What Are the Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated With Baseball Batting Performance? A Scoping Review

What Are the Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated With Baseball Batting Performance? A Scoping Review | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article What Are the Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated With Baseball Batting Performance? A Scoping Review Mathieu Tremblay, Bastien Couëpel, Jacques Abboud, Martin Descarreaux This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Sports Medicine-Open → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background In baseball, batting performance can be measured using game and advanced statistics as well as hitting metrics. To date, the core set of individual characteristics or skills associated to superior batting performance remains to be identified. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and classify the individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance indicators and describe the methods used to assess these individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators. Methods A scoping review design was chosen to conduct a systematic literature search. Electronic searches of MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO databases were undertaken from inception to August 2024. Cross-sectional studies that investigated the relationship between batting performance indicators and individual characteristics or skills in male or female baseball batters were selected. Results Twenty-two cross-sectional studies investigating potential individual characteristics or skills of baseball batting performance met the inclusion criteria. The primary baseball batting performance indicators were grouped into three categories: game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics. Anthropometric measures (height, weight), physical fitness tests (1-RM bench and squat, grip strength, jumps, medicine ball throws, sprint, trunk flexibility, etc.), visual skills (visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, etc.), perceptual skills (anticipation, visual recognition, etc.) and visuomotor skills (eye-hand coordination, reaction time, etc.) were the individual characteristics or skills associated to either game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics. Conclusions Based on the studies included in this scoping review, we conclude that greater height, weight, upper-body and lower-body muscle strength, power and speed, oculomotor skills, visual system characteristics, anticipation, and visual recognition as well as visuomotor skills were associated to superior game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics. ANTHROPOMETRICS PHYSICAL FITNESS TESTS ATHLETIC ABILITIES PERCEPTUAL SKILLS VISUAL SKILLS Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 KEY POINTS Batting performance in baseball can be measured by a variety of performance indicators, including game statistics (e.g., batting average, homeruns, on-base %), advanced statistics (e.g., hard-hit %, inside-zone contact %, outside-zone chase %) as well as hitting metrics (e.g., ball exit speed, swing speed, launch angle). The most reported individual characteristics or skills categories associated to batting performance indicators are anthropometric measures and physical fitness tests, primarily focused on strength and power qualities in both upper and lower body. In contrast, visual, perceptual, and visuomotor skills are less reported despite their important role in interceptive task such as batting in baseball. 1. BACKGROUND A combination of different individual characteristics and skills is a crucial component characterizing elite baseball player [ 1 – 3 ]. These characteristics and skills often differentiate the less experienced players of the most elite ones [ 2 , 4 – 6 ]. The fundamental technical requirements for a position player to learn in baseball can be separated into three categories such as baserunning, fielding, and batting. The latter, batting, is a critical feature being extensively tracked in-practice and in-game settings by recently developed technologies and analyses [ 7 ]. Thus, when it comes to recruiting the best talent in a team or organization, batting performance statistics and metrics are used to assess players’ offensive value [ 8 ]. Besides, batting in baseball is a complex interceptive motor skill that requires a high-level of visuomotor control influenced by batters’ reaction time, eye-hand coordination, strategic decision-making, and anticipation to succeed against the pitcher [ 9 – 13 ]. In baseball, a swing can be broken down into several key phases: stepping, landing, swing and impact [ 14 ]. As a result, batters need to coordinate incoming visual and perceptual information with optimal motor coordination to make an accurate solid contact with the ball to increase their chance of success. Several batting performance indicators has been used to assess in-game batting performance and can be classify into outcome-based game statistics (i.e. bases on ball, batting average, on-base %, runs batted in), advanced statistics related to decision-making (i.e. fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, hard-hit %) and hitting metrics related to ball flight and physics (i.e. ball exit speed, launch angle and swing speed) [ 7 , 8 ]. Compared to traditional outcome-based game statistics, more advanced statistics metrics such as players ability to swing at pitches in the zone compared to outside the zone, swinging at fastball instead of off-speed pitches, and their ability to produce a high percentage of hard-hit can offer deeper insights into a player’s batting abilities and tendencies [ 15 , 16 ]. With the emergence of new technologies in sport performance analysis, ball exit speed is now a commonly measured in-game metric, as higher ball exit speed is generally associated with greater chance to get hits [ 17 ]. Altogether, these statistics and metrics provide a comprehensive overview of a baseball player’s offensive contributions. Despite the importance of these offensive statistical measures and metrics, a comprehensive understanding of batting performance requires considering the broader context in which these numbers are produced. To date, much of the scientific research on factors associated with baseball performance has focused on pitching [ 1 , 3 , 18 ], but the need for a systematic assessment of the individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance seems as much important to cover and is currently lacking. Understanding the associations between batters’ individual characteristics or skills with batting performance indicators will help coaches and trainers to create and adapt individualized training programs in hope of enhancing players’ offensive abilities resulting in increased performance at the plate. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify and classify the key individual characteristics or skills associated with batting performance indicators in baseball and describe the methods used to assess these individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators. 2. METHODS 2.1 Study design A scoping review design was selected to address broad sport-performance research questions in a sport science subject that has been examined mostly through cross-sectional designs with several variables and research tools. This scoping review was conducted according to Peters et al. [ 19 ] and Pham et al. [ 20 ] framework for scoping reviews. 2.2 Search strategy Identifying the research question This scoping review was conducted to answer the following research questions: what are the individual performance indicators of baseball batting performance, how are they measured, and what are the relationships between the individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators? Identifying relevant studies The initial search strategy was conducted with the assistance of the university’s librarian, with no restrictions on publication date, in October 2023 and updated in August 2024 in the following database: MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and PsychINFO. The search was organized around sport performance and baseball specific key terms (MESH or non-MESH) such as (baseball) AND (performance OR kinematics OR kinetics OR perceptual* OR vis* OR fitness test*) AND (bat* OR biomechanic OR hit*). Included studies references list were examined to identify potential additional sources. Endnote 20.6 was used for reference deduplication across the mentioned databases to ensure tracking the number of duplicates and to manage the search. Studies selection and screening Inclusion and exclusion criteria To be included in the first step of articles’ selection, studies had to be published in a peer-reviewed journal, written in either English or French, and report an association between an individual characteristics or skills and a batting performance indicator. Only cross-sectional studies design focusing on male or female baseball batting performance were included in the review. All other sports were excluded. Studies involving injured players or players presenting pain were also excluded. In baseball, batting performance indicators are outcome-based and mostly include game statistics (e.g. batting average, hits, slugging %, homeruns), advanced statistics (e.g. zone-contact %, fastball chase %, inside-zone miss %, batting average on balls in play), and hitting metrics (e.g. swing speed, ball exit speed, launch angle, distance, hang time). To be included, studies needed to report on at least one of these performance indicators. The following study designs and publication types were excluded from the review: opinion and commentary papers, letters, editor’s responses, conference abstracts, intervention studies, case reports and case series studies. Study screening The article search was completed by one of the authors (M.T.). Record screening by title and abstract was conducted independently by two authors (M.T. and B.C.). Three categories were used to classify the studies. The studies were classified as either relevant, irrelevant, or possibly relevant studies. Then, studies were gathered in an Excel spreadsheet where the two authors compared their initial screening. If a disagreement occurred between the two authors, further review was conducted by both authors to decide whether a study should be included or not, and a third author (M.D.) was involved if the initial authors could not reach agreement. Studies’ full texts judged relevant and possibly relevant by the authors were screened by two authors (M.T., B.C.) to determine the final set of eligible studies to be included for this scoping review. 2.3 Data extraction To extract relevant data and information from the included studies, a data extraction table was created and included the following information: author and year of publication, study objectives, study design, population, batting performance indicators, individual characteristics or skills, and results . Data extraction was conducted by one reviewer (M.T) and double-checked by a second one (B.C.). 3. RESULTS A total of 1948 articles were identified in the literature, and 22 fulfilled the selection criteria. Figure 1 presents the schematic overview of the search methodology. All included studies were cross-sectional conducted with various types of design ranging from descriptive laboratory study to longitudinal observational study design. Populations across studies varied as two studies involved youth baseball players, three studies high school players, five studies college players, two studies amateur players while ten studies involved professional baseball players either from Minor league, Major league, or both. Only two studies included female baseball players. Insert figure 1 about here. Figure 2 presents samples’ distribution across studies. Insert figure 2 about here. 3.1 Batting Performance Indicators Game statistics Nine studies reported on offensive game statistics and investigated their associations to batters’ individual characteristics or skills. The selected statistics included: bases on ball (BB) [10, 21], batting average (BA) [5, 21-26], homeruns (HR) [4, 5, 22, 27], on-base + slugging (OPS) [5, 28], on-base % (OBP) [5, 10, 21, 24-26], runs batted in (RBI) [5, 24], runs scored (RS) [5, 28], singles [28] slugging (SLG) [4, 5, 10, 21, 24-26, 28], strikeouts (K) [10, 21, 25], total bases (TB) [4, 24], bases on ball-to-strikeouts ratio (BB/K) [21, 25] and weighted on-base average (wOBA) [28]. Advanced statistics Five studies reported on advanced statistics and investigated their associations to batters’ individual characteristics or skills. The selected advanced statistics included: at bats per base on ball (BB per AB) [15, 16], fastball chase % [15, 16], hit rate (total number of hits/30) [11] hard-hit % at 95 miles per hour + (HHP) [29], inside-zone swing % [15, 16], inside-zone miss % [13], inside-zone fastball swing % [15, 16], outside-zone chase % [13, 15, 16] and zone contact % (ZCP) [29]. Hitting metrics Eight studies reported on hitting metrics and their associations to batters’ individual characteristics or skills. The selected hitting metrics included: batted ball distance [12, 17], batted ball outcomes (hit or no hit) [11], ball exit speed [2, 12, 17, 30], hang time [17], launch angle [17] and swing speed [30-33]. Figure 3 presents batting performance indicators studies’ distribution. Insert figure 3 about here. 3.2 Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated to Batting Performance Indicators Anthropometric measures Eight studies [2, 4, 5, 12, 17, 22, 29, 33] reported on anthropometric measures associated to batting performance indicators. Positive relationships were found between height and batted ball outcomes (hit or no hit) [17], exit speed [2, 12], swing speed [33], HHP [29] and ZCP [29]. No associations were reported for height and BA [22], SLG [4] and swing speed [33]. Mixed results were found for HR, as Hamburg et al. [22] reported a positive association with height whereas Hoffman et al. [4] reported no association. Regarding weight, seven studies [2, 4, 12, 17, 22, 29, 33] focused on the association between weight and batting performance indicators. Exit speed [2, 12] and HHP [29] were all positively associated with weight whereas ZCP [29] was negatively associated. Mixed results were found for HR, as Hamburg et al. [22] reported a positive association with weight and Hoffman et al. [4] reported no association. Three studies [5, 22, 24] investigated associations between BMI and batting performance indicators. One the one hand, Crotin et al. [5] found positive associations with BA, HR, OBP, OPS, RBI, RS, and SLG and Hamburg et al. [22] with HR. On the other hand, Yuya et al. [24] found no associations between BMI and BA, OBP, OPS, SLG, RBI in and TB. Hoffman et al. [4] was the only study reporting associations on body fat % and lean body mass and found no associations with HR, SLG and TB. Physical fitness tests Nine studies [2, 4, 24, 26, 29-33] reported on physical fitness tests associated to batting performance indicators. To facilitate the reporting of studies results, the physical fitness tests were grouped into their respective physical qualities such as muscle strength, muscle power, speed, muscle endurance, muscle flexibility, balance, and coordination. Figure 4 presents the physical fitness tests’ physical qualities studies’ distribution. Insert figure 4 about here. Muscle strength Two studies [26, 32] used 1-repetition maximum (RM) protocols, respectively bench press and squat exercise protocols, to assess its relationship with swing speed, AVG, OBP and SLG. Miyaguchi et al. [32] found that 1-RM bench press was positively associated to swing speed when looking into absolute value, but not when looking into kilogram/bodyweight value. Papadakis et al. [26] found positive associations between 1-RM squat with AVG and OBP, but not SLG. Six studies [2, 4, 24, 26, 29, 33] investigated muscle strength with the use of a dynamometer with protocols of grip strength [2, 4, 24, 26, 29], back strength [2] and lower extremity muscle torque in abduction, adduction and internal rotation for the pivot and step legs of the batting stance [33]. Positive associations were found between grip strength and HR, SLG and TB in the Hoffman et al [4] study. Papadakis et al. [26] found positive associations between grip strength and AVG and OBP but not SLG. On the one hand, Nakata et al. [2] found a positive association in all subjects sample between right arm and left arm grip strength and ball exit speed. On the other hand, Yuya et al. [24] found no association between grip strength and TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS in Japanese female baseball players. Finally, grip strength was found to be positively associated to HHP for the dominant and non-dominant arm grip strength, but not for ZCP for the latter two in Kohn et al. [29] study. Regarding back strength, Nakata et al. [2] found a positive association with ball exit speed whereas Yuya et al. [24] found no associations with game statistics in Japanese female baseball players. Lower extremity muscle torque protocols showed that internal rotation torque was positively associated to swing speed in the Tee-ball division for the pivot leg and for the step leg in all subjects and the Tee-ball division in Tsutsui et al. [33] study. Two studies [24, 32] used an isokinetic machine to assess the associations between muscle strength protocols to swing speed [32] and offensive statistics such as TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS [24]. Miyaguchi et al. [32] investigated the isokinetic chest press protocol using 3 different speed (0.4 m/s; 0.8 m/s and 1.2 m/s) in absolute and relative value (kilogram/bodyweight) to assess its relationship to swing speed. The results showed that the 0.4 m/s, 0.8 m/s and the 1.2 m/s absolute values were all positively correlated to swing speed whereas only the 1.2 m/s protocol in relative value was found associated to swing speed. Yuya et al. [24] investigated the association between isokinetic knee extension and knee flexion protocol and found no association with offensive statistics of TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS. Muscle power Nine studies [2, 4, 24, 26, 28-30, 32, 33] reported on muscle power tests associations with batting performance indicators. Five studies [4, 24, 26, 28, 29] used the countermovement jump protocol to find associations with batting performance indicators. Only countermovement jump height was found to be positively associated with offensive statistics such as BA, SLG, TB, and OPS in Yuya et al.[24] study. Other jump protocols such as the broad jump [2, 24, 30] and the lateral to medial jump [2] were also investigated and only broad jump was found to be positively associated to TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OPS [24] and exit speed [2]. In relation to upper-body power, one study investigated the associations with bench press absolute and relative (kilogram/bodyweight) peak power and swing speed and found a positive association in absolute peak power but not in relative [32]. Another study used the backward overhead medicine ball throw protocol for distance and found that it predicted swing speed in the study all subjects and major division samples but not for the Tee-ball division sample. Finally, Taniyama et al. [30] explored the relationship between rotational medicine ball throw and exit speed and swing speed and found positive associations for both batting performance indicators. Speed Three studies [2, 4, 29] reported on speed tests and their associations with batting performance indicators. Hoffman et al. [4] found that the 10-yard sprint was negatively associated to TB whereas Nakata et al. [2] found a negative association with ball exit speed. Kohn et al. [29] used the 30-yard sprint and found no association with either hard-hit % and zone contact %. Muscle endurance Two studies [2, 31] examined the association between muscle endurance tests and batting performance indicators. Lin et al. [31] found that static flexors endurance, dynamic flexors/extensors ratio and static flexors/extensors ratio were negatively associated to swing speed. Nakata et al. [21] explored sit-ups protocol association with exit speed and found a positive association. Muscle flexibility Two studies [2, 24] reported on muscle flexibility assessments and its link to batting performance indicators. Yuya et al. [24] explored the association between stride-leg and pivot-leg straight-leg raise flexibility and reported no association with TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS. Nakata et al.[2] examine trunk flexibility association with ball exit speed and reported a positive association with exit speed. Balance Only Tsutsui et al. [33] investigated a balance protocol with swing speed and found that only pivot-leg SEBT was a predictor of swing speed in their Major division sample group. Coordination Two studies [2, 4] reported on coordination tests associations with batting performance indicators. Hoffman et al. [4] found no association between the pro-agility test and HR, SLG and TB whereas Nakata et al. [2] found that side steps protocol to be positively associated with ball exit speed. Visual Skills Four studies [10, 11, 13, 16] reported on visual skills tests associated to batting performance indicators. Chen et al. [11] found that a 12-element ocular-tracking index including latency, open-loop acceleration, steady-state gain, proportion smooth, saccadic rate, saccade amplitude, saccade dispersion, direction noise, noise asymmetry, direction anisotropy, speed noise and speed responsiveness was positively associated with male and female baseball players of hit rate in players of different years of experience ranging from 3 to 10 and more years. Liu et al. [13] study used quantitative eye-tracking tasks to investigate their relationship with advanced stats. Among these eye-tracking tasks, general oculomotor speed was found to be an individual predictor of inside-zone swing %, smooth pursuit accuracy was found to be an individual predictor of outside-zone swing % and general processing speed was found to be an individual predictor of outside-zone swing % and inside-zone swing %. Both Burris et al. [10] and Liu et al. [13] studies investigated visual clarity and contrast sensitivity assessment baseball performance indicators. Burris et al. [10] found no relationship between OBP, BB%, K% and SLG and visual clarity but found that contrast sensitivity was an individual predictor of K%. Liu et al. [13] found no associations for either visual clarity and contrast sensitivity with outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing %, and inside-zone miss %. Laby et al. [16] found associations between its enhanced vision testing system core score and inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %, outside-zone chase %, fastball chase % and BB per AB. Burris et al. [10] study found that depth perception was an individual predictor of BB% but not for OBP, K% and SLG. Perceptual Skills Four studies [10, 13, 21, 25] included articles reported on perceptual skills tests associated to batting performance indicators. In their study, Muller et al. [21] found a positive association between overall pitch type combination and temporal occlusion applied at front foot impact and BA but not for OBP, SLG, K and BB/K ratio. They also found positive associations between fastball/changeup combination and temporal occlusion applied at ball release with OBP, and BB but not for BA, SLG, K and BB/K ratio. No association were found for overall pitch type combination and temporal occlusion applied at shoulder square, and ball release as well as fastball/changeup combination applied at front foot impact and shoulder square. Morris-Binelli et al. [25] also used an anticipation skill task with temporal occlusion applied at the point of ball release (R), 80 milliseconds after ball release (R+2) and 200 milliseconds after ball release (R+5). The authors found a positive relationship for combined pitch type and location prediction accuracy at R+2 and SLG, for pitch location prediction accuracy at R+2 and SLG and for pitch type prediction accuracy at R+5 and OBP and BB/K ratio [25]. A negative relationship was found for pitch type prediction accuracy and R+5 and K% [25]. Perception span association with batting performance indicators was investigated by Burris et al. [10] and Liu et al. [13]. Burris et al. [10] found no association with outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing % and inside-zone miss % compared to Liu et al. [13] who found that perception span is a predictor of OBP, K% and SLG but not BB%. Finally, Reichow et al. [23] used a visual recognition tachischopic test to assess its relationship with BA and found a positive association. Visuomotor Skills Four studies [10, 11, 13, 15] reported on visuomotor skills assessments associated to batting performance indicators. Chen et al. [11] found that a 3-element manual-control index including RMS error, gain and phase lag was positively associated with batted ball outcome (hit rate) in male and female baseball players of the Hong Kong national team of varied years of experience ranging from 3 to 10 and more years of experience. Near-far quickness was also found to be an individual predictor of game statistics of K% but not for OBP, BB% and SLG in Burris et al. [10] study. No result was found between near-far quickness and advanced statistics such as outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing % and inside-zone miss % in Liu et al. [13] study. The same authors investigated the reaction time assessment and respectively found that it is an individual predictor of BB% [10] but not OBP, K% and SLG but was not associated with advanced stats of outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing% and inside-zone miss % [13]. In addition, Liu et al. [13] found no result between these advanced stats and multiple object tracking assessment. In their study, Burris et al. [10] found that the target capture assessment was shown to be an individual predictor of K% but not for OBP, BB% and SLG and the eye-and coordination assessment an individual predictor of BB% and K% but not OBP and SLG. Finally, Laby et al. [15] study investigated the relationship between a proactive eye-hand visuomotor reaction task with advanced stats and found positive associations with outside-zone chase %, fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %, and BB per AB in professional baseball players. Table 1 presents an evidence-based list of individual characteristics or skills associated to baseball batting performance. Insert table 1 about here. 4. DISCUSSION The individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance were identified and classified to better understand the research methods and tools used by researchers to study their associations with baseball batting performance. Most studies focused on older amateur, college or professional baseball players (77%) while younger baseball players were least studied (23%). The physical fitness tests (n = 9) and anthropometric measurements (n = 8) were the two most investigated categories of individuals characteristics or skills related to either game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics. Anthropometric measures Only height and weight were found associated to game statistics [ 22 ], advanced statistics [ 29 ] and hitting metrics [ 2 , 12 , 17 , 33 ] whereas conflicting results were found for BMI and game statistics [ 4 , 5 , 22 , 24 ]. These anthropometric measures also seem important to track over time to assess the evolution of players’ profile as suggested by Crotin et al. [ 34 ] study results. Their study investigated height, weight, and BMI changes over time in MLB professional baseball players over three separate decades (1970, 1990, 2010) and found significant differences and greater weight, height, and BMI over time among the top offensive statistics league leaders. The same observation seems true in younger large groups of amateur baseball athletes. Tremblay et al. [ 3 ] study found that, in male and female baseball players aged 10–22 years old, height, weight and BMI were different between the 13U, 15U, 18U and 21U age categories as older players were taller, heavier and had greater BMI. Even though the study investigated the association between these measurements and pitching velocity and not batting performance, in these age groups, players often take on other positions on the field and hit as well. Altogether, these results highlight the need to assess and track anthropometric measures changes over time in baseball batters because of their associations to batting performance. Physical fitness tests Greater performance on six muscle strength tests was found to be associated with better batting performance: 1-RM bench and squat protocols [ 26 , 32 ], grip strength [ 2 , 4 , 24 , 26 , 29 ], lower extremity muscle torque [ 33 ] and isokinetic chest press [ 32 ]. Conflicting results were found in back strength where in young male baseball players, an association was found with ball exit speed [ 2 ] whereas in Japanese female players, no association was found with game statistics [ 24 ]. These results could be explained by the specificity of the task where back strength and ball exit speed relate more to physical output whereas game statistics are influenced by multiple factors such as the other team defense and in-game decision-making. Greater performance on five muscle power tests namely countermovement jump [ 4 , 24 , 29 ], broad jump [ 24 ], bench press peak power [ 32 ], overhead medicine ball throw [ 33 ] and rotational medicine ball throw [ 30 ] was found to be associated to superior batting performance. The physical qualities of speed, muscle flexibility, balance and coordination had one test each associated to superior batting performance and were respectively the 10-yard sprint [ 2 , 4 ], sits ups protocol [ 2 ], trunk flexibility [ 2 ], pivot-leg SEBT balance protocol [ 33 ] and the side steps protocol [ 2 ]. The number of studies focusing on strength (n = 8) and power (n = 9) underscores the importance given to physical qualities in baseball research by sports science researchers. Spaniol [ 35 ] proposed a baseball-specific test battery to evaluate baseball players' strength and weaknesses composed of physiological, athletic, and sport-specific skills that could be predictors of successful baseball performance. The included assessments are similar to this review results with muscle strength, leg power, flexibility, rotational power, agility and running speed [ 35 ]. The author also suggests that ball exit speed and swing speed as batting performance indicators to track in baseball batters. Based on our systematic results, there is an agreement between our results and Spaniol proposed Baseball Athletic Test (BAT) battery for the assessment of baseball players' performance in relation to batting performance. Finally, our results are also similar to those of Kohmura et al. [ 36 ] in which coaches subjectively rated the batting ability of college baseball players in an attempt to develop a baseball-specific battery of tests for college baseball players. They found associations between subjective players batting ability evaluation and back strength, medicine ball throw, standing long jump and the change of direction T-test. Visual skills Chen et al [ 11 ] and Liu et al. [ 13 ] were the only studies using quantitative eye-tracking apparatus respectively Eyelink 1000 and the RightEye test battery . In Chen et al. [ 11 ] study, a greater ocular-tracking index performance was found to be associated with a better hit rate in a mixed male and female Japanese amateur baseball player’s sample. Liu et al. [ 13 ] study found that general oculomotor speed, latency and processing speed, auto refraction, smooth pursuit accuracy, cardinal reaction time and dynamic visual acuity were oculomotor abilities associated with batting performance in professional baseball players. Greater visual clarity, contrast sensitivity, depth perception were found associated with batting performance indicators and were all measured by the Senaptec Sensory Station in Burris et al. [ 10 ] and Liu et al. [ 13 ] studies. Finally, Laby et al. [ 16 ] found that an enhanced vision scores composed of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity measure was found to be associated with batting performance in a minor league cohort of baseball players. Perceptual skills Greater visual recognition and visual anticipation skills task as well as perception span were associated to increased baseball batting performance. In both studies, Muller et al. [ 21 ] and Morris-Binelli et al. [ 25 ] investigated the visual anticipation of professional minor league baseball batters and found that associations with game statistics in video simulation temporal occlusion test with different pitch type combination for strike of ball (i.e.. Fastball/Changeup/Curveball) and at different phases of the pitcher motion (i.e. At front foot impact, at ball release/ after ball release). The relevance of visual anticipation is high in baseball as batters are put under extremely short temporal constraints to decide whether to swing or not at the ball based on contextual information [ 37 ]. Compared to Muller et al. [ 21 ] and Morris-Binelli et al. [ 25 ], Reichow et al. [ 23 ] investigated another important perceptual skills associated to batting performance in visual recognition accuracy using a tachiscopic task. The authors mentioned that this kind of evaluation assess both the speed and the span of visual recognition. Their results showed an association between the task and batting average in batters and showed that the top five batters in their sample were the top scorers on the tachiscopic test. Finally, a perception span task was used in Burris et al. [ 10 ] and Liu et al. [ 13 ] studies to be investigated in professional baseball players. Only Burris et al. [ 10 ] found perception span executed on the Senaptec Sensory Station to be an individual predictor of K% and SLG. The study defines the perception span task as the ability to remember and recreate visual patterns. Visuomotor skills Chen et al. [ 11 ] study results showed an association between a 3-element manual-control index and hit rate in a mixed male and female Japanese baseball players’ sample. Their results also showed that the association between the index and hit rate was greater in more experienced players than less experienced ones. Greater eye-hand coordination, defines as the measures of the speed in which batters can make visually-guided hand responses to rapidly changing target, and greater target capture, defines as the speed at which batters can shift attention and recognize peripheral targets were found to be predictors of K% and SLG in professional baseball players in the Burris et al. [ 10 ] study. A standard reaction time assessment was also found as a predictor BB % in this study [ 10 ]. Overall, Burris et al. [ 10 ] an Liu et al. [ 13 ] studies used most of the same Senaptec Sensory Station sensorimotor tasks, but their results differed. Again, this can be partially explained by the choice of batting performance indicators such as outcome-based game statistics compared to advanced statistics related more to decision-making. Game statistics are influenced by the other team's defense, field conditions and external factors whereas advanced statistics used in Liu et al. [ 13 ] are based on players decision-making and take into account each decision whether to swing at the ball or not. Finally, Laby showed that a pro-active reaction time assessment was also found associated to advanced statistics based on athletes’ decision-making such as outside-zone chase %, fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %. Evidence gaps and future directions Based on this scoping review results, several gaps were identified and could lead to deeper investigations in the field of baseball batting performance research. First, the variety of batting performance indicators used to assess their relationships to individual characteristics or skills makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions. We divided the batting performance indicators into game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics to separate the indicators more logically. It is the authors opinion that advanced statistics mostly relating to players decision making (i.e. inside-zone swing %, outside-zone swing %, fastball chase %) are less influenced by external factors beyond a player control such as other team defenders, weather or field conditions and should be prioritize in future investigations regarding batting performance research to remove external influence on the batting outcome measured. The second evident gap identified through the data extraction phase was the very small representation of the female athlete’s population in the baseball batting performance research. Only two out of twenty-two studies included were interested in associations between individual characteristics and skill and batting performance indicators in female athletes. One used a professional Japanese female athlete sample only [ 24 ] and one used a mixed male and female Japanese athletes sample [ 11 ]. Future studies should use female baseball players sample only to investigate individual characteristics and skills associated to baseball batting performance to better generalize results and to understand the differences with their male counterparts within the sport. Finally, this scoping review did not assess the risk of bias of the different studies, however, the data extraction highlighted validity and reliability concerns about the visual, perceptual and visuomotor skills tools used in the studies of these fields of research, with sometimes only brief commercial description of the tools provided to justify their use. Validity and reliability studies are needed to better understand and justify the selection of these tools to investigate their associations with batting performance in the future. Limitations The first limitation that should be considered is that only studies published in the English and French (although no French publication was identified) were included in this review. Another limitation concerns the variety of batting performance indicators used in original study to investigate their relationships to individual characteristics or skills. Such variety limits the conclusion of the review on which individual characteristics or skills are the most relevant to baseball batting performance. 5. CONCLUSION To conclude, game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics were the batting indicators used to assess their relationships with individual characteristics or skills of baseball batters in the studies included in this scoping review. Anthropometric measures and physical fitness tests were the most reported categories of individual characteristics or skills compared to visual, perceptual and visuomotor skills categories. Based on included studies results, we conclude that anthropometric measures such as height and weight, physical fitness tests including mostly upper-body and lower-body strength and power measures, visual skills assessing oculomotor abilities and physical characteristics of the visual system, perceptual skills of anticipation and visual recognition and finally visuomotor skills including visual perception combined with a motor response are important individual characteristics or skills required to succeed in baseball batting. Future research should investigate how the change in these individual characteristics and skills is related to the changes in baseball batting performance indicators over time to better guide training intervention and optimize batters’ performance. Abbreviations BA: Batting Average; BB: Bases on Ball; HR: Homeruns; OPS: On-base + Slugging; OBP : On-Base Percentage; Runs Batted In; RS: Runs Scored; SLG: Slugging; K: Strikeouts; TB: Total Bases; BB/K : Bases on Ball per Strikeouts ratio; wOBA: Weighted on Base Average; BB per AB: Bases on Ball per At Bats; HHP: Hard Hit Percentage; ZCP: Zone Contact Percentage; RM: Repetition Maximal; R: Release; BAT: Baseball Athletic Test. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate : Not applicable. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Availability of data and material : Not applicable Competing interests : The authors declare having no competing interest. Funding: We acknowledge the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), [funding reference number: ES D - 589592 - 2024]. Authors’ contributions : MT designed the search strategy whereas the selection process was carried out by MT and BC. MT, BC, JA, and MD wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version. Acknowledgements : Not applicable. References Mercier M-A, Tremblay M, Daneau C, Descarreaux M. Individual factors associated with baseball pitching performance: scoping review. BMJ open sport & exercise medicine. 2020;6(1):e000704. Nakata H, Nagami T, Higuchi T, Sakamoto K, Kanosue K. Relationship between performance variables and baseball ability in youth baseball players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2013;27(10):2887-97. Tremblay M, Tétreau C, Corbin-Berrigan L-A, Descarreaux M. Anthropometrics, athletic abilities and perceptual-cognitive skills associated with baseball pitching velocity in young athletes aged between 10 and 22 years old. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2022;4:822454. Hoffman J, J V, N P. Anthropometric And Performance Comparisons In Professional Baseball Players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24:1-. Crotin RL, Forsythe CM, Karakolis T, Bhan S. PHYSICAL SIZE ASSOCIATIONS TO OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE AMONG MAJOR LEAGUE LEADERS. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2014;28(9):2391-6. Klemish D, Ramger B, Vittetoe K, Reiter JP, Tokdar ST, Appelbaum LG. Visual abilities distinguish pitchers from hitters in professional baseball. Journal of sports sciences. 2018;36(2):171-9. Healey G. The new Moneyball: How ballpark sensors are changing baseball. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2017;105(11):1999-2002. Healey G. Combining radar and optical sensor data to measure player value in baseball. Sensors. 2020;21(1):64. Gray R. Approaches to visual-motor control in baseball batting. Optometry and Vision Science. 2021;98(7):738-49. Burris K, Vittetoe K, Ramger B, Suresh S, Tokdar ST, Reiter JP, et al. Sensorimotor abilities predict on-field performance in professional baseball. Scientific reports. 2018;8(1):116. Chen R, Stone LS, Li L. Visuomotor predictors of batting performance in baseball players. Journal of vision. 2021;21(3):3. Feng Z, Lochhead L, Kohn JN, Appelbaum LG. Predictors of batting and pitching performance in the USA baseball prospect development pipeline. Sports Biomechanics. 2024:1-19. Liu S, Edmunds FR, Burris K, Appelbaum LG. Visual and oculomotor abilities predict professional baseball batting performance. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. 2020;20(4):683-700. Katsumata H. A functional modulation for timing a movement: A coordinative structure in baseball hitting. Human movement science. 2007;26(1):27-47. Laby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The Hand-eye Coordination of Professional Baseball Players: The Relationship to Batting. Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2018;95(7):557-67. Laby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The effect of visual function on the batting performance of professional baseball players. Scientific reports. 2019;9(1):16847. Farrel Z, Jones P, Lowe C, Gscheidle B, Cocco A, Wellwood J, et al. Classifying batted ball outcomes from Division I collegiate baseball players. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2024:1-7. Lehman G, Drinkwater EJ, Behm DG. Correlation of throwing velocity to the results of lower-body field tests in male college baseball players. The journal of strength & conditioning research. 2013;27(4):902-8. Peters MD, Godfrey CM, Khalil H, McInerney P, Parker D, Soares CB. Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. JBI Evidence Implementation. 2015;13(3):141-6. Pham MT, Rajić A, Greig JD, Sargeant JM, Papadopoulos A, McEwen SA. A scoping review of scoping reviews: advancing the approach and enhancing the consistency. Research synthesis methods. 2014;5(4):371-85. Müller S, Fadde PJ. The Relationship Between Visual Anticipation and Baseball Batting Game Statistics. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2016;28(1):49-61. Hamburg L, Hines TM. Correlations for weight, height and two measures of batting performance. Perceptual and motor skills. 1999;88(2):466-8. Reichow AW, Garchow KE, Baird RY. Do scores on a tachistoscope test correlate with baseball batting averages? Eye & contact lens. 2011;37(3):123-6. Yuya W, Yosuke Y, Tsukasa Y, Tomoyuki M, Kazuya SEO, Yoshikazu A, et al. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL FITNESS AT THE END OF PRESEASON AND THE INSEASON GAME PERFORMANCE IN JAPANESE FEMALE PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL PLAYERS. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2019;33(6):1580-8. Morris-Binelli K, Müller S, Fadde P. Use of pitcher game footage to measure visual anticipation and its relationship to baseball batting statistics. Journal of Motor Learning and Development. 2018;6(2):197-208. Papadakis Z, Padgett RN, Stamatis A, Karasch RA. Baseball performance via the lens of anthropometric testing, fitness metrics, and statistics: a longitudinal cross-sectional study. Current Orthopaedic Practice. 2021;32(2):151-60. Hornsby WG, Tice AL, Stone JD, Merrigan JJ, Hagen J, Wagle JP, et al. Changes in Maximal Strength and Home Run Performance in NCAA Division I Baseball Players Across 3 Competitive Seasons: A Descriptive Study. Journal of functional morphology and kinesiology. 2021;6(1). Teske LG, Beck EC, Bullock GS, Nicholson KF, Waterman BR. Lower extremity biomechanics predicts major league baseball player performance. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2021;9(7):23259671211015237. Kohn JN, Lochhead L, Feng J, Bobb R, Appelbaum LG. Strength, speed, and anthropometric predictors of in-game batting performance in baseball. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2024:1-8. Taniyama D, Matsuno J, Yoshida K, Pyle B, Nyland J. Rotational Medicine Ball Throw Velocity Relates to NCAA Division III College Baseball Player Bat Swing, Batted Baseball, and Pitching Velocity. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2021;35(12):3414-9. Lin K-H, Huang Y-M, Tang W-T, Chang Y-J, Liu Y-C, Liu C. Correlation of static and dynamic trunk muscle endurance and bat swing velocity in high school aged baseball players. Isokinetics & Exercise Science. 2013;21(2):113-9. Miyaguchi K, Demura S. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UPPER-BODY STRENGTH AND BAT SWING SPEED IN HIGH-SCHOOL BASEBALL PLAYERS. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2012;26(7):1786-91. Tsutsui T, Maemichi T, Torii S. Identification of physical characteristics associated with swing velocity of batting in youth baseball players. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. 2022;62(8):1029-36. Crotin RL, Forsythe CM, Bhan S, Karakolis T. CHANGES IN PHYSICAL SIZE AMONG MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL PLAYERS AND ITS ATTRIBUTION TO ELITE OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2014;28(10):2705-8. Spaniol FJ. Baseball athletic test: A baseball-specific test battery. Strength & Conditioning Journal. 2009;31(2):26-9. Kohmura Y, Aoki K, Yoshigi H, Sakuraba K, Yanagiya T. Development of a baseball-specific battery of tests and a testing protocol for college baseball players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2008;22(4):1051-8. Runswick OR, Roca A, Williams AM, McRobert AP, North JS. Why do bad balls get wickets? The role of congruent and incongruent information in anticipation. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2019;37(5):537-43. Table Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Supplementarymaterialsextractionsynthesis.pdf Table1.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Sports Medicine-Open → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 16 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Nov, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 09 Oct, 2024 First submitted to journal 08 Oct, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5204722","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":373863529,"identity":"f043840d-9602-410d-93e0-cfc36d22009a","order_by":0,"name":"Mathieu Tremblay","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABE0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNoYEKIuZoYCBgZ+9gZAOZogWHrAWAwYGyZ4DDAwHCGlhQNZicCMBvxbd9vPHHjyoOMxgL3346OYCA7vEhptvDG9/3MMgz4/DgWZnktkNEs4cZuDhS0u7PcMgObFxdo6xxYFnDIYzcFhldiCZTSKxDaiFh8fsNo8Bc2KzdI6ZxIEDQA/i0nL+MVDLP5AW/m9ALfWJbZJnIFrkcWm5AbKlAWwLG1DL4cQeCR6IFgOcWh6bSSQcS+fhOcNmBvTLceMZPGnFFmcOSBhuxOmwxGeSP2qs5dh7mJ/dLqiolt1//PDGGxUHbOTlcGiBAR4Yw7EBSEiAEbHAnoGBJPWjYBSMglEwAgAALdtbl9iyP30AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3251-8512","institution":"Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières: Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mathieu","middleName":"","lastName":"Tremblay","suffix":""},{"id":373863530,"identity":"43b75255-f35a-471b-af2b-f86a616abc75","order_by":1,"name":"Bastien Couëpel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières: Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bastien","middleName":"","lastName":"Couëpel","suffix":""},{"id":373863531,"identity":"3eeef1f5-d77b-4a61-b176-e25541a1f1cd","order_by":2,"name":"Jacques Abboud","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières: Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jacques","middleName":"","lastName":"Abboud","suffix":""},{"id":373863532,"identity":"99772dd1-ba0c-4b82-8074-a547d27a6fb8","order_by":3,"name":"Martin Descarreaux","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières: Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Martin","middleName":"","lastName":"Descarreaux","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-04 14:45:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00947-1","type":"published","date":"2025-11-27T15:57:44+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69254625,"identity":"57dfbc6a-aa86-4ba3-b697-97226805f069","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:18:32","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147629,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/e200eb492b1b615f3718fe82.png"},{"id":69255665,"identity":"e7e076d7-1572-40af-8119-6c47bb80e291","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:26:32","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51806,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/015e5e7ea75fe987b83b2133.png"},{"id":69254325,"identity":"9861df3a-185f-4421-a0d5-33a71e9b12a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:10:32","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20261,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/1f4d4ae1c5b1254fb9fd34d8.png"},{"id":69254324,"identity":"86ec3043-162a-488f-9c2b-18b2a817c2fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:10:32","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28518,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/1efec204a5609a8f78be7cc0.png"},{"id":97178388,"identity":"3077eb11-3132-4eb9-98fc-597a74f76683","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:09:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1005798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/5928e52f-505d-4b2d-a4e6-8e5404f77c81.pdf"},{"id":69254327,"identity":"9e0730bd-e3b3-4367-827c-f18dd977e87a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:10:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":244327,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterialsextractionsynthesis.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/143fbce3d072bc5371c875ea.pdf"},{"id":69254321,"identity":"37ce0a29-fffb-48be-ab20-c51c9f63315e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 12:10:32","extension":"pdf","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":64355,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5204722/v1/e69714977de6cd4320d83d49.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eWhat Are the Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated With Baseball Batting Performance? A Scoping Review\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"KEY POINTS","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBatting performance in baseball can be measured by a variety of performance indicators, including game statistics (e.g., batting average, homeruns, on-base %), advanced statistics (e.g., hard-hit %, inside-zone contact %, outside-zone chase %) as well as hitting metrics (e.g., ball exit speed, swing speed, launch angle).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe most reported individual characteristics or skills categories associated to batting performance indicators are anthropometric measures and physical fitness tests, primarily focused on strength and power qualities in both upper and lower body. In contrast, visual, perceptual, and visuomotor skills are less reported despite their important role in interceptive task such as batting in baseball.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"1. BACKGROUND","content":"\u003cp\u003eA combination of different individual characteristics and skills is a crucial component characterizing elite baseball player [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. These characteristics and skills often differentiate the less experienced players of the most elite ones [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fundamental technical requirements for a position player to learn in baseball can be separated into three categories such as baserunning, fielding, and batting. The latter, batting, is a critical feature being extensively tracked in-practice and in-game settings by recently developed technologies and analyses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, when it comes to recruiting the best talent in a team or organization, batting performance statistics and metrics are used to assess players\u0026rsquo; offensive value [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides, batting in baseball is a complex interceptive motor skill that requires a high-level of visuomotor control influenced by batters\u0026rsquo; reaction time, eye-hand coordination, strategic decision-making, and anticipation to succeed against the pitcher [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In baseball, a swing can be broken down into several key phases: stepping, landing, swing and impact [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, batters need to coordinate incoming visual and perceptual information with optimal motor coordination to make an accurate solid contact with the ball to increase their chance of success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral batting performance indicators has been used to assess in-game batting performance and can be classify into outcome-based game statistics (i.e. bases on ball, batting average, on-base %, runs batted in), advanced statistics related to decision-making (i.e. fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, hard-hit %) and hitting metrics related to ball flight and physics (i.e. ball exit speed, launch angle and swing speed) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to traditional outcome-based game statistics, more advanced statistics metrics such as players ability to swing at pitches in the zone compared to outside the zone, swinging at fastball instead of off-speed pitches, and their ability to produce a high percentage of hard-hit can offer deeper insights into a player\u0026rsquo;s batting abilities and tendencies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. With the emergence of new technologies in sport performance analysis, ball exit speed is now a commonly measured in-game metric, as higher ball exit speed is generally associated with greater chance to get hits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Altogether, these statistics and metrics provide a comprehensive overview of a baseball player\u0026rsquo;s offensive contributions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the importance of these offensive statistical measures and metrics, a comprehensive understanding of batting performance requires considering the broader context in which these numbers are produced. To date, much of the scientific research on factors associated with baseball performance has focused on pitching [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], but the need for a systematic assessment of the individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance seems as much important to cover and is currently lacking. Understanding the associations between batters\u0026rsquo; individual characteristics or skills with batting performance indicators will help coaches and trainers to create and adapt individualized training programs in hope of enhancing players\u0026rsquo; offensive abilities resulting in increased performance at the plate. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify and classify the key individual characteristics or skills associated with batting performance indicators in baseball and describe the methods used to assess these individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA scoping review design was selected to address broad sport-performance research questions in a sport science subject that has been examined mostly through cross-sectional designs with several variables and research tools. This scoping review was conducted according to Peters et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] and Pham et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] framework for scoping reviews.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Search strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIdentifying the research question\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis scoping review was conducted to answer the following research questions: what are the individual performance indicators of baseball batting performance, how are they measured, and what are the relationships between the individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIdentifying relevant studies\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial search strategy was conducted with the assistance of the university\u0026rsquo;s librarian, with no restrictions on publication date, in October 2023 and updated in August 2024 in the following database: MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and PsychINFO. The search was organized around sport performance and baseball specific key terms (MESH or non-MESH) such as (baseball) AND (performance OR kinematics OR kinetics OR perceptual* OR vis* OR fitness test*) AND (bat* OR biomechanic OR hit*). Included studies references list were examined to identify potential additional sources. Endnote 20.6 was used for reference deduplication across the mentioned databases to ensure tracking the number of duplicates and to manage the search.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStudies selection and screening\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusion and exclusion criteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo be included in the first step of articles\u0026rsquo; selection, studies had to be published in a peer-reviewed journal, written in either English or French, and report an association between an individual characteristics or skills and a batting performance indicator. Only cross-sectional studies design focusing on male or female baseball batting performance were included in the review. All other sports were excluded. Studies involving injured players or players presenting pain were also excluded. In baseball, batting performance indicators are outcome-based and mostly include game statistics (e.g. batting average, hits, slugging %, homeruns), advanced statistics (e.g. zone-contact %, fastball chase %, inside-zone miss %, batting average on balls in play), and hitting metrics (e.g. swing speed, ball exit speed, launch angle, distance, hang time). To be included, studies needed to report on at least one of these performance indicators. The following study designs and publication types were excluded from the review: opinion and commentary papers, letters, editor\u0026rsquo;s responses, conference abstracts, intervention studies, case reports and case series studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy screening\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe article search was completed by one of the authors (M.T.). Record screening by title and abstract was conducted independently by two authors (M.T. and B.C.). Three categories were used to classify the studies. The studies were classified as either relevant, irrelevant, or possibly relevant studies. Then, studies were gathered in an Excel spreadsheet where the two authors compared their initial screening. If a disagreement occurred between the two authors, further review was conducted by both authors to decide whether a study should be included or not, and a third author (M.D.) was involved if the initial authors could not reach agreement. Studies\u0026rsquo; full texts judged relevant and possibly relevant by the authors were screened by two authors (M.T., B.C.) to determine the final set of eligible studies to be included for this scoping review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo extract relevant data and information from the included studies, a data extraction table was created and included the following information: \u003cem\u003eauthor and year of publication, study objectives, study design, population, batting performance indicators, individual characteristics or skills, and results\u003c/em\u003e. Data extraction was conducted by one reviewer (M.T) and double-checked by a second one (B.C.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eA total of 1948 articles were identified in the literature, and 22 fulfilled the selection criteria. \u003cstrong\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/strong\u003e presents the schematic overview of the search methodology. All included studies were cross-sectional conducted with various types of design ranging from descriptive laboratory study to longitudinal observational study design. Populations across studies varied as two studies involved youth baseball players, three studies high school players, five studies college players, two studies amateur players while ten studies involved professional baseball players either from Minor league, Major league, or both. Only two studies included female baseball players. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInsert figure 1 about here.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e presents samples\u0026rsquo; distribution across studies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInsert figure 2 about here. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1 Batting Performance Indicators\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGame statistics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNine studies reported on offensive game statistics and investigated their associations to batters\u0026rsquo; individual characteristics or skills. The selected statistics included: bases on ball (BB)\u0026nbsp;[10, 21], batting average (BA)\u0026nbsp;[5, 21-26], homeruns (HR)\u0026nbsp;[4, 5, 22, 27], on-base + slugging (OPS)\u0026nbsp;[5, 28], on-base % (OBP) \u0026nbsp;[5, 10, 21, 24-26], runs batted in (RBI)\u0026nbsp;[5, 24], runs scored (RS)\u0026nbsp;[5, 28], singles\u0026nbsp;[28]\u0026nbsp;slugging (SLG)\u0026nbsp;[4, 5, 10, 21, 24-26, 28], strikeouts (K)\u0026nbsp;[10, 21, 25], total bases (TB)\u0026nbsp;[4, 24], bases on ball-to-strikeouts ratio (BB/K)\u0026nbsp;[21, 25]\u0026nbsp;and weighted on-base average (wOBA)\u0026nbsp;[28].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdvanced statistics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFive studies reported on advanced statistics and investigated their associations to batters\u0026rsquo; individual characteristics or skills. The selected advanced statistics included: at bats per base on ball (BB per AB)\u0026nbsp;[15, 16], fastball chase %\u0026nbsp;[15, 16], hit rate (total number of hits/30)\u0026nbsp;[11]\u0026nbsp;hard-hit % at 95 miles per hour + (HHP)\u0026nbsp;[29], inside-zone swing %\u0026nbsp;[15, 16], inside-zone miss %\u0026nbsp;[13], inside-zone fastball swing %\u0026nbsp;[15, 16], outside-zone chase % \u0026nbsp;[13, 15, 16]\u0026nbsp;and zone contact % (ZCP)\u0026nbsp;[29].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHitting metrics\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEight studies reported on hitting metrics and their associations to batters\u0026rsquo; individual characteristics or skills. The selected hitting metrics included: batted ball distance\u0026nbsp;[12, 17], batted ball outcomes (hit or no hit)\u0026nbsp;[11], ball exit speed\u0026nbsp;[2, 12, 17, 30], hang time\u0026nbsp;[17], launch angle\u0026nbsp;[17]\u0026nbsp;and swing speed\u0026nbsp;[30-33]. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3\u003c/strong\u003e presents batting performance indicators studies\u0026rsquo; distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert figure 3 about here. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2 Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated to Batting Performance Indicators\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnthropometric measures\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEight studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 5, 12, 17, 22, 29, 33]\u0026nbsp;reported on anthropometric measures associated to batting performance indicators. Positive relationships were found between height and batted ball outcomes (hit or no hit)\u0026nbsp;[17], exit speed\u0026nbsp;[2, 12], swing speed\u0026nbsp;[33], HHP\u0026nbsp;[29]\u0026nbsp;and ZCP\u0026nbsp;[29]. No associations were reported for height and BA\u0026nbsp;[22], SLG\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;and swing speed\u0026nbsp;[33]. Mixed results were found for HR, as Hamburg et al.\u0026nbsp;[22]\u0026nbsp;reported a positive association with height whereas Hoffman et al.\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;reported no association. Regarding weight, seven studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 12, 17, 22, 29, 33]\u0026nbsp;focused on the association between weight and batting performance indicators. Exit speed\u0026nbsp;[2, 12]\u0026nbsp;and HHP\u0026nbsp;[29]\u0026nbsp;were all positively associated with weight whereas ZCP\u0026nbsp;[29]\u0026nbsp;was negatively associated. Mixed results were found for HR, as Hamburg et al.\u0026nbsp;[22]\u0026nbsp;reported a positive association with weight and Hoffman et al.\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;reported no association. Three studies\u0026nbsp;[5, 22, 24]\u0026nbsp;investigated associations between BMI and batting performance indicators. One the one hand, Crotin et al.\u0026nbsp;[5]\u0026nbsp;found positive associations with BA, HR, OBP, OPS, RBI, RS, and SLG and Hamburg et al.\u0026nbsp;[22]\u0026nbsp;with HR. On the other hand, Yuya et al.\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;found no associations between BMI and BA, OBP, OPS, SLG, RBI in and TB. Hoffman et al.\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;was the only study reporting associations on body fat % and lean body mass and found no associations with HR, SLG and TB.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysical fitness tests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNine studies [2, 4, 24, 26, 29-33] reported on physical fitness tests associated to batting performance indicators. To facilitate the reporting of studies results, the physical fitness tests were grouped into their respective physical qualities such as muscle strength, muscle power, speed, muscle endurance, muscle flexibility, balance, and coordination. \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 4\u003c/strong\u003e presents the physical fitness tests\u0026rsquo; physical qualities studies\u0026rsquo; distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert figure 4 about here. \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMuscle strength\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo studies\u0026nbsp;[26, 32]\u0026nbsp;used 1-repetition maximum (RM) protocols, respectively bench press and squat exercise protocols, to assess its relationship with swing speed, AVG, OBP and SLG. Miyaguchi et al.\u0026nbsp;[32]\u0026nbsp;found that 1-RM bench press was positively associated to swing speed when looking into absolute value, but not when looking into kilogram/bodyweight value. Papadakis et al.\u0026nbsp;[26]\u0026nbsp;found positive associations between 1-RM squat with AVG and OBP, but not SLG. Six studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 24, 26, 29, 33]\u0026nbsp;investigated muscle strength with the use of a dynamometer with protocols of grip strength\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 24, 26, 29], back strength\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;and lower extremity muscle torque in abduction, adduction and internal rotation for the pivot and step legs of the batting stance\u0026nbsp;[33]. Positive associations were found between grip strength and HR, SLG and TB in the Hoffman et al\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;study. Papadakis et al.\u0026nbsp;[26]\u0026nbsp;found positive associations between grip strength and AVG and OBP but not SLG. On the one hand, Nakata et al.\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;found a positive association in all subjects sample between right arm and left arm grip strength and ball exit speed. On the other hand, Yuya et al.\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;found no association between grip strength and TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS in Japanese female baseball players. Finally, grip strength was found to be positively associated to HHP for the dominant and non-dominant arm grip strength, but not for ZCP for the latter two in Kohn et al.\u0026nbsp;[29]\u0026nbsp;study. Regarding back strength, Nakata et al.\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;found a positive association with ball exit speed whereas Yuya et al.\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;found no associations with game statistics in Japanese female baseball players. Lower extremity muscle torque protocols showed that internal rotation torque was positively associated to swing speed in the Tee-ball division for the pivot leg and for the step leg in all subjects and the Tee-ball division in Tsutsui et al.\u0026nbsp;[33]\u0026nbsp;study. Two studies\u0026nbsp;[24, 32]\u0026nbsp;used an isokinetic machine to assess the associations between muscle strength protocols to swing speed\u0026nbsp;[32]\u0026nbsp;and offensive statistics such as TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS\u0026nbsp;[24]. Miyaguchi et al.\u0026nbsp;[32]\u0026nbsp;investigated the isokinetic chest press protocol using 3 different speed (0.4 m/s; 0.8 m/s and 1.2 m/s) in absolute and relative value (kilogram/bodyweight) to assess its relationship to swing speed. The results showed that the 0.4 m/s, 0.8 m/s and the 1.2 m/s absolute values were all positively correlated to swing speed whereas only the 1.2 m/s protocol in relative value was found associated to swing speed. Yuya et al.\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;investigated the association between isokinetic knee extension and knee flexion protocol and found no association with offensive statistics of TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMuscle power\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNine studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 24, 26, 28-30, 32, 33]\u0026nbsp;reported on muscle power tests associations with batting performance indicators. Five studies\u0026nbsp;[4, 24, 26, 28, 29]\u0026nbsp;used the countermovement jump protocol to find associations with batting performance indicators. Only countermovement jump height was found to be positively associated with offensive statistics such as BA, SLG, TB, and OPS in Yuya et al.[24]\u0026nbsp;study. Other jump protocols such as the broad jump\u0026nbsp;[2, 24, 30]\u0026nbsp;and the lateral to medial jump\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;were also investigated and only broad jump was found to be positively associated to TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OPS\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;and exit speed\u0026nbsp;[2]. In relation to upper-body power, one study investigated the associations with bench press absolute and relative (kilogram/bodyweight) peak power and swing speed and found a positive association in absolute peak power but not in relative\u0026nbsp;[32]. Another study used the backward overhead medicine ball throw protocol for distance and found that it predicted swing speed in the study all subjects and major division samples but not for the Tee-ball division sample. Finally, Taniyama et al.\u0026nbsp;[30]\u0026nbsp;explored the relationship between rotational medicine ball throw and exit speed and swing speed and found positive associations for both batting performance indicators.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpeed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4, 29]\u0026nbsp;reported on speed tests and their associations with batting performance indicators. Hoffman et al.\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;found that the 10-yard sprint was negatively associated to TB whereas Nakata et al.\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;found a negative association with ball exit speed. Kohn et al.\u0026nbsp;[29]\u0026nbsp;used the 30-yard sprint and found no association with either hard-hit % and zone contact %.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMuscle endurance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo studies [2, 31] examined the association between muscle endurance tests and batting performance indicators. Lin et al. [31] found that static flexors endurance, dynamic flexors/extensors ratio and static flexors/extensors ratio were negatively associated to swing speed. Nakata et al. [21] explored sit-ups protocol association with exit speed and found a positive association. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMuscle flexibility\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 24]\u0026nbsp;reported on muscle flexibility assessments and its link to batting performance indicators. Yuya et al.\u0026nbsp;[24]\u0026nbsp;explored the association between stride-leg and pivot-leg straight-leg raise flexibility and reported no association with TB, SLG, BA, RBI, OBP and OPS. Nakata et al.[2]\u0026nbsp;examine trunk flexibility association with ball exit speed and reported a positive association with exit speed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBalance\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOnly Tsutsui et al.\u0026nbsp;[33]\u0026nbsp;investigated a balance protocol with swing speed and found that only pivot-leg SEBT was a predictor of swing speed in their Major division sample group.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoordination\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo studies\u0026nbsp;[2, 4]\u0026nbsp;reported on coordination tests associations with batting performance indicators. Hoffman et al.\u0026nbsp;[4]\u0026nbsp;found no association between the pro-agility test and HR, SLG and TB whereas Nakata et al.\u0026nbsp;[2]\u0026nbsp;found that side steps protocol to be positively associated with ball exit speed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eVisual Skills\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour studies\u0026nbsp;[10, 11, 13, 16]\u0026nbsp;reported on visual skills tests associated to batting performance indicators. Chen et al.\u0026nbsp;[11]\u0026nbsp;found that a 12-element ocular-tracking index including latency, open-loop acceleration, steady-state gain, proportion smooth, saccadic rate, saccade amplitude, saccade dispersion, direction noise, noise asymmetry, direction anisotropy, speed noise and speed responsiveness was positively associated with male and female baseball players of hit rate in players of different years of experience ranging from 3 to 10 and more years. Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;study used quantitative eye-tracking tasks to investigate their relationship with advanced stats. Among these eye-tracking tasks, general oculomotor speed was found to be an individual predictor of inside-zone swing %, smooth pursuit accuracy was found to be an individual predictor of outside-zone swing % and general processing speed was found to be an individual predictor of outside-zone swing % and inside-zone swing %. Both Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;and Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;studies investigated visual clarity and contrast sensitivity assessment baseball performance indicators. Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;found no relationship between OBP, BB%, K% and SLG and visual clarity but found that contrast sensitivity was an individual predictor of K%. Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;found no associations for either visual clarity and contrast sensitivity with outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing %, and inside-zone miss %. Laby et al.\u0026nbsp;[16]\u0026nbsp;found associations between its enhanced vision testing system core score and inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %, outside-zone chase %, fastball chase % and BB per AB. Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;study found that depth perception was an individual predictor of BB% but not for OBP, K% and SLG.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerceptual Skills\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour studies\u0026nbsp;[10, 13, 21, 25]\u0026nbsp;included articles reported on perceptual skills tests associated to batting performance indicators. In their study, Muller et al.\u0026nbsp;[21]\u0026nbsp;found a positive association between overall pitch type combination and temporal occlusion applied at front foot impact and BA but not for OBP, SLG, K and BB/K ratio. They also found positive associations between fastball/changeup combination and temporal occlusion applied at ball release with OBP, and BB but not for BA, SLG, K and BB/K ratio. No association were found for overall pitch type combination and temporal occlusion applied at shoulder square, and ball release as well as fastball/changeup combination applied at front foot impact and shoulder square. Morris-Binelli et al.\u0026nbsp;[25]\u0026nbsp;also used an anticipation skill task with temporal occlusion applied at the point of ball release (R), 80 milliseconds after ball release (R+2) and 200 milliseconds after ball release (R+5). The authors found a positive relationship for combined pitch type and location prediction accuracy at R+2 and SLG, for pitch location prediction accuracy at R+2 and SLG and for pitch type prediction accuracy at R+5 and OBP and BB/K ratio\u0026nbsp;[25]. A negative relationship was found for pitch type prediction accuracy and R+5 and K%\u0026nbsp;[25]. Perception span association with batting performance indicators was investigated by Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;and Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]. Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;found no association with outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing % and inside-zone miss % compared to Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;who found that perception span is a predictor of OBP, K% and SLG but not BB%. Finally, Reichow et al.\u0026nbsp;[23]\u0026nbsp;used a visual recognition tachischopic test to assess its relationship with BA and found a positive association.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eVisuomotor Skills\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour studies\u0026nbsp;[10, 11, 13, 15]\u0026nbsp;reported on visuomotor skills assessments associated to batting performance indicators. Chen et al.\u0026nbsp;[11]\u0026nbsp;found that a 3-element manual-control index including RMS error, gain and phase lag was positively associated with batted ball outcome (hit rate) in male and female baseball players of the Hong Kong national team of varied years of experience ranging from 3 to 10 and more years of experience. Near-far quickness was also found to be an individual predictor of game statistics of K% but not for OBP, BB% and SLG in Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;study. No result was found between near-far quickness and advanced statistics such as outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing % and inside-zone miss % in Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;study. The same authors investigated the reaction time assessment and respectively found that it is an individual predictor of BB%\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;but not OBP, K% and SLG but was not associated with advanced stats of outside-zone swing %, inside-zone swing% and inside-zone miss %\u0026nbsp;[13]. In addition, Liu et al.\u0026nbsp;[13]\u0026nbsp;found no result between these advanced stats and multiple object tracking assessment. In their study, Burris et al.\u0026nbsp;[10]\u0026nbsp;found that the target capture assessment was shown to be an individual predictor of K% but not for OBP, BB% and SLG and the eye-and coordination assessment an individual predictor of BB% and K% but not OBP and SLG. Finally, Laby et al.\u0026nbsp;[15]\u0026nbsp;study investigated the relationship between a proactive eye-hand visuomotor reaction task with advanced stats and found positive associations with outside-zone chase %, fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %, and BB per AB in professional baseball players.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003epresents an evidence-based list of individual characteristics or skills associated to baseball batting performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInsert table 1 about here.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance were identified and classified to better understand the research methods and tools used by researchers to study their associations with baseball batting performance. Most studies focused on older amateur, college or professional baseball players (77%) while younger baseball players were least studied (23%). The physical fitness tests (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) and anthropometric measurements (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8) were the two most investigated categories of individuals characteristics or skills related to either game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnthropometric measures\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly height and weight were found associated to game statistics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], advanced statistics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] and hitting metrics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] whereas conflicting results were found for BMI and game statistics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. These anthropometric measures also seem important to track over time to assess the evolution of players\u0026rsquo; profile as suggested by Crotin et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] study results. Their study investigated height, weight, and BMI changes over time in MLB professional baseball players over three separate decades (1970, 1990, 2010) and found significant differences and greater weight, height, and BMI over time among the top offensive statistics league leaders. The same observation seems true in younger large groups of amateur baseball athletes. Tremblay et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] study found that, in male and female baseball players aged 10\u0026ndash;22 years old, height, weight and BMI were different between the 13U, 15U, 18U and 21U age categories as older players were taller, heavier and had greater BMI. Even though the study investigated the association between these measurements and pitching velocity and not batting performance, in these age groups, players often take on other positions on the field and hit as well. Altogether, these results highlight the need to assess and track anthropometric measures changes over time in baseball batters because of their associations to batting performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePhysical fitness tests\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreater performance on six muscle strength tests was found to be associated with better batting performance: 1-RM bench and squat protocols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], grip strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], lower extremity muscle torque [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] and isokinetic chest press [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Conflicting results were found in back strength where in young male baseball players, an association was found with ball exit speed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] whereas in Japanese female players, no association was found with game statistics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. These results could be explained by the specificity of the task where back strength and ball exit speed relate more to physical output whereas game statistics are influenced by multiple factors such as the other team defense and in-game decision-making. Greater performance on five muscle power tests namely countermovement jump [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], broad jump [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], bench press peak power [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], overhead medicine ball throw [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] and rotational medicine ball throw [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] was found to be associated to superior batting performance. The physical qualities of speed, muscle flexibility, balance and coordination had one test each associated to superior batting performance and were respectively the 10-yard sprint [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], sits ups protocol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], trunk flexibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], pivot-leg SEBT balance protocol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] and the side steps protocol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The number of studies focusing on strength (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8) and power (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) underscores the importance given to physical qualities in baseball research by sports science researchers. Spaniol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] proposed a baseball-specific test battery to evaluate baseball players' strength and weaknesses composed of physiological, athletic, and sport-specific skills that could be predictors of successful baseball performance. The included assessments are similar to this review results with muscle strength, leg power, flexibility, rotational power, agility and running speed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The author also suggests that ball exit speed and swing speed as batting performance indicators to track in baseball batters. Based on our systematic results, there is an agreement between our results and Spaniol proposed Baseball Athletic Test (BAT) battery for the assessment of baseball players' performance in relation to batting performance. Finally, our results are also similar to those of Kohmura et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] in which coaches subjectively rated the batting ability of college baseball players in an attempt to develop a baseball-specific battery of tests for college baseball players. They found associations between subjective players batting ability evaluation and back strength, medicine ball throw, standing long jump and the change of direction T-test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eVisual skills\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChen et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] and Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] were the only studies using quantitative eye-tracking apparatus respectively \u003cem\u003eEyelink 1000\u003c/em\u003e and the \u003cem\u003eRightEye test battery\u003c/em\u003e. In Chen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] study, a greater ocular-tracking index performance was found to be associated with a better hit rate in a mixed male and female Japanese amateur baseball player\u0026rsquo;s sample. Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] study found that general oculomotor speed, latency and processing speed, auto refraction, smooth pursuit accuracy, cardinal reaction time and dynamic visual acuity were oculomotor abilities associated with batting performance in professional baseball players. Greater visual clarity, contrast sensitivity, depth perception were found associated with batting performance indicators and were all measured by the \u003cem\u003eSenaptec Sensory Station\u003c/em\u003e in Burris et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] studies. Finally, Laby et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] found that an enhanced vision scores composed of visual acuity and contrast sensitivity measure was found to be associated with batting performance in a minor league cohort of baseball players.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePerceptual skills\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreater visual recognition and visual anticipation skills task as well as perception span were associated to increased baseball batting performance. In both studies, Muller et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and Morris-Binelli et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] investigated the visual anticipation of professional minor league baseball batters and found that associations with game statistics in video simulation temporal occlusion test with different pitch type combination for strike of ball (i.e.. Fastball/Changeup/Curveball) and at different phases of the pitcher motion (i.e. At front foot impact, at ball release/ after ball release). The relevance of visual anticipation is high in baseball as batters are put under extremely short temporal constraints to decide whether to swing or not at the ball based on contextual information [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to Muller et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and Morris-Binelli et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], Reichow et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] investigated another important perceptual skills associated to batting performance in visual recognition accuracy using a tachiscopic task. The authors mentioned that this kind of evaluation assess both the speed and the span of visual recognition. Their results showed an association between the task and batting average in batters and showed that the top five batters in their sample were the top scorers on the tachiscopic test. Finally, a perception span task was used in Burris et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] and Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] studies to be investigated in professional baseball players. Only Burris et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] found perception span executed on the \u003cem\u003eSenaptec Sensory Station\u003c/em\u003e to be an individual predictor of K% and SLG. The study defines the perception span task as the ability to remember and recreate visual patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eVisuomotor skills\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] study results showed an association between a 3-element manual-control index and hit rate in a mixed male and female Japanese baseball players\u0026rsquo; sample. Their results also showed that the association between the index and hit rate was greater in more experienced players than less experienced ones. Greater eye-hand coordination, defines as the measures of the speed in which batters can make visually-guided hand responses to rapidly changing target, and greater target capture, defines as the speed at which batters can shift attention and recognize peripheral targets were found to be predictors of K% and SLG in professional baseball players in the Burris et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] study. A standard reaction time assessment was also found as a predictor BB % in this study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, Burris et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] an Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] studies used most of the same \u003cem\u003eSenaptec Sensory Station\u003c/em\u003e sensorimotor tasks, but their results differed. Again, this can be partially explained by the choice of batting performance indicators such as outcome-based game statistics compared to advanced statistics related more to decision-making. Game statistics are influenced by the other team's defense, field conditions and external factors whereas advanced statistics used in Liu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] are based on players decision-making and take into account each decision whether to swing at the ball or not. Finally, Laby showed that a pro-active reaction time assessment was also found associated to advanced statistics based on athletes\u0026rsquo; decision-making such as outside-zone chase %, fastball chase %, inside-zone swing %, inside-zone fastball swing %.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEvidence gaps and future directions\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on this scoping review results, several gaps were identified and could lead to deeper investigations in the field of baseball batting performance research. First, the variety of batting performance indicators used to assess their relationships to individual characteristics or skills makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions. We divided the batting performance indicators into game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics to separate the indicators more logically. It is the authors opinion that advanced statistics mostly relating to players decision making (i.e. inside-zone swing %, outside-zone swing %, fastball chase %) are less influenced by external factors beyond a player control such as other team defenders, weather or field conditions and should be prioritize in future investigations regarding batting performance research to remove external influence on the batting outcome measured. The second evident gap identified through the data extraction phase was the very small representation of the female athlete\u0026rsquo;s population in the baseball batting performance research. Only two out of twenty-two studies included were interested in associations between individual characteristics and skill and batting performance indicators in female athletes. One used a professional Japanese female athlete sample only [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] and one used a mixed male and female Japanese athletes sample [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Future studies should use female baseball players sample only to investigate individual characteristics and skills associated to baseball batting performance to better generalize results and to understand the differences with their male counterparts within the sport. Finally, this scoping review did not assess the risk of bias of the different studies, however, the data extraction highlighted validity and reliability concerns about the visual, perceptual and visuomotor skills tools used in the studies of these fields of research, with sometimes only brief commercial description of the tools provided to justify their use. Validity and reliability studies are needed to better understand and justify the selection of these tools to investigate their associations with batting performance in the future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLimitations\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first limitation that should be considered is that only studies published in the English and French (although no French publication was identified) were included in this review. Another limitation concerns the variety of batting performance indicators used in original study to investigate their relationships to individual characteristics or skills. Such variety limits the conclusion of the review on which individual characteristics or skills are the most relevant to baseball batting performance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo conclude, game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics were the batting indicators used to assess their relationships with individual characteristics or skills of baseball batters in the studies included in this scoping review. Anthropometric measures and physical fitness tests were the most reported categories of individual characteristics or skills compared to visual, perceptual and visuomotor skills categories. Based on included studies results, we conclude that anthropometric measures such as height and weight, physical fitness tests including mostly upper-body and lower-body strength and power measures, visual skills assessing oculomotor abilities and physical characteristics of the visual system, perceptual skills of anticipation and visual recognition and finally visuomotor skills including visual perception combined with a motor response are important individual characteristics or skills required to succeed in baseball batting. Future research should investigate how the change in these individual characteristics and skills is related to the changes in baseball batting performance indicators over time to better guide training intervention and optimize batters\u0026rsquo; performance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBA: Batting Average; BB: Bases on Ball; HR: Homeruns; OPS: On-base + Slugging; OBP : On-Base Percentage; Runs Batted In; RS: Runs Scored; SLG: Slugging; K: Strikeouts; TB: Total Bases; BB/K : Bases on Ball per Strikeouts ratio; \u0026nbsp;wOBA: Weighted on Base Average; BB per AB: Bases on Ball per At Bats; HHP: Hard Hit Percentage; ZCP: Zone Contact Percentage; RM: Repetition Maximal; R: Release; BAT: Baseball Athletic Test.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare having no competing interest.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e We acknowledge the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), [funding reference number: ES D - 589592 - 2024].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e: MT designed the search strategy whereas the selection process was carried out by MT and BC. MT, BC, JA, and MD wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMercier M-A, Tremblay M, Daneau C, Descarreaux M. Individual factors associated with baseball pitching performance: scoping review. BMJ open sport \u0026amp; exercise medicine. 2020;6(1):e000704.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNakata H, Nagami T, Higuchi T, Sakamoto K, Kanosue K. Relationship between performance variables and baseball ability in youth baseball players. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2013;27(10):2887-97.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTremblay M, T\u0026eacute;treau C, Corbin-Berrigan L-A, Descarreaux M. Anthropometrics, athletic abilities and perceptual-cognitive skills associated with baseball pitching velocity in young athletes aged between 10 and 22 years old. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2022;4:822454.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHoffman J, J V, N P. Anthropometric And Performance Comparisons In Professional Baseball Players. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2010;24:1-.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCrotin RL, Forsythe CM, Karakolis T, Bhan S. PHYSICAL SIZE ASSOCIATIONS TO OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE AMONG MAJOR LEAGUE LEADERS. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2014;28(9):2391-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlemish D, Ramger B, Vittetoe K, Reiter JP, Tokdar ST, Appelbaum LG. Visual abilities distinguish pitchers from hitters in professional baseball. Journal of sports sciences. 2018;36(2):171-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHealey G. The new Moneyball: How ballpark sensors are changing baseball. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2017;105(11):1999-2002.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHealey G. Combining radar and optical sensor data to measure player value in baseball. Sensors. 2020;21(1):64.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGray R. Approaches to visual-motor control in baseball batting. Optometry and Vision Science. 2021;98(7):738-49.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBurris K, Vittetoe K, Ramger B, Suresh S, Tokdar ST, Reiter JP, et al. Sensorimotor abilities predict on-field performance in professional baseball. Scientific reports. 2018;8(1):116.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen R, Stone LS, Li L. Visuomotor predictors of batting performance in baseball players. Journal of vision. 2021;21(3):3.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFeng Z, Lochhead L, Kohn JN, Appelbaum LG. Predictors of batting and pitching performance in the USA baseball prospect development pipeline. Sports Biomechanics. 2024:1-19.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu S, Edmunds FR, Burris K, Appelbaum LG. Visual and oculomotor abilities predict professional baseball batting performance. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. 2020;20(4):683-700.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKatsumata H. A functional modulation for timing a movement: A coordinative structure in baseball hitting. Human movement science. 2007;26(1):27-47.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The Hand-eye Coordination of Professional Baseball Players: The Relationship to Batting. Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry. 2018;95(7):557-67.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLaby DM, Kirschen DG, Govindarajulu U, DeLand P. The effect of visual function on the batting performance of professional baseball players. Scientific reports. 2019;9(1):16847.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFarrel Z, Jones P, Lowe C, Gscheidle B, Cocco A, Wellwood J, et al. Classifying batted ball outcomes from Division I collegiate baseball players. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2024:1-7.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLehman G, Drinkwater EJ, Behm DG. Correlation of throwing velocity to the results of lower-body field tests in male college baseball players. The journal of strength \u0026amp; conditioning research. 2013;27(4):902-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePeters MD, Godfrey CM, Khalil H, McInerney P, Parker D, Soares CB. Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. JBI Evidence Implementation. 2015;13(3):141-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePham MT, Rajić A, Greig JD, Sargeant JM, Papadopoulos A, McEwen SA. A scoping review of scoping reviews: advancing the approach and enhancing the consistency. Research synthesis methods. 2014;5(4):371-85.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM\u0026uuml;ller S, Fadde PJ. The Relationship Between Visual Anticipation and Baseball Batting Game Statistics. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 2016;28(1):49-61.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHamburg L, Hines TM. Correlations for weight, height and two measures of batting performance. Perceptual and motor skills. 1999;88(2):466-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReichow AW, Garchow KE, Baird RY. Do scores on a tachistoscope test correlate with baseball batting averages? Eye \u0026amp; contact lens. 2011;37(3):123-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYuya W, Yosuke Y, Tsukasa Y, Tomoyuki M, Kazuya SEO, Yoshikazu A, et al. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL FITNESS AT THE END OF PRESEASON AND THE INSEASON GAME PERFORMANCE IN JAPANESE FEMALE PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL PLAYERS. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2019;33(6):1580-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMorris-Binelli K, M\u0026uuml;ller S, Fadde P. Use of pitcher game footage to measure visual anticipation and its relationship to baseball batting statistics. Journal of Motor Learning and Development. 2018;6(2):197-208.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePapadakis Z, Padgett RN, Stamatis A, Karasch RA. Baseball performance via the lens of anthropometric testing, fitness metrics, and statistics: a longitudinal cross-sectional study. Current Orthopaedic Practice. 2021;32(2):151-60.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHornsby WG, Tice AL, Stone JD, Merrigan JJ, Hagen J, Wagle JP, et al. Changes in Maximal Strength and Home Run Performance in NCAA Division I Baseball Players Across 3 Competitive Seasons: A Descriptive Study. Journal of functional morphology and kinesiology. 2021;6(1).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTeske LG, Beck EC, Bullock GS, Nicholson KF, Waterman BR. Lower extremity biomechanics predicts major league baseball player performance. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine. 2021;9(7):23259671211015237.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKohn JN, Lochhead L, Feng J, Bobb R, Appelbaum LG. Strength, speed, and anthropometric predictors of in-game batting performance in baseball. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2024:1-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaniyama D, Matsuno J, Yoshida K, Pyle B, Nyland J. Rotational Medicine Ball Throw Velocity Relates to NCAA Division III College Baseball Player Bat Swing, Batted Baseball, and Pitching Velocity. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2021;35(12):3414-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLin K-H, Huang Y-M, Tang W-T, Chang Y-J, Liu Y-C, Liu C. Correlation of static and dynamic trunk muscle endurance and bat swing velocity in high school aged baseball players. Isokinetics \u0026amp; Exercise Science. 2013;21(2):113-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMiyaguchi K, Demura S. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UPPER-BODY STRENGTH AND BAT SWING SPEED IN HIGH-SCHOOL BASEBALL PLAYERS. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2012;26(7):1786-91.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTsutsui T, Maemichi T, Torii S. Identification of physical characteristics associated with swing velocity of batting in youth baseball players. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. 2022;62(8):1029-36.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCrotin RL, Forsythe CM, Bhan S, Karakolis T. CHANGES IN PHYSICAL SIZE AMONG MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL PLAYERS AND ITS ATTRIBUTION TO ELITE OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE. Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2014;28(10):2705-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSpaniol FJ. Baseball athletic test: A baseball-specific test battery. Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Journal. 2009;31(2):26-9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKohmura Y, Aoki K, Yoshigi H, Sakuraba K, Yanagiya T. Development of a baseball-specific battery of tests and a testing protocol for college baseball players. The Journal of Strength \u0026amp; Conditioning Research. 2008;22(4):1051-8.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRunswick OR, Roca A, Williams AM, McRobert AP, North JS. Why do bad balls get wickets? The role of congruent and incongruent information in anticipation. Journal of Sports Sciences. 2019;37(5):537-43.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"ANTHROPOMETRICS, PHYSICAL FITNESS TESTS, ATHLETIC ABILITIES, PERCEPTUAL SKILLS, VISUAL SKILLS","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn baseball, batting performance can be measured using game and advanced statistics as well as hitting metrics. To date, the core set of individual characteristics or skills associated to superior batting performance remains to be identified. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and classify the individual characteristics or skills associated with baseball batting performance indicators and describe the methods used to assess these individual characteristics or skills and batting performance indicators.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA scoping review design was chosen to conduct a systematic literature search. Electronic searches of MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO databases were undertaken from inception to August 2024. Cross-sectional studies that investigated the relationship between batting performance indicators and individual characteristics or skills in male or female baseball batters were selected.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty-two cross-sectional studies investigating potential individual characteristics or skills of baseball batting performance met the inclusion criteria. The primary baseball batting performance indicators were grouped into three categories: game statistics, advanced statistics and hitting metrics. Anthropometric measures (height, weight), physical fitness tests (1-RM bench and squat, grip strength, jumps, medicine ball throws, sprint, trunk flexibility, etc.), visual skills (visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, etc.), perceptual skills (anticipation, visual recognition, etc.) and visuomotor skills (eye-hand coordination, reaction time, etc.) were the individual characteristics or skills associated to either game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the studies included in this scoping review, we conclude that greater height, weight, upper-body and lower-body muscle strength, power and speed, oculomotor skills, visual system characteristics, anticipation, and visual recognition as well as visuomotor skills were associated to superior game statistics, advanced statistics or hitting metrics.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"What Are the Individual Characteristics or Skills Associated With Baseball Batting Performance? A Scoping Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-18 12:10:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5204722/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-08-16T10:51:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-04-20T02:16:03+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-20T03:47:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-10-09T08:00:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Sports Medicine-Open","date":"2024-10-08T09:45:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b0409b13-c370-4938-9153-8ad70679bca6","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:01:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5204722","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00947-1","journal":{"identity":"sports-medicine-open","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Sports Medicine-Open"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-27 15:57:44","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 27th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-18 12:10:27","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40798-025-00947-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00947-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5204722","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5204722","identity":"rs-5204722","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}