to the slide for 15 seconds, or until the crystal violet were completely washed away. The smear was then counterstained with safranin for 60 seconds and allowed to air dry. Finally, the slide were examined under an oil immersion objective. Gram-positive cells appeared purple, while Gram-negative cells appeared red or pink.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiochemical /\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConfirmatory tests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCatalase test\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCatalase test were carried out for all the bacteria isolates. A drop of hydrogen per oxide were put on a glass slide. Colonies were picked with a sterile loop and added to the drop. Observation were made for bubbles production. Colonies that have catalase are able to break down hydrogen per oxide into water and oxygen, which can be seen in the form of air bubbles leaving the solution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCitrate test\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnique colonies were picked during the citrate test with a sterilized loop and streaked across the plates containing citrate media without breaking the agar and then incubated for 24 hours. Data were collected based on color change.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethyl Red Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFive millimeters of glucose phosphate broth (1g glucose, 0.5% KH\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003ePO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, 0.5% peptone and 100 mL distilled water) was dispensed into a clean test tube and sterilized. The tube was then inoculated with the isolates and incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. At the end of incubation, few drops of methyl red solution was added. This was repeated for each isolate and any color change observed. A red color indicated a positive reaction.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOxidase Test \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis test was done by dropping 2–5 drops of a freshly prepared oxidase (p- aminodimethylanine) reagent on a filter paper, the suspected organism was picked using a sterile wire loop and mixed with the oxidase reagent. This was repeated for each isolates. A change from the normal color to deep purple means a positive result, while no change meant negative.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndole Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe isolate was inoculated in a test tube containing 3mL of sterile tryptone water. It was then incubated at 37\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 24 hours. The test for indole was done by adding 0.5mL of Kovac’s reagent and shaken gently. Then it was examined for a color change. Examination for a red color in the surface of the layer within 10 minutes means positive, while no color change means negative.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntibiotic sensitivity Disc Testing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sensitivity tests were performed by disc diffusion in accordance with the standards of the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the manual of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA sterile conical flask was filled with 4.5 g of Eosin-methylene blue agar, and 125ml of distilled water was added. The agar was then swirled to dissolve. After being autoclaved, the mixture was put into petri dishes. A colony was chosen from the isolates and placed on the nutrient agar-coated plate. Using sterile forceps, the gram negative antibiotic sensitivity disc was added, inverted and it was then incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. The antibiotics that were intermediately susceptible, resistant, or both were recorded.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Bacterial Load from Urine Samples\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable below shows the total bacterial load from thirty (30) urine samples. The total heterotrophic bacterial counts of bacteria isolated from urine samples ranged from the 2.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eto 6.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eCfu/mL while the total coliform count observed ranged from 2.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 3.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Bacterial Load from Urine Samples\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"543\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample No.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Heterotrophic count (CFU/mL)\u003c/strong\u003e 10⁴\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eColiform Sample (CFU/mL) 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.9\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of Bacteria Isolates\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable below shows the results of the bacterial isolates. \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewas 26.6% had the most frequency, \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewith 20% was the second most common isolate, \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ehad 23.3%, \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewith 16.6% and \u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e13.3% was the least prevalent isolate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of Bacteria Isolates\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBacterial Isolate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of Isolates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage Prevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.3%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.3%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 228px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eColonial Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Bacteria isolates\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable below shows the macroscopic characteristics of the bacteria isolates from the 30 urine samples. The shape of the isolates varies with rod-shaped bacteria, \u0026nbsp;cocci, circular and irregular commonly observed. The colour of the colonies ranges from off-white to Grayish white, whitw and yellow with some isolates showing a slight variation. The edge of the colonies are described as either undulate and entire suggesting differences in growth patterns. The consistency of the colonies were mostly moist or sticky gelatinous. The elevation of the colonies is typically raised though some are flat or convex or spreading. The surface characteristics vary from smooth to rough or mucoid differences in the colony texture. Finally the optical characteristics ranges from opaque to translucent indicating variations in light transmission through the colonies between bacterial species.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eColonial Morphological and Biochemical\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eC\u003cstrong\u003eharacteristics of Bacteria isolates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"864\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIsolate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGram Reaction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShape\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElevation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eColor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSurface\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEdge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsistency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOpacity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMR\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOX\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProbable Identities\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-ve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCircular\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSlightly raised\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrayish-white\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmooth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntire\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-ve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCircular\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRaised\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOff-white\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMucoid\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntire\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSticky, gelatinous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrregular\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlat, spreading\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYellow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRough\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUndulate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDry to moist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTranslucent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCircular\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConvex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhite\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmooth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEntire\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-ve\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRod\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpreading\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePale- green\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMucoid\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUndulate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpaque\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 27px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKEY:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCA= Catalase test += Positive\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGR= Gram reaction - = Negative\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMR= Methyl Red IN= Indole\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCI= Citrate utilization test OX= Oxidase test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntimicrobial Susceptible Pattern of Bacteria Isolates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable below shows the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eantimicrobial susceptible pattern of \u003cem\u003ethe\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eisolates. The \u003cem\u003ebacteria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eisolated from all samples showed varying levels of susceptibility and resistance to the tested antibiotics. Most isolates displayed intermediate susceptibility to Ofloxacin, Pefloxacin, and Ciprofloxacin. High resistance was observed for Gentamicin, Cephalexin, Nalidixic Acid, Septrin, and Ampicillin.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAntimicrobial susceptibility test of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003ebacteria\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Isolates\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample ID\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOfloxacin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePefloxacin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGentamicin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStreptomycin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCephalexin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNalidixic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeptrin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmplicin\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE.coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumonia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo Zone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8mm (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10mm (I)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpretation Criteria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026le; 8mm: Resistant (R). 9\u0026ndash;18mm: Intermediate (I). \u0026ge; 19mm: Susceptible (S)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNG: No Growth\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was aimed to isolate and identify Gram-negative bacteria possibly associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs) in Female Students at the University of Abuja Female Hostels. The results of this study demonstrate the antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from urine samples of female university students, highlighting significant concerns regarding antibiotic resistance. Among the isolates, E\u003cem\u003escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e (20%), \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e (23.3%), \u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(16.6%) and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e (13.3%). These findings align with other studies, such as Jombo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021), who reported \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e as the predominant uropathogen in similar populations due to its opportunistic nature and prevalence in the urinary tract.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe high resistance observed in this study to first-line antibiotics, such as gentamicin, cephalexin, and ampicillin, mirrors global trends in antibiotic resistance. For example, Tambo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2022) reported a resistance rate exceeding 70% for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e to ampicillin in their study of urinary isolates, citing overuse and misuse of antibiotics as primary drivers. Similarly, our findings show that no zones of inhibition were observed for several antibiotics, particularly cephalexin, nalidixic acid, and septrin, suggesting these antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective against Gram-negative bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConversely, the moderate levels of intermediate susceptibility observed for fluoroquinolones such as ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and pefloxacin are promising. However, continuous reliance on these drugs may lead to diminished efficacy over time. This aligns with findings from Dada \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2023), who emphasized the need for controlled prescription policies for fluoroquinolones to preserve their effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnlike other studies, which reported higher susceptibility rates for aminoglycosides like gentamicin (Olowe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020), the isolates in this study showed significant resistance, with most zones of inhibition measuring less than 9 mm. This discrepancy could be attributed to differences in regional antibiotic use practices or the unique antibiotic exposure history of the studied population. Interestingly, the intermediate susceptibility pattern to streptomycin observed in this study contrasts with reports of complete resistance in other studies conducted in similar urban settings (Omale \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). This suggests a variation in resistance dynamics that may reflect localized antibiotic stewardship efforts or environmental factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe high prevalence of resistant Gram-negative bacteria poses a threat to effective urinary tract infection (UTI) management in this population. The results emphasize the urgent need for routine antibiotic susceptibility testing to guide treatment decisions, as reliance on empirical treatment regimens may exacerbate resistance trends. Furthermore, the antibiotic susceptibility patterns observed in this study reveal significant resistance among Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the urine of female university students.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was aimed to isolate and identify Gram-negative bacteria possibly associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs) in Female Students at the University of Abuja Female Hostels. The results highlights the prevalence and distribution of bacterial isolates in urine samples, with E\u003cem\u003escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant isolate E\u003cem\u003escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e (20%), \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e (23.3%), \u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(16.6%) and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e (13.3%). The predominance of Gram-negative bacteria, particularly \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, emphasizes its well-established role as a leading cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe presence of \u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eindicates a significant contribution from opportunistic pathogens, which are often associated with hospital-acquired infections or environmental contamination. Similarly, the detection of \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ereaffirms its importance as a common etiological agent of UTIs, especially in young females. These findings demonstrate the need for effective infection control measures, proper hygiene practices, and continuous surveillance to minimize the risk of bacterial infections.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.3 Recommendations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmphasis should be placed on proper hygiene and sanitation practices, both in healthcare facilities and at the community level, to reduce the risk of bacterial contamination and infection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePublic health campaigns should educate individuals, especially women and at-risk groups, on the importance of personal hygiene, adequate water intake, and early medical consultation when symptoms of UTIs occur.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGovernment health agencies should develop and enforce policies aimed at improving water quality, sanitation, and access to healthcare, as these factors significantly contribute to reducing the prevalence of bacterial infections.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegular microbiological analysis of urine samples should be implemented in healthcare settings to monitor the prevalence and distribution of bacterial pathogens.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the microbiology department ethics committee of the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eColgan R, Williams M (2011) Diagnosis and treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis. Am Family Phys 84(7):771\u0026ndash;776\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDickson K, Zhou J, Lehmann C (2024) Lower Urinary Tract Inflammation and Infection: Key Microbiological and Immunological Aspects. J Clin Med 13(2):315\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFlores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ (2015) Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options. Nat Rev Microbiol 13(5):269\u0026ndash;284\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFoxman B (2014) Urinary tract infection syndromes: occurrence, recurrence, bacteriology, risk factors, and disease burden. Infect Dis Clin N Am 28(1):1\u0026ndash;13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGupta K, Hooton TM, Naber KG, Wullt B, Colgan R, Miller LG, Soper DE (2011) International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis 52(5):103\u0026ndash;120\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHooton TM (2012) Uncomplicated urinary tract infection. N Engl J Med 366(11):1028\u0026ndash;1037\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMancuso G, Midiri A, Gerace E, Marra M, Zummo S, Biondo C (2023) Urinary Tract Infections: The Current Scenario and Future Prospects. Pathogens 12(4):623\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMedina M, Castillo-Pino E (2019) An introduction to the epidemiology and burden of urinary tract infections. Ther Adv Urol 11:17\u0026ndash;56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMurray CK, Wolf SE, Hospenthal DR, Conger NG, Holmes RL (2021) Emerging diagnostic and therapeutic modalities for infections associated with combat-related injuries. Surg Infect 22(1):45\u0026ndash;51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSabih A, Leslie SW (2023) Complicated Urinary Tract Infections. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK436013/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK436013/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZowawi HM, Harris PN, Roberts MJ, Tambyah PA, Schembri MA, Pezzani MD, Paterson DL (2015) The emerging threat of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in urology. Nat Reviews Urol 12(10):570\u0026ndash;584\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of Abuja","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns, Urine, University of Abuja Female, Gram-negative ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUrinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common bacterial infections, often caused by various pathogenic microorganisms. This study investigated the prevalence and distribution of bacterial isolates in urine samples, focusing on their identification and potential clinical significance. A total of 30 urine samples were analyzed, revealing that E\u003cem\u003escherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant isolate (26.6%), followed by \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e (20%), \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella pneumoniae\u003c/em\u003e (23.3%), \u003cem\u003eProteus mirabilis\u003c/em\u003e (16.6%) and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e (13.3%). The total bacteria loads ranged from 2.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e to 6.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e Cfu/mL and the coliform counts observed ranged from 2.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 3.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. The predominance of Gram-negative bacteria, particularly \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, highlights its role as a primary etiological agent in UTIs. \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus saprophyticus\u003c/em\u003e, although less frequent, confirms its significance in urinary infections, especially among young females. These findings emphasizes the importance of regular microbiological surveillance, proper hygiene practices, and effective infection control measures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Antibiotics Susceptibility Patterns of Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated From Urine of University of Abuja Female Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-18 09:01:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7617600/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9a78343d-9657-4cc7-bb03-65828eb9f6ed","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54714198,"name":"Immunology"},{"id":54714199,"name":"Applied \u0026 Industrial Microbiology"},{"id":54714200,"name":"General Microbiology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-18T09:01:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-18 09:01:07","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7617600","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7617600","identity":"rs-7617600","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}